MANUFACTURE OF CHLORINE

CAPACITY: 10000 TPA

Project Report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

Requirements for the degree of
B.E. (Chemical with MBA)
2022

By
Yatin Takkar
CM18228

Dr. S.S. BHATNAGAR UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL

ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
PANJAB UNIVERSITY
CHANDIGARH-160014,INDIA

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Dr. S.S. BHATNAGAR UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

PANJAB UNIVERSITY, CHANDIGARH

UNDERTAKING
I certify that the present work represents solely my own effort.

________________
YATIN TAKKAR
CM18228
BE(CHEMICAL + MBA) 4TH YEAR

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Dr. S.S. BHATNAGAR UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

PANJAB UNIVERSITY, CHANDIGARH

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that YATIN, CM18228, a fourth year student of Dr. S.S.
Bhatnagar University Institute of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Panjab
University, Chandigarh has completed his project titled MANUFACTURE OF
CHLORINE. This Project Report may be accepted for evaluation as a part of the
requirement of B.E. (Chemical with MBA).

________________________
PROF. B.K. GILL
Dr. SSB UICET
PANJAB UNIVERSITY
CHANDIGARH

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I deeply express my heartful and sincerest thanks to following person
for guiding and helping me for preparing this report.

I would like to thank my mentor Prof. B.K. GILL for allowing me to

do the pre-final year project under her guidance. Her knowledge,
thoroughness and perseverance have been a constant source of
inspiration for me. It is only due to her cognizant efforts that my
endeavours have been light of day.

I also place on record, my sense of gratitude to one and all, who

directly or indirectly, have lent their hand in this project.

YATIN TAKKAR
CM18228
BE (CHEMICAL WITH MBA) 4TH YEAR

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CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CHLORINE
3. USES OF CHLORINE
4. METHODS OF PRODUCTION
5. AIRCO PROCESS DESCRIPTION
6. THERMODYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS
7. PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
8. MATERIAL BALANCE
9. ENERGY BALANCE
10. DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER
11. DESIGN OF ABSORBER
12. COST ESTIMATION
13. PI DIAGRAM
14. UTILITIES AND AUXILARIES
15. PLANT LAYOUT
16. SAFETY AND HAZARDS
17. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
18. REFERENCES

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INTRODUCTION:
Discovered in 1774 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who mistakenly thought it
contained oxygen; Chlorine was given its name in 1810 by Humphry Davy, who
insisted that it was in fact an element.
The pure chemical element has the physical form of a diatomic green gas. The
name chlorine is derived from chloros, meaning green, referring to the color of
the gas. Chlorine two and one half times as heavy as air, has an intensely gas is
disagreeable suffocating odor, and is exceedingly poisonous. In its liquid and
solid form it is a powerful oxidizing, bleaching, and disinfecting agent.
This element is a part of the halogen series forming salts. It is extracted from
chlorides through oxidation and electrolysis. Chlorine gas is greenish-yellow and
combines readily with nearly all other elements.
In nature it is only found combined with other elements chiefly sodium in the
form of common salt (NaCl), but also in carnallite, and sylvite. Chlorides make
up much of the salt dissolved in the earth's oceans: about 1.9 % of the mass of
seawater is chloride ions.
The amount of chloride in soils varies according to the distance from the sea. The
average in top soils is about 10 ppm. Plants contain various amount of chlorine;
it is an essential micro nutrient for higher plants where is concentrates in the
chloroplasts. Growth suffers if the amount of chloride in the soil fall below 2 ppm,
but it rarely happens. The upper limit of tolerance varies according to the crop.
Chlorine is the eleventh most abundant element in the lithosphere. It is highly
reactive and hence rarely found in the free state. It exists mainly in the form of
chlorides. In seawater it is present as 2.9 wt% NaCl and 0.3 wt% MgCl 2. In salt
deposits formed by evaporation of seawater, chlorine is present in large
quantities as rock salt (NaCl) and Sylrite (KCl), together with bischofite (MgCl2 .
6 H2O), Carnallite (KCl MgCl2 . 6 H2O), Tachhydrite (CaCl2 . 2MgCl2 . 12 H2O)
and others. Occasionally it is also found as heavy metal chlorides, usually in the
form of double salts such as atacamite (CuCl2 .3Cu(OH)2). Plants and animals
always contain chlorine in the form of chlorides or free HCl. Cl 2 is formed by
oxidation of HCl or chlorides by compounds such as Manganese dioxide,

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permanganates, dichromate, chlorates or bleaching powder. Oxygen from the

atmosphere acts as an oxidizing agent in the presence of catalysts. Initially
chlorine was prepared by oxidation of HCl using manganese dioxide for
bleaching purposes in textile industries. This process was developed by
WELDON but the yield obtained was very less and was about 35%. Later
DEACON developed a process based on oxidation of HCl gas by atmospheric
oxygen in the presence of copper salt(CuCl2) and the yield was 65% of the
theoretical value. In 1800 A.D CRUICKSHANK first prepared chlorine
electrochemically. In this process a diaphragm cell or a mercury cell is used.
Currently 95% of world’s production of Cl2 is done by using this chlor-alkali
process. Today world’s capacity of production of chlorine is more than 80 x 106
tones/ annum.
Global Chlorine Market to Reach US$52. 2 Billion by the Year 2027. Amid the
COVID-19 crisis, the global market for Chlorine estimated at US$35. 9 Billion in
the year 2020, is projected to reach a revised size of US$52.
-Competitors identified in this market include, among others,

 BASF SE
 Ercros SA
 FMC Corporation
 Formosa Plastics Group
 Hanwha Chemical Corporation
 Ineos Group AG
 Nouryon
 Occidental Chemical Corporation
 Olin Corporation
 PPG Industries, Inc.
 Tata Chemicals Ltd.
 Tosoh Corporation

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CHLORINE IN INDIA:

The birth of chlorine industries in India has been recent and dates back to the
1920’s. The plants were set up mainly to meet the requirement of the pulp and
bleaching industries. However, with the start of the caustic soda industries, the
chlorine was available in plenty and it was even necessary to dispose it off. The
main plants in India that manufactures chlorine are: -

1. D.C.M Chemicals

2. Tata Chemicals

3. National rayon corporation

4. Travancore Cochin Chemicals

5. Mettur Chemicals
Almost all of the above plants were set up with a short span of years, with the
result that there was a marked increases in the chlorine production. But soon,
with the Government of India following a policy of planned development, it was
possible to find channels where chlorine could be effectively utilized. With the
setting up of organic chemical industries for the manufacture of such diverse
products as PVC, DDT, BHC, etc, the demand of chlorine has gone up.

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CHLORINE:

Chlorine exists in all three physical states. At NTP it is a greenish yellow

pungent, poisonous gas, which can be liquefied to a mobile yellow liquid. Solid
chlorine forms pale yellow rhombic crystals. Some of the important physical
properties of chlorine are listed below:

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USES OF CHLORINE:

During the span of chlorine industry in the world, the largest single use has been
in the manufacture of pulp and paper. In the early period of the industry, the
second largest use was in sanitation for sewage treatment and purification of
water. Later on the demand increased because of the invention of new
compounds. Some of the major uses of chlorine are listed below:

1. Benzene hexachloride: Manufacture of insecticides

2. Carbon tetrachloride: Manufacture of fluorocarbons for refrigerants and

propellants.

3. Chloral: insecticides manufacture

4. Chloro paraffins: lubricant additives and paints

5. Dichlorobenzene: organic solvents

6. Chloroform: manufacture of fluorocarbons

7. Ethyl Chloride: antiknock compounds

8. Ethylene oxide and glycol: antifreeze fluids and synthetic fibres

9. Methyl chloride: silicones manufacture; solvent and catalyst carrier.

10. Methylene chloride: paint remover, propellants and general solvent

11. Monochloroacetic acid: herbicides, detergents

12. Perchloroethylene: dry cleaning

13. Tri chloroethylene: metal degreasing

14. Vinyl chloride: plastic and resin products

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METHODS OF PRODUCTION
1. KEL – CHLORINE PROCESS:

This process was developed by KELLOG, which uses HCl as a raw material from
the waste gases of a fluorinated hydrocarbon plant. Concentrated sulphuric acid
and 1% nitrosylsulphuric acid are used as catalysts.

Sulphuric acid catalyst is fed from the top of the stripper column. The HCl gas
reacts with the catalyst to form nitrosyl – chloride. O2, the ultimate oxidizing
agent blows the remaining HCl out of the H2SO4, which becomes more
concentrated and then get cooled in the flash vaporizer. This acid is then fed
back into the process. Nitrosyl – chloride, HCl, O2 and water vapour flows as
gaseous streams into the oxidizer and reacts there, resulting increase in the
temperature. In the absorber rest of the HCl is oxidized. Concentrated H2SO4
acid is fed at the top, reacts with the oxides and N2 to form nitrosyl – sulphuric
acid, absorbs the water that has formed and is fed back into the stripper.

The cooled dried chlorine gas still contains 2% HCl and up to 10% O2. Both are
removed by liquefaction. On the account of the aggressive nature of the
chemicals, expensive materials, such as tantalum plated equipment and pipes
must be used.

2. OXIDATION OF HCl BY NITRIC ACID:

The nitrosyl – chloride route to chlorine is based on the strongly oxidizing

properties of nitric acid.

The practical problem lies in the separation of the chlorine from HCl and other
gaseous components. The dilute nitric acid must be concentrated for further use.
Corrosion problems are severe.

3. DEACON PROCESS:

Air oxidizes HCl in vapour phase, over a hot copper containing catalyst (CuCl2).
The principal difficulties of fugitive CuCl2, low Cl2 composition in the exit stream,
limited available materials of construction with high maintenance and poor
catalyst activity makes this process unsuitable.

4. AIRCO – PROCESS:

The Air Reduction Company has made a number of developments in the basic
Deacon process in recent years using both air and O2. The net result indicates
that the process is practical today from an industrial by product containing HCl.

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HCl is mixed with air or O2 and preheated in a heat exchanger and sent to the
fluidised bed reactor that operates at 300°C to 500°C.

4 HCl + O2 2 Cl2 + 2 H2O + ∆

The product gases from reactor is cooled to 110°C and fed to the product gas
cooler where substantially all the water from reaction is condensed. The top
stream of the product gas cooler contains mainly Cl2, O2, N2, H2O and HCl. This
stream is sent to product gas absorber where the HCl gas is absorbed with 22%
HCl solution and the rest of the gases leave the absorber from the top. This
stream is then taken to liquefaction system from which the pure chlorine is
obtained.

PROCESS SELECTION:- AIRCO – PROCESS:

This process is chosen for the production since the problem of catalysis has been
solved by the use of improved copper base catalyst bodies with at least one year
of useful activity, utilizing rare earth as promoters and accelerators in a special
reverse in flow reactor which makes the reaction self-sustaining without the
addition of external heat. New methods, materials of construction and
engineering technique make this process economically feasible.

PROCESS DESCRIPTION:

HCl is mixed with air, fed into a fluidised bed reactor containing cupric chloride
catalyst, and maintained at a suitable temperature in the range of 300 - 500°C.
HCl in the feed reacts with oxygen or oxidizes to give chlorine and water. The
product gas containing chlorine, water, unchanged HCl and inert gases are
passed to a packed tower cooler/ scrubber, operating somewhat above the
atmospheric pressure. In the tower the gases comes in contact with 33 – 36%
HCl, thereby cooling the insoluble gases and absorbing the unchanged HCl. The
acid enters the tower at 20°C. Most of the water and some amount of HCl
contained in the product gas are dissolved in the acid. The liquid effluent coming
out of the scrubber is split up into two streams. One stream is passed to the top
of the scrubber through a cooler, which lowers the temperature to 20°C while the
other is sent to the top of a stripper column (Expeller). In the stripper, the HCl
present in the incoming stream from the product gas cooler is stripped off and
hence a gas containing around 98% HCl (the other constituents being water and
chlorine) leaves the stripper from the top that is fed back into the reactor. A
mixture of water and HCl containing 20 – 22% HCl leaves from the base of the
expeller at a temperature of 147°C, which is fed to a HCl absorber through a
cooler and the flow rate is maintained around 1000 kg/ hr. In the absorber,
almost all of the HCl coming from the product gas cooler/ scrubber are absorbed.
The liquid leaving the base of the HCl absorber contains 33 – 36% of HCl which
is then mixed with fresh 36% HCl and then fed to the top of the expeller. The
gaseous chlorine leaving the top of the HCl absorber column is then dried and
sent to liquefaction unit to get pure liquid chlorine.

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The workings of various equipments are described as follows:

1. The catalytic reactor consists of a U – shaped steel container with “Foamsil”

lined catalyst container. Both feed and discharge ports are at the bottom.
Periodic reversal of flow, controls reaction temperature, preheats the feed. The
copper catalyst acts as an efficient heat regenerator. Gases leaves the reactor
slightly below 200°C

2. In the cooler, product gas is scrubbed by cold 33 – 36% HCl solution.

Substantially all the water of reaction condenses to produce a concentrated
solution of HCl, which is stripped of its HCl content in the expeller described
below. The cooler is internally lined with non – corrosive material.

3. In the absorber, the cooled reactor gas stripped of its water content is absorbed
in cold 20 – 22% HCl solution in a falling film unit of karbate and plastic
construction. It leaves as 33 – 35% solution, which is then stripped in the
expeller. The absorbing liquid (22% HCl) is the cooled “foots” of the expeller.

4. The expeller or stripper is a karbate packed tower which is fed with strong &
cold HCl solution which is stripped to produce a product of 98% HCl gas and
foots as close as 20% solution of HCl. The water build up is discharged from the
system by stripping HCl as gas, in a separate system.

5. The dry gas from the absorption tower is then fed to the liquefaction unit
where most of the sniff gases and O2 is removed and chlorine emerges as the
pure liquid.

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THERMODYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS:

The oxidation of hydrogen chloride is a reversible reaction and hence the

feasibility of the desired forward reaction is highly dependent upon various
factors such as temperature, pressure, etc. Arnold and Kobe have studied the
effect of varying these factors. They have calculated the thermodynamic
functions of hydrogen chloride and chlorine from spectroscopic measurements.
The reaction is:

4 HCl + O2 2 Cl2 + H2O ; ∆Hr = - 192 kcal / kg HCl

The equilibrium constant K for this reaction has been calculated from the
following equation.

-∆G° / T = 2.303 R log K

Where ∆G° = change in free energy of the reaction

= -274460 + 8.65 T - 0.00229 T2 + 0.263 x 10-6 T3

T = temperature

R = gas constant

Effect of other variables:

Pressure: Increase in the pressure gives an increase in the HCl conversion and
hence increase in the chlorine content. However, the pressure chosen for
operation is only 1 atm. This is done after considering the economics point of
view of the plant. High-pressure operation involves the compression of gases,
which requires considerable amount of money. Secondly, the reactor will have to
be designed to withstand the pressure too. At high pressure, the equipment is
highly prone to failure due to stress corrosion cracking.

Dilution of oxygen with inert gases: If pure oxygen is used instead of air,
higher content of chlorine is obtained in the product gas. At 350°C, the HCl
conversion increases by 2%. And the chlorine recovery also becomes simpler. But
due to the high cost of O2 as compared to the air, one usually goes for air.

Hydrogen chloride / Air Ratio: Increasing the excess oxygen content from 0
to 300% increases the conversion by 10% at 700°K, but the chlorine content
decreases by 12%. Thus the cost of recovery increases.

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MATERIAL BALANCE
BALANCE AROUND REACTOR
Basis: 1 hour of operation
Assume on stream time = 7500 hrs/ year
Chlorine production = (10000 x 1000)/7500
= 1333.33 kg/ hr.
= 18.51 kmol/hr
From stoichiometry of the reaction:

4 HCl + O2 2 Cl2 + 2 H2O

∴No. of moles of water produced = 18.51 kmol/ hr

= 333.33 kg/hr

∴Theoretical O2 required = 18.496/ 2

=9.255 kmol/hr

= 296.16 kg/hr

∴Theoretical amount of HCl required = 18.51 x 2 = 37.02 kmol/hr

= 1350.208 kg/hr

Assuming 75% conversion,

Actual amount of HCl required = 1350.208/ 0.75

= 1800.25 kg/hr

Amount of water in 98% HCl gas = 1800.25/0.98 – 1800.25

= 36.74 kg/hr

Since the feed contains 98% HCl and rest 2% water,

∴Total flow rate of feed (HCl +Water) = 1800.25 +36.74

= 1836.99 kg/hr

Assuming 30% excess oxygen,

Actual amount of oxygen required = 9.251 x 1.3

= 12.026 kmol/ hr = 384.704 kg/hr

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Assuming 5% inert as nitrogen,

Amount of nitrogen in oxygen = 12.022/0.95 – 12.022

= 0.6327 kmol/ hr

= 17.71 kg/hr

∴ Actual molar ratio between HCl and O2

HCl / O2 = 49.322/ 12.655 = 3.897

Unreacted HCl =1800.277 – 1350.208

= 450.045 kg /hr

Unreacted oxygen = 9.251 x 0.3

= 2.7744 kmol/hr

= 88.78kg/hr

BALANCE AROUND PRODUCT GAS COOLER:

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Cl2 = 1313.216 kg/hr

HCl = 450.045 kg/hr
O2 = 88.78 kg/hr
N2 = 17.71 kg/hr
H2O = 369.709 kg/hr

Overall balance
I=G +Y

HCl balance:
450.045 = Amount of HCl in G + 0.36 x Y

Water Balance:
369.709 = Y x (1 – 0.36 - 0.005)

⇒ Y = 582.211 kg/hr
Amount of chlorine in Y = 0.005 x 582.211
= 2.911 kg/hr
Amount of HCl in G = 450.045 – 0.36 x 582.11
= 240.485 kg/hr
∴ G = I – Y = 2239.481 – 582.11 = 1657.281 kg/hr

BALANCE AROUND EXPELLER/STRIPPER:

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Overall balance: Y + D = B + C

98% of B = 1800.277 kg/hr

⇒ Total amount of B = 1800.277/ 0.98

= 1837.017 kg/hr.

Now, Y = 582.11 kg/hr

∴ The overall equation can be represented as

582.11 + D = 1837.017 + C -------------------------- (1)

HCl balance:

582.11 x 0.36 + 0.36 D = 0.98 B + 0.22 C ---------------------(2)

Solving 1 & 2 we get,

C = 8132.956 kg/hr

D = 9387.8462 kg/ hr

BALANCE AROUND ABSORBER:

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G= 1657.281 kg/hr
HCl = 240.4875kg/hr
O2 = 88.78kg/hr
N2 = 17.71kg/hr
Cl2 = 1310.305kg/hr

Overall balance:
G + C = E+ F

⇒ E + F = 2657.28 -----------------(1)

Assuming 0.5% HCl present in the stream E, the HCl balance is:
240.485 + 0.22 x 1000 = 0.005 E + 0.36 F

⇒ 0.005 E + 0.36 F = 460.485 ----------------------(2)

Solving equation 1 & 2 we get

E = 1397.56 kg/hr.
F = 1259.71 kg/hr.

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ENERGY BALANCE
EQUATIONS FOR SPECIFIC HEAT:

BASIS: 1 HOUR OF OPERATION

HEAT BALANCE IN REACTOR:

Heat of reaction at 450°C = -192 Kcal/ kg of HCl reacted
∴ Total heat of reaction ∆Hr = -192 x 1350.25 x 4.18
= -1083656 kJ/hr
The feed enters into the reactor at temperature of 20°C.
∴ Heat input, Qi = m Cp ∆T
=[(384.704/32 x 6.1592) + (17.71/28 x 6.79) + (1800.2/36.5 x 6.946) + (36.74/ 18 x 4.18)]
x 4.18 x (20 – 0)
Qi = 35356.635 kJ/hr.
Let T be the temperature of the product stream, which leaves the
reactor.
∴ Heat output, Qo = m Cp ∆ T
= [(1313.216/71 x 8.24) + (88.78/32 x 7.089) + (450.045/36.5 x 7.013) + (17.71/ 28 x
6.87) + (369.71/18 x 8.456)] x 4.18 x (T – 273) + (369.7 x 2253.27)
∴ Qo = [1844.04 x (T – 273)] + 833047.443

At steady state; Input + Generation = Output

⇒ Qi + ∆Hr = Qo
⇒ 35356.635 + 1083456 = 1844.04 X (T – 273 ) + 833047.44
Solving the equation we get
T = 428.2 °K or T = 155.2 °C

HEAT BALANCE AROUND PRODUCT GAS COOLER:

Product from the converter leaves at 155.2 °C. This stream is then cooled to
110°C in a reverse flow heat exchanger and then fed at the bottom of the product
gas cooler. Substantially all the water present in the product gas condenses in
the cooler. And hence the temperature of the streams M & Y are assumed to be
60°C.

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Heat input:
Qi = mi Cp ( T – TR)

The reference temperature TR= 0°C.

Qi = 2239.46 x 0.6553 x 110 = 161427 kJ/hr
Qx = 250 x 2.92 x 20 = 14600 kJ/hr

Heat output:
Qm = 824.11 x 2.98 x 60 = 147350.87 kJ/hr
Qg = 1657 x 0.567 x Tg = 939.52 Tg

Heat input = Heat output

∴ 161427 + 14600 = 147350.87 + 939.52 Tg
⇒ Tg = 30°C
HEAT BALANCE AROUND EXPELLER/STRIPPER:

The feed is fed to the expeller from HCl tank.

This feed temperature is assumed to be 30 °C.
Tc = 147 °C
Heat input:
QY = 852.11 x 2.94 x 60 = 102684.2 kJ/hr
QD = 9387.84 x 2.52 x 30 = 709872.8 kJ/hr
Heat output:
QB = 1837 x 0.497 x 20 = 18277.2 kJ/hr
QC = 8132.95 x 2.926 x 147 = 3298160.7 kJ/hr
Heat input = heat output
∴ QS + 102684.2 + 709872.8 = 18277.2 + 3498160.7
⇒ QS = 2703880.9 kJ/hr = 751078105 J/sec.
Assuming process steam is available at 5 atm.
λ5atm = 2109.687 kJ/kg.
∴ Steam flow rate ms = 751078.03/ 2109687 = 0.356 kg/sec.

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HEAT BALANCE AROUND ABSORBER:

Let QAB be the heat of absorption of HCl at 30°C.

∴ QAB = 420 kcal / kg HCl.

∴ HCl absorbed = 453.49 – 220 = 233.49 kg/hr.

∴ Total heat of absorption = 420 x 4.18 x 233.49

Qab = 409915.04 kJ/hr.
Qab + Q + QG +QC = QE + QF

QG = 939.52 x 30 = 28185.6 kJ/hr.

QC = 1000 x 0.7 x 4.18 x 30 = 87780 kJ/hr.

QF = 1259.56 x 2.94 x 30 = 111093.2 kJ/hr.

QE = 1397.56 x 0.54 x 30 = 22640.472 kJ/hr.

Substituting all the values in the above equation we get

Q = 392146.97 kJ/hr.

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DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER:

Hot HCl solution at 147 °C is to be cooled from that temperature to 30°C.

Let the cooling water is available at 25°C and it is heated to 30°C.
Let mc be the mass flow rate of water.

HEAT BALANCE:
mh = 8132.95 / 3600 = 2.26 kg/sec
Qh = mh Cp ∆ T
= 2.26 x 2.926 x (147 – 30)
= 773.69 kW
Qc = mc Cp ∆T
= mc x 4.18 x ( 30 - 25)
mc = 37.018 kg/sec

LMTD = [ (147 – 30) – (30 – 25)] / ln [(147 – 30) / (30 – 25)]

= 35.52 °C

R = (147 – 30) / (30 – 25) = 23.4

S = (30 – 25)/ (147 – 25) = 0.04098

Ft = 1

∴ Actual LMTD = 35.52 x 1 = 35.52 °C

HEAT TRANSFER CALCULATION:

Let us assume cooling water in shell side; HCL in tube side.
Choose UD= 500 W/m2 ° C

∴ Cross Sectional Area = Q/ UD ∆T

= 773.69 x 103 / 500 x 35.52 = 43.52 m2

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Let us choose ¾ “ OD 16 BWG tubes.

∴ at= 0.3048 x 0.1963 = 0.0598 m2 /m.

Let us choose 12 ft pipe.

L = 3.66 m

∴ Heat transfer area per tube = 3.66 x 0.0598

= 0.219 m2
∴ Number of tubes = 43.52/0.219 = 199 tubes

Now, let us choose TEMA P or S, 1 – 4 type of heat exchanger with 1” triangular

pitch.

∴ Nt = 210

∴ Actual area = 210 x 0.219

= 45.99 m2

∴ (UD)corrected = 773.69 x 103 / (45.99 x 35.52) = 473.62 W/m2°C

TUBE SIDE VELOCITY:

At = nt / np x π/4 x di2
= 199 / 2 x π/4 x (0.015748)2
= 0.01938 m2
∴ vt = m/ (ρ At) = 2.26/(1072.4 x 0.019) = 1.93 m/s

SHELL SIDE VELOCITY:

Db =do(Nt/K1)1/n = 20 x (199/0.249)1/2.207 =413.26 mm
Choosing fixed and U tube arrangement;
Clearance = 15mm
Ds = Db + clearance = 413.26+15=428.26 mm

Baffle spacing = 0.2 Ds = 85.652 mm

Tube pitch = Pt = 1.25do = 25mm

As = (Pt - do )Dslb/Pt = 0.007336 m2

Vs = m/ ρ a = 37.018 / (960 x 0.007336) = 0.9636 m/s

HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT CALCULATION:

SHELL SIDE:
d0 = 19.05 x 10-3 m
di = 15.75 x 10-3 m

Reynold’s Number = ρ v do / µ
= (1072.4 x 0.9636 x 19.05 x 10-3)/0.95 x 10-3)
=20721.68
Prandtl’s Number = Cp µ / K

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= 2.926 x 103 x 0.95 x 10-3 / 0.69

= 4.028

For Reynold’s number above 10000, Sieder – Tate equation holds

good.
∴ ho do/ K = 0.023 x NRe 0.8 x NPr 0.33 (µb / µw) 0.14

µb = 1.2 c.p
µw = 1.7 c.p

∴ hodo/K = 0.023 x (20721.68)0.8 (4.028)0.33 x (1.2/ 1.7)0.14

= 98.89

∴ ho = 3582.1 W/m2 °C

TUBE SIDE:
Reynold’s Number = ρ v di/ µ
= 993.19 x 0.6656 x 15.75 x 10-3/ 0.95
= 13882.41

Prandtl’s Number = Cp µ/ K
= 4.18 x 103 x 0.75 x 10-3/ 0.69
= 4.54

For this value of Reynold’s number Dittus Bolter equation holds

good.

∴ hidi/K = 0.023 x NRe 0.8 x NPr 0.33

= 0.023 x (13882.41)0.8 x (4.54)0.33
= 78.078

∴ hi = 3108 W/m2 K

Assuming dirt coefficient hd = 1000 W/ m2°C

We have,
1/ U = 1/ ho + Do/Di x 1/ hi + 1/ hd + [Do ln (Do / Di)] / 2 x Kw

∴ 1/U= 1/ 3582.1 + (1/3108 x 19.05/15.78) + 1/ 1000 + (19.05 x 10 -3

ln(19.05/15.78) x 1/32)
= 1.99 x 10-3

∴ U= 502.43 W/m2°C

25
 CM18228

PRESSURE DROP CALCULATION:

TUBE SIDE:
Friction factor, f = 0.079 NRe -0.25
= 0.079 x (13882.41)-0.25
= 7.278 x 10-3

h = 4f L Vt2 / 2g Di
= 4 x 7.278 x 10-3 x 3.66 x 0.66562 / (15.75 x 10-3 x 2 x 9.8)
= 0.153 m

∴ ∆PL = ρ g h = 993.18 x 9.8 x 0.153

= 1.49 kPa

∴ ∆Pc = 2.5(ρ Vt2 /2)

= 2.5 ( 993.18 x 0.66562 /2)
= 0.55 kPa

∴ ∆ PT = [∆Pc + ∆PL] x Np
= [1.49 + 0.55] x 4
= 8.16 kPa

SHELL SIDE:
From Perry,
∆Pc = bfk w2 Nc / ρ Sm 2 ( µw/µb) 0.14
= 2 x 10-3 x 0.08 x 2.262 x Nc x 1.420.14 / (1072.4 x0.0222 )
= 1.6537 x 10-3 Nc

Nc = Ds[ 1 – 2(lc/Ds)] / Pp
= 540 x 10-3 [1 – 2(0.25)] / 2.54 x 10-2
= 10.63 ≈ 11

∴ ∆Pc = 11 x 1.6537 x 10-3

= 0.018 kPa

26
 CM18228

DESIGN OF ABSORBER:

Gm’ = Molar flow rate of inert in the feed

Lm’ = Molar flow rate of solvent (36 % HCl)
Y = Mole ratio of HCl in gas phase
X = Mole ratio of HCl in the liquid phase

∴ Yb = 6.588/ (18.455 + 0.6325 + 2.77)

= 0.3014 kmol of HCl / kmol of inert in the feed.

At the top,
Yt = 0.19123 / ( 18.455 +2.77 + 0.6325)
= 0.00889 kmol HCl / kmol inert

Gas flow rate at the bottom of the tower,

Gm = 1657.288 kg/hr
= 0.46 kg/sec

Average molecular weight of the feed gas

Mf = 0.231 x 36.5 + 0.648 x 71 + 0.0973 x 32 + 0.0222 x28
= 58.175 kg / kmol

∴ Gm = 0.46 / 58.78 = 0.0079 kmol/ sec

∴ Inert in the feed (Gm’) = Gm x mole fraction of inert

= 0.0079 x 0.7684
= 0.00607 kmol/sec

27
 CM18228

Xt = mol of HCl /mol of inert in the solvent

Xt = 6.0274 / 43.33 = 0.139

[ Lm’ / Gm’]min = ( Yb – Yt) / ( Xb * - Xt )

where Xb * is the equilibrium composition of liquid stream which is obtained
from the X-Y plot.
The equilibrium data is given below:

From the graph we get, Xb * = 0.276

∴ [ Lm’ / Gm’]min = ( 0.3014 – 0.00889) / (0.276 – 0.139)

= 2.135

Taking [Lm’/ Gm’] = 2.5 x [ Lm’/ Gm’]

= 2.5 x 2.135
= 5.3375

∴ Lm’ = Gm’ x 5.3375

= 0.00607 x 5.3375
= 0.0324 kmol/sec

Average molecular weight of the solvent;

Ms = 0.122 x 36.5 + 0.8779 x 18
= 20.255 kg/ kmol

∴ Mass flow rate of inert,

L’ = Lm’ x Ms
= 0.0324 x 20.255
= 0.656 kg/sec

28
 CM18228

Gas flow rate at the bottom of the tower,

Gb = G’ + (Gm’ Yb) x mol wt of HCl
= 0.00607 x 58.175 + (0.00607 x 0.3014 x 36.5 )
= 0.4197 kg/sec

Liquid flow rate at the bottom of the tower,

Lb = L’ + Gm’ ( Yb - Yt ) x 36.5
= 0.656 + 0.00607 x ( 0.3014 – 0.00889) x 36.5
= 0.656 + 0.0648
= 0.7208 kg/ sec

Density of the feed gas,

ρg = (M x 273) / ( 22.7 x 303 )
= (58.28 x 273) x ( 303 x 22.7)
= 2.3 kg/ m3

Density of the solvent at 30°C = 1103.4 kg / m3

To specify flooding conditions,

Choose 1” ceramic rasching rings as packing material with diameter
d = 25.4 mm

From perry,
Surface area a’ = 190 m2 / m3
ε = 0.74
Fb = 510 m-1

Calculating [ Lb / Gb] [ρl / ρg ] 1/2 = (0.7208/0.4197) x [2.3/ 1103.4]1/2

= 0.07842
For the above value from perry,

Ψ = ρwater / ρsolvent = 992.2 / 1103.4 = 0.889

µl = 1.6 x 10-3

Substituting all the values in the equation (A) ,

[Gf 2 x 510 x 0.889 x (1.6 x 10-3) 0.2 ] / [2.3 x 1103.4 x9.81] = 0.17

∴ Gf 2 = 33.45

∴ Gf = 5.78 kg/m2 sec

= 20822.1 kg/ m2 hr

29
 CM18228

∴ Cross sectional area of the tower (A) = Gb/ 80% of Gf

= 1511 / 0.8 x 20822.1

∴ A = 0.0907 m2

∴ Diameter of the tower, Dc = [ 0.0907 x 4 / π] 1/2

= 0.340 m

Diameter of tower / Diameter of the packing = 0.340/0.0254

= 13.3

Which is greater than 10

DEGREE OF WETTING:
Wetting rate Lp = Liquid rate ( L) / specific area of packing
Specific area = 190 m2 /m3

Lp = 7.2326/ (1103.45 x 190)

= 3.449 x 10-5 m3 /m sec
= 1.336 ft3 /ft hr

It is recommended that wetting rate for all packing should be 0.85 ft3 /ft hr,
except for rings of diameter greater than 3 inch. For all the remaining packing
materials the value is 1.3 ft3 / ft hr.

TOWER HEIGHT CALCULATION:

Z = HOG NOG
HOG = Height of overall gas phase transfer unit
NOG = Number of overall gas phase transfer unit
HOG = HG + m [Gm/Lm] x HL

CORNELL’S RELATION:
HG = 0.017 x Ψ x D1.24 x Z0.99 x Scg 0.5
-----------------------------------------
( L f1 f2 f3 ) 0.6

D = Diameter of the column, m

Z = Packed height, m
L = Liquid rate kg/m2 sec
f1 = [µl / µw] 0.6 ,
f2 = [ ρm/ρl] 1.25 ,
f3= [σw / σl ] 0.8
Scg = Gas phase Schmidt number = µg/ ( ρg Dg)
Dg = Diffusivity of gas

f1 = [ 1.6/ 1.0]0.6 = 1.078

f2 = [1000/ 1103.4]1.25 = 0.8842

30
 CM18228

Now,
σw = 72.8 dyne/cm
σl = σw xw + σm xx ( solvent surface tension)
σm 1/4 = P ( σl)

P = Parachor = Ph + PCl = 15.5 + 55.2 = 70.7

σm 1/4 = ( 15.5 +55.2 ) (0.03474 ) = 2.456

σm = 36.39 dyne/cm

∴ σl = 0.122 x 36.39 + 0.8779 x 72.8

= 68.35 dyne/cm

f3 = [72.8/68.35]0.8 = 1.0517

Scg = µg/ ρg Dg

Dg = [T1.75 x 10-3 [ {MA + MB} / MA MB] 1/2] / [ P { (∑v)A 1/3 + ( ∑ v)B 1/3}2 ]

MA = 36.5 ; MB = 71.0
( ∑v)A = 16.5 + 19.5 = 36
( ∑v )B = 19.5 x 2 = 39
P = 1 atm, T = 303 °K

∴ Dg = [10-3 x (303)1.75 { 107.5 / 2591.5}0.5]/ 1 x [361/3+ 391/3] 2

= 0.359 x 10-5 m2 /sec

µg = 0.014 cp
ρg= 2.3 kg/m3
Scg = 0.014 x 10-3 / (2.3 x 0.359 x 10-5)
= 1.695

Corresponding to the 80% flooding for ceramic rasching rings;

Ψ = 70 m

∴ HG = [0.017 x 70 x 0.341.24 Z1/3 (1.695)0.5] /[7.2326 x 1.078 x 0.884 x 1.0517 )0.6]

∴ HG = 0.127 Z1/3

HL = [Φ C/3.28] x [µl/ ρl Dl ] 0.5 x [Z / 3.05]0.15

Φ = Correction factor for a given packing in m

C = Correction factor for high gas rate
ρl = 1103.4 kg/m3
µl = 1.6 x 10-3
Φ = 0.07 m
C = 0.6 (for 80% flooding)

31
 CM18228

Dl = 7.4 x 10-8 (Φ MB) 1/2 T/ µB VA 0.6

VA = molar volume of solute A at its normal boiling temperature
= 30.68 cc/gmol

ρA = 1.48 gm/cc = 0.0405 gmol/cc

MB = 20.25

De = [7.4 x 10-8 (Φ M)0.5 T] / [µ Vm 0.6]

= [7.4 x 10-8 (2.6 x 20.255)0.5 x 303] / 1.6 x (30.68)0.6
= 1.3037 x 10-5 cm2 /sec

HL = [0.07 x 0.6/3.28] x [1.6 x 10-3 /(1103.4 x 1.303 x 10-9)]0.5 [ Z / 3.05]0.15

HL = 0.3613 Z0.15

HOG = 0.127 Z1/3 + m (Gm/Lm) x 0.3613 Z0.15

m = Slope of equilibrium curve = 1.4106

Lm/Gm = Slope of operating line = 5.3375

HOG = 0.127 Z1/3 + 1.4106 x 1 / 5.3375 x 0.3613 Z0.15

∴ HOG= 0.127 Z1/3 + 0.09545 Z0.15

Calculation of NOG:
Yt
NOG = ∫ dy/(y – y* ) + ½ ln[(1 + YB) / ( 1 + YT)]
Yb

Y* is generated from the x – y plot:

32
 CM18228

The plot of 1/ Y – Y* vs Y is made and area under the curve is calculated.

Area under the curve = [ 2 x 0.002] x 2073

= 8.292

∴ NOG = 8.292 – ½ ln [(1 + 0.3014) / (1 + 0.00889)]

= 8.1647

∴ Z = HOG NOG = 1.0369 Z1/3 + 0.779 Z0.15

Solving the equation by trial and error method we get,

Z = 2.3 m

33
 CM18228

Specification sheet for Heat Exchanger

UNIT DATA SHELL SIDE TUBE SIDE
Fluid COOLING WATER HCL
Fluid Flow (kg/sec) 37.018 2.26
Temperature In (K) 298 420
Temperature Out (K) 303 303
Density (kg/m3 ) 993.148 1072.4
Specific heat (KJ/kg) 4.18 2.926
Viscosity (cP) 0.75 0.95
No. of passes 1 2
Pressure drop (KPa) 0.018 8.16
Material used Carbon Steel Stainless Steel
Velocity(m/s) 0.9636 1.93
Reynolds no. 20721.68 13882.41
Prandtl no. 4.028 4.54
Nusselt no 98.89 78.078
Heat transfer coeff 3582.1 3108
(W/m2 ℃)
Heat transferred = 773.69 kW
LMTD = 35.52 K
Overall U: calculated = 502.43 W/m2 ℃
used = 500 W/m2 ℃
No. of Tubes = 199
Triangular pitch = 25 mm
Baffle spacing = 85.652 mm

34
 CM18228

Specification sheet for Packed bed Absorber

UNIT DATA VALUE
Cross sectional Area of Tower (m2 ) 0.0907
Tower Diameter (m) 0.34
Height of Tower (m) 2.75
Packing type Ceramic rasching ring (1 inch)
NtOG 8.1647

35
 CM18228

ECONOMICS
COST ESTIMATION:
Cost of Chlorine plant of capacity 10000 TPA in 2004 is Rs.2.52 x 106 .
Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index:
Cost index in 2003 = 447
Cost index in 2021 SEPT = 754

Thus, Present cost of Plant = (original cost) × (present cost index)/(past costindex)
= (2.52 x 106 ) × (754/447) = Rs. 4.25 x 108
i.e., Fixed Capital Cost (FCI) = Rs. 4.25 x 108

Estimation of Capital Investment Cost:

I.Direct Costs: material and labor involved in actual installation of complete

facility (70-85% of fixed-capital investment)
a) Equipment + installation + instrumentation + piping + electrical +
insulation + painting (50-60% of Fixed-capital investment)

1. Purchased equipment cost (PEC): (15-40% of Fixed capital investment)

Consider purchased equipment cost = 23% of Fixed-capital investment
i.e., PEC = 23% of 4.25 x 108 = 0.23 × 4.25 x 108
= Rs. 0.978 x 108 = 9.78 x 107

2. Installation cost: (6-14% of FCI.)

Consider the Installation cost = 8.3% of FCI
= 8.3% of 4.25 x 108 = 0.083 ×4.25 x 108
= Rs.0.353 x 108 = 3.53 x 107

3. Instrumentation and controls installed: (6-30% of Purchased equipment cost.)

Consider the installation cost = 6.4% of Purchased equipment cost
= 6.4% of 0.978 x 108= 0.064 ×0.978 x 108
= Rs. 0.0625 x 108 = 6.25 x 106

4. Piping installed: (10-80% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider the piping cost = 7.3% Purchased equipment cost
= 7.3% of 0.978 x 108 = 0.073 x 0.978 x 108
= Rs. 0.0713 x 108 = 7.13 x 106

5. Electrical installed: (4-10% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider Electrical cost = 4.6% of Purchased equipment cost
= 4.6% of 0.978 x 108 = 0.046 ×0.978 x 108
= Rs. 0.0449 x 108 = 4.49 x 106

6. Buildings process and Auxiliary: (4-10% of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider Buildings process and auxiliary cost = 4.6% of PEC
= 4.6% of 0.978 x 108 = 0.046 ×0.978 x 108
= Rs. 0.0449 x 108 = 4.49 x 106

36
 CM18228

7. Service facilities and yard improvements: (10-25% of Purchased equipment

cost)
Consider the cost of service facilities and yard improvement = 13.8% of PEC
= 13.8% of 0.978 x 108 = 0.138 ×0.978 x 108
= Rs. 0.1349 x 108 = 1.35 x 107

8. Land: (1-2% of of Purchased equipment cost)

Consider the cost of land = 0.9% PEC
= 0.9% of 0.978 x 108
= Rs 0.008799 x 108

Thus, Direct cost = Rs. 1.698 x 108

II. Indirect costs: expenses which are not directly involved with material
and labour of actual installation of complete facility (15-30% of Fixed-capital
investment)

A. Engineering and Supervision: (5-30% of direct costs)

Consider the cost of engineering and supervision = 9.2% of Direct costs
i.e., cost of engineering and supervision = 9.2% of 1.698 x 108
= 0.092×1.698 x 108
= Rs. 0.156 x 108

B. Construction Expense: (6-30% of direct costs)

Consider the construction expense = 11% of Direct costs
ie., construction expense = 11% of 1.698 x 108= 0.11×1.698 x 108
= Rs. 0.186 x 108
C. Contractor fee: Consider the contractor fee = 1.8% of Direct costs
= 1.8% of 1.698 x 108
= Rs. 0.0305 x 108

D. Contingency: (5-15% of Direct costs )

Consider the contingency cost = 7.3% of Direct costs
ie., Contingency cost = 7.3% of 1.698 x 108 = 0.073 × 1.698 x 108
= Rs. 0.1239 x 108

Thus, Indirect Costs = Rs. 0.4964 x 108

III. Fixed Capital Investment:

Fixed capital investment = Direct costs + Indirect costs
= (1.698 x 108 ) + ( 0.4964 x 108 )
i.e., Fixed capital investment = Rs. 2.1944 x 108

IV. Working Capital: (10-20% of Fixed-capital investment)

Consider the Working Capital = 16% of Fixed-capital investment
i.e., Working capital = 16% of 2.1944 x 108 = 0.16 ×2.1944 x 108
= Rs. 0.351 x 108

37
 CM18228

V. Total Capital Investment (TCI):

Total capital investment = Fixed capital investment + Working capital
= (2.1944 x 108 ) + (0.351 x 108 )
i.e., Total capital investment = Rs. 2.5455 x 108

Estimation of Total Product cost:

I. Manufacturing Cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead
cost.

A. Fixed Charges: (10-20% total product cost)

i. Depreciation: (depends on life period, salvage value and method of calculation-

about 13% of FCI for machinery and equipment and 2-3% for Building Value for
Buildings)
Consider depreciation = 10% of FCI for machinery
i.e., Depreciation = 0.10×2.1944 x 108
= Rs. 0.2194 x 108

ii. Local Taxes: (1-4% of fixed capital investment)

Consider the local taxes = 3% of tpc
i.e. Local Taxes = Rs. 0.658 x 108

iii. Insurances: (0.4-1% of fixed capital investment)

Consider the Insurance = 0.8% of fixed capital investment
i.e. Insurance = 0.008×2.1944 x 108 = Rs. 0.01755 x 108

iv. Rent: (8-12% of value of fixed capital investment)

Consider rent = 10% of value of fixed capital investment
= 0.10× 2.1944 x 108
Rent = Rs. 0.2194 x 108

Thus, Fixed Charges = Rs. 0.5397 x 108

Now we have Fixed charges = 10-20% of total product charges –

(given)
Consider the Fixed charges = 15% of total product cost
Total product charge = fixed charges/15%
Total product charge = 0.5397 x 108 /15%
Total product charge = 0.5397 x 108 /0.15

Total product charge (TPC) = Rs. 3.598 x 108

B. Direct Production Cost: (about 60% of total product cost)

i. Raw Materials: (10-50% of total product cost)
Consider the cost of raw materials = 40% of total product cost
Raw material cost = 40% of 3.598 x 108
= 0.4×3.598 x 108
Raw material cost = Rs. 1.4392 x 108

38
 CM18228

ii. Operating Labour (OL): (10-20% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of operating labour = 15% of total product cost
Operating labour cost = 15% of 3.598 x 108 = 0.15×3.598 x 108
Operating labour cost = Rs. 0.5397 x 108

iii. Direct Supervisory and Clerical Labour (DS & CL): (10- 25% of OL)
Consider the cost for Direct supervisory and clerical labour = 20% of OL
Direct supervisory and clerical labour cost = 20% of 0.5397 x 108
= 0.2×0.5397 x 108
Direct supervisory and clerical labour cost = Rs. 0.1079 x 108

iv. Utilities: (10-20% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of Utilities = 15% of total product cost
Utilities cost= 15% of 3.598 x 108 = 0.15×3.598 x 108
Utilities cost = Rs. 0.5397 x 108

v. Maintenance and repairs (M & R): (2-10% of fixed capital investment)

Consider the maintenance and repair cost = 8% of fixed capital investment
i.e. Maintenance and repair cost = 0.08×2.1944 x 108
= Rs. 0.1755 x 108

vi. Operating Supplies: (10-20% of M & R or 0.5-1% of FCI)

Consider the cost of Operating supplies = 15% of M & R
Operating supplies cost = 15% of 0.1755 x 108 = 0.15 ×0.1755 x 108
Operating supplies cost = Rs. 0.02633 x 108

vii. Laboratory Charges: (10-20% of TPC)

Consider the Laboratory charges = 12% of TPC
Laboratory charges = 12% of 3.598 x 108 = 0.12×3.598 x 108
Laboratory charges = Rs. 0.43176 x 108

viii. Patent and Royalties: (0-6% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of Patent and royalties = 4% of total product cost
Patent and Royalties = 4% of 3.598 x 108 = 0.04×3.598 x 108
Patent and Royalties cost = Rs. 0.14392 x 108

Thus, Direct Production Cost = Rs. 3.404 x 108

C. Plant overhead Costs (50-70% of Operating labour, supervision, and

maintenance or 5-15% of total product cost); includes for the following:
general plant upkeep and overhead, payroll overhead, packaging, medical
services, safety and protection, restaurants, recreation, salvage, laboratories,
and storage facilities.

Consider the plant overhead cost = 60% of OL, DS & CL, and M & R
Plant overhead cost = Rs. 0.444918 x 108

39
 CM18228

Thus, Manufacture cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant

overhead costs.
Manufacture cost = (3.404 x 108 ) + (0.5397 x 108 ) + (0.444918 x 108 )
Manufacture cost = Rs. 4.388628 x 108

II. General Expenses = Administrative costs + distribution and selling

costs + research and development costs

i.Administrative costs :( 50-60% of OL)

Consider the Administrative costs = 50% of OL
Administrative costs = Rs. 0.26985 x 108

ii.Distribution and Selling costs: (2-20% of total product cost); includes costs for
sales offices, salesmen, shipping, and advertising.
Consider the Distribution and selling costs = 20% of total product cost
Distribution and selling costs = 20% of 3.598 x 108
Distribution and Selling costs = Rs. 0.7196 x 108

iii.Research and Development costs: (about 3% of total product cost)

Consider the Research and development costs = 3% of total product cost
Research and Development costs = 3% of 3.598 x 108
Research and Development costs = Rs. 0.1079 x 108

Thus, General Expenses = Rs. 1.09735 x 108

IV. Total Product cost = Manufacture cost + General Expenses

= (4.388628 x 108 ) + (1.09735 x 108 )
Total product cost = Rs. 5.4859 x 108

V. Gross Earnings/Income:
Wholesale Selling Price of chlorine per kg. = Rs. 80
Total Income = Selling price × Quantity of product manufactured
= 80 × 10000 x 1000
Total Income = Rs. 8 x108

Gross income = Total Income – Total Product Cost

= ( 8 x108 ) – (5.4859 x 108 )
Gross Income = Rs. 2.5141 x 108

Let the Tax rate be 30% (common)

Net Profit = Gross income - Taxes = Gross income× (1- Tax rate)
Net profit = 2.5141 x 108 (1 - 0.3) = Rs 1.75987 x 108

Rate of Return:
Rate of return = Net profit×100/Total Capital Investment
Rate of Return ={ 1.75987 x 108/ (5.4859 x 108 ) } x 100
Rate of Return = 32.07%

40
 CM18228

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

The process flow-sheet shows the arrangement of the major pieces of equipment
and their interconnection, is a description of the nature of the process. The
Piping and Instrument diagram (and I diagram of PID) shows the engineering
details of the equipment, instruments, piping, valves and fittings, and their
arrangement. It is often called the Engineering Flow-sheet or Engineering Line
Diagram. The design of piping systems, and the specification of the process
instrumentation and control system is usually done by specialist design groups.

Instruments are provided to monitor the key process variables during plant
operation. They may be incorporated in automatic control loops, or used for the
manual monitoring of the process operation. They may also be part of an
automatic computer data logging system. Instruments monitoring critical
process variables will be fitted with automatic alarms to alert the operators to
critical and hazardous situations The primary objectives of the designer when
specifying instrumentation and control schemes are

1. Safe plant operation:

a. To keep the process variables within known safe operating limits
b. To detect dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms
and automatic shut down systems.
c. To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating
procedures
2. Production rate :To achieve the design product output
3. Product quality: To maintain the product composition within the specified
quality standards
4. Cost: To operate at the lowest production cost, commensurate with the other
objectives.

In a typical chemical processing plant these objectives are achieved by a

combination of automatic control, manual monitoring and laboratory analysis
Process instrumentation is the brain and nerves of a plant process. The
instrumentation can be pneumatic, hydraulic or electrical. The recent trend is to
go for electronic instrumentation but pneumatic instrumentation is still in use.
The instrumentation is required to measured temperature, pressure, flow rate,
level as well as physical properties like pH, humidity, chemical composition etc.

41
 CM18228

UTILITIES AND AUXILIARY

AIR SUPPLY
All manufacturing plants require various utilities aside the main ingredients for
the production of the desired product. These utilities are generated in the
utilities block from where they are supplied to the main plant through pipelines
with the help of pumping systems. The utilities which are required in the plant
such as - cooling water, hot water, air and nitrogen are all generated in this area.
Generators are also present in the block, which are used for supplying power
only to critical areas in case of a power loss. Plus cooling towers are present
which are used for cooling water with the help of forced draft mechanism.

COOLING WATER SYSTEM

Cooling tower is employed to cool the hot water coming from process system with
air so that the cooled water can be reused as cooling media.
Natural draft cooling towers are used for this purpose. As their name implies,
natural draft cooling towers rely on natural convection to circulate air
throughout the tower, which then cools the water. Air movement occurs due to
differences in density between the entering air and the internal air within the
tower. Warm, moist air, which is more dense than cool air, will naturally rise
through the tower, while the dry, cool air from outside will fall, creating a
constant cycle of air flow.

LOADING & UNLOADING

The various chemicals such as the main ingredients are transported to the plant
using trucks. These trucks unload these chemicals at the plants' unloading
station. Special care is taken to make sure that the earthing of the tankers is
done before unloading to prevent sparks and ultimately fire. The unloading
station of critical chemicals are isolated from all the others to prevent any
hazard. The automated system prevents the unloading of chemicals without
being earthed.

CHLORINE STORAGE
Chlorine after production is stored in the plant before transportation and its
storage is of great importance because of its toxicity. Chlorine because of its
toxicity is stored in a closed room. This room is isolated from the atmosphere
through walls on all sides and air tight doors which may be closed in case of an
emergency. Air sampling equipment is present inside and outside the storage
area which sound an alarm if the concentration exceeds the permissible limit.
This is done to ensure safety of all the workers at the plant. The leaking chlorine
is then sucked into a scrubber where NaOH is used to scrub it.

42
 CM18228

PLANT LAYOUT

SITE LAYOUT
The location of the plant can have a turning effect on the overall viability of a
process plant, and the scope for future expansion. Many factors must be
considered when selecting a suitable plant site. The most important factors are
as follows:

• Location, with respect to the marketing area

• Raw material supply
• Transport facilities
• Availability of labour
• Availability of suitable land
• Environmental impact and effluent disposal
• Local community consideration
• Climate
• Political and strategic consideration

In addition to the main plant, we also have to consider the associated services
which have to be amalgamated within a particular plant site. Canteens, parks,
general utilities, emergency medical services and places for storage must also be
taken into consideration while deciding on a particular site.

PLANT LAYOUT
The economic construction and operation of a process unit will depend on how
well the plant equipment specified on the process flow sheet and laid out.
The principal factors to be considered are:
1. Economic consideration: construction and operation cost.
2. The process requirement
3. Convenience of operation
4. Convenience of maintenance
5. Safety
6. Future expansion

COSTS
The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives
shortest run of connecting pipes between equipment, and adopting the least
amount of structural steel work. However, this will not necessarily be the best
arrangement for operation and maintenance.

PROCESS REQUIREMENT
All the required equipments have to be placed properly within process. Even the
installation of the auxiliaries should be done in such a way that it will occupy the
least space.

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OPERATION
Equipment that needs to have frequent operation should be located convenient to
the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at
convenient position and height. Sufficient working space and headroom must be
provided to allow easy access to equipment.

MAINTENANCE
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily
withdrawn for cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent
replacement of catalyst or packing should be located on the outside of buildings.
Equipment that requires dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and
large pumps, should be placed under cover.

NOMENCLATURE OF VARIOUS PLACES SHOWN IN THE PLANT

LAYOUT (NEXT PAGE)

1.Administrative Block
2.Fire & Safety Department
3.Plant Utilities
4.Emergency Water
5.Packaging Plant
6.Process Plant
7.Expansion
8.Laboratory
9.Store
10.Stray Yard
11.Canteen
12.Storage Vessels
13.Workshops
14.Connecting Roads

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SAFETY AND HAZARDS

Health Effects of Chlorine

Chlorine is a highly reactive gas. It is a naturally occurring element. The largest
users of chlorine are companies that make ethylene dichloride and other
chlorinated solvents, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) resins, chlorofluorocarbons, and
propylene oxide. Paper companies use chlorine to bleach paper. Water and
wastewater treatment plants use chlorine to reduce water levels of micro
organisms that can spread disease to humans (disinfection).

Exposure to chlorine can occur in the workplace or in the environment following

releases to air, water, or land. People who use laundry bleach and swimming
pool chemicals containing chlorine products are usually not exposed to chlorine
itself. Chlorine is generally found only in industrial settings.

Chlorine enters the body breathed in with contaminated air or when consumed
with contaminated food or water. It does not remain in the body, due to its
reactivity.
Effects of chlorine on human health depend on how the amount of chlorine that
is present, and the length and frequency of exposure. Effects also depend on the
health of a person or condition of the environment when exposure occurs.

Breathing small amounts of chlorine for short periods of time adversely affects
the human respiratory system. Effects differ from coughing and chest pain, to
water retention in the lungs. Chlorine irritates the skin, the eyes, and the
respiratory system. These effects are not likely to occur at levels of chlorine that
are normally found in the environment.

Human health effects associated with breathing or otherwise consuming small

amounts of chlorine over long periods of time are not known. Some studies show
that workers develop adverse effects from repeat inhalation exposure to chlorine,
but others will not.

SAFETY MEASURES
GENERAL SAFETY REGULATIONS:
Because of hazardous nature of operation in the chemical industry, which
handles large volume of chemicals of extreme inflammable nature a
comprehensive safety system should be put together to take care of in emergency.
Some of the salient features of the safety system are as follows:

ALARM SYSTEM
In case of any emergency the same is communicated through alarms of four
different types.
 ZONAL ALARM
 TOXIC GAS LEAK ALARM
 SITE EVACUATION ALARM
 VILLAGE EVACUATION

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PROHIBITED MEASURES

Some items, which have been identified to have potential risk for battery area
operations have been banned in the production area. These are Matchboxes,
Lighter, Mobile phones, laptops and pen drives.
Apart from the above, all people working inside the production area are
compulsorily required to wear helmets, safety shoes add goggles.

PREVENTIVE ACTION AGAINST DAMAGE BY CHEMICALS

1. Inside the battery area of individual units visual boards have been erected
with MSDS(material safety data sheet) of relevant chemicals written on them.
2. Operators handling corrosive chemicals are provided with PVC jackets and
gum boots.
3. Safety showers have been provided near all major chemical handling areas.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

In a refinery, there is always a possibility of accidents may happen. When an

accident takes place, then there may be injuries to the personal concerned if
proper safety was not taken. Therefore, Personal Protective Equipments are
necessary while working in the refinery to avoid any injuries due to accidents.

There are various types of PPEs available depending upon the types of work to
be done.

1. In case of wielding and gas cutting, if anyone sees them with naked eyes then,
severe pain of eyes may happen. To avoid such thing various types of spectacles
are there. According to the work to be done we can use them.
2. A person may suffer from Temporary Hearing Loss if he works in front of a
generator for a long time without protection. Earmuff/ plug can be used to avoid
this.
3. Various types of gloves are available such as PVC Gloves (yellow), Nitrile
Gloves (dark blue) etc to deal with different Chemicals.
4. Cartridge type Dust Musk can be used to protect oneself from the hazardous
dust coming out from the industry.
5. Safety Shoes & Helmets have to wear inside the industry and PVC Suit where
applicable.
6. Using of Safety Belts & Lifelines working at a height of 2 meter or more than
the ground level.
7. Windsock helps us to determine the direction of wind at a particular time
placed singly at the top of each unit.

Work Permit System

The human element of the safety system has one of the biggest preventing a
major incident.
Work Permit is a written authorisation for a maintenance job to be done on a
system or on equipment, after all practicable steps have been taken to ensure the

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safety of men, material and machines before the job is started and such
conditions are maintained performed. It may not be always possible to achieve
cent percent safe conditions but the system ensures the best possible means of
achieving the safe working conditions.
For performing any work in the chemical industry by any person other than the
operating personnel of that area, a duly authorised written permit shall be
obtained for by the person/agency executing the work before commencement of
the work. Separate permit shall be obtained for each activity. Depending on the
nature of the job, there shall be at least six types of permit:
1. Cold Work
2. Hot Work/Vehicle Entry/ Confined Space Entry
3. Working at Height
4. Radiography
5. Excavation/Dyke Cutting/Road Cutting
6. Electrical Work Permit
The permit issuing authority shall inspect the work site frequently to ensure
that permit conditions are being complied and maintained.

SAFETY PREPAREDNESS:

 Toxic gas detectors in units as per OISD and licensor guidelines.

 Low temperature gas tight suits for handling cryogenic substances.
 Regular mock drills, both onsite and offsite.
 Compulsory fire fighting training for all employees, both at induction level
as well as at mid job level.
 Regular touch with mutual aid partners i.e. other industries in the vicinity
and fire brigade of local administration.
 Emergency exits at different locations as per guidelines of external safety
audit committee.
 Assembly points at different locations for gathering of employees under
emergency situations.
 Imparting safety training- both operational and shutdown safety-to all
contractor personnel and truck drivers.

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ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS

The conclusions to the risk assessment for chlorine in the aquatic compartment
are that there is at present no need for further information and/or testing and no
need for risk reduction measures beyond those which are being applied already.
Chlorine releases to the terrestrial environment result in no free chlorine,
hypochlorous acid, or hypochlorite. Thus there is negligible risk due to these
compounds in the terrestrial environment, due to lack of environmental exposure
and here again there is at present no need for further information and/or testing
and no need for risk reduction measures beyond those which are being applied
already.

POLLUTION CONTROL

This may be achieved by

1. Segregation of effluent streams
2. Control of particulate matter by
a) Mechanical separators
b) Wet Scrubbers
c) Fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators.

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REFERENCES
1. Perry's "Chemical Engineering Handbook", Seventh Edition,
1999

2. Treybal, Robert E., "Mass Transfer Operations",3rd edition,

1981

3. Chattopadhyay,P "Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering",

Vol-1,2003

4. Sinnot, R.K, "Coulson and Richardson's chemical engineering",

Volume 6,4th edition, 2005

5. Peters, M.S & Timmerhaus," K.D., Plant Design and economics

of chemical engineer",4th edition, 1991

6. Website: www.sciencedirect.com
7. John J. Mcketta& William A. Cunningham, "Encyclopedia of
Chemical Processing and Design", Marcel Dekker, Volume 20
8. Kem, D.Q., "Process Heat Transfer", International editions,
McGraw-Hill New York.
9. "Control of Hazardous Air Pollutants", US Environmental
Protection Ageancy, 2006-0329

10. "Chemical Insight and Forecasting", Chemical economics

handbook by IHS Chemical

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