CHAPTER

10
Chapter Outline
10.1 Introduction
Logic
by Marivic G. Molina

10.2 Logic Statements and Quantifiers

10.3 Conditional, Biconditional, and Related Statements
10.4 Truth Tables and Tautologies
10.5 Symbolic Arguments
10.6 Arguments and Euler Diagrams

Learning Objectives

1. Identify propositions.
2. Express English sentences into propositional forms and vice versa.
3. Determine the truth value of a proposition using the truth table definition
of negation, conjunction, disjunction, conditional, and biconditional.
4. Express a quantified statement in an equivalent way.
5. Write the negations of quantified statements.
6. Identify the hypothesis and conclusion of a conditional.
7. Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of a conditional.
8. Construct truth tables of propositions.
9. Identify whether a proposition is a tautology, a contradiction, or a
contingency.
10. Use truth table to show that propositions are equivalent.
11. Express an argument into symbolic form.
12. Determine the validity of an argument using truth table, standard forms of
valid and invalid arguments, and Euler diagram.
Chapter 10. Logic

10.1 Introduction

Logic is the study of reasoning. We solve problems by reasoning from what we know
to be true. All reasoning, whether in mathematics or in everyday living, is based on the way
we apply logic. Understanding logic allow us to apply deductive reasoning in complicated
situations to reach valid conclusions. It also empowers us to avoid being fooled into believing
things for which insufficient reasons are available.

The rules of logic permit us to determine the truth, falsity, or uncertainty of a

statement based on the truth of related statements. It allows us to become more effective
advocates for our beliefs by constructing better and more convincing arguments on our own.
Moreover, it helps us evaluate the vast array of claims we faced everyday as a student, a
citizen, a consumer, and a human being.

10.2 Logic Statements and Quantifiers

Definition 10.2.1 A proposition p or a logic statement is a statement which is either true or

false but not both simultaneously.

If P is true, P is assigned the truth value T (or 1). If p is false, p is assigned the truth
value F (or 0). However, it is not necessary that the truth value of the proposition is
immediately known. (This worktext used the truth values T and F.)

Definition 10.2.2. A propositional variable, represented by a lowercase or uppercase letter

in the English alphabet, is used to denote an arbitrary proposition with unspecified truth
value.

Definition 10.2.3. A proposition which contains only one propositional variable is called a
simple proposition.

Definition 10.2.4. A compound proposition is a proposition formed from two or more simple
propositions as its components using some combination of logical operators.

Definition 10.2.5. A logical operator is used to construct compound propositions by

combining simple propositions.

Definition 10.2.6. Logical connectives are logical operators which include words such as and,
or, if-then, and if and only if.

Remark: Not is the only logical operator that is not a logical connective.

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We will be using the following symbols for logical operators and their corresponding
translation. However, the list in the succeeding table is not exhausted.
Logical Logical
Compound
Operators Operators Translation
Propositions
Symbols
not p; it is not the case that p; it is false
not ~ or  ~p or  p
that p; it is not true that p.
p and q; p moreover q; p although q;
p still q; p furthermore q; p also q;
and  or • p  q or p • q
p nevertheless q; p however q; p yet q;
p but q.
or  pq p or q; p unless q.
If p, then q; If p, q; p implies q;
p is a sufficient condition for q; p only if
q; q is a necessary condition for p;
if-then → or  p → q or p  q q, if p; q follows from p; q provided that
p; q whenever p; q is a logical
consequence of p; Every p is a q; Not p
or q.
p if and only if q; p is equivalent to q; p
if and only if  or  p  q or p  q is a necessary and sufficient condition
for q.

Note that the logical operator symbols presented in the table are used in several
books. However, in this worktext, the logical operator symbols to be used are ~, , , →,
and .

Definition 10.2.7. A propositional form (or symbolic form) is a sequence of symbols

containing at least one propositional variable and at least one logical operator.

Propositional forms may be generated through the following rules:

1. A propositional variable standing alone is a propositional form.

2. If p and q are propositional variables, then ~ p, p  q, p  q, p → q and p  q are
propositional forms.
3. A string of symbols containing the propositional variables, logical operators or connectives,
and parenthesis is a propositional form, if and only if it can be obtained by finitely many
applications of the rules 1 and 2.

Definition 10.2.8. The negation of a proposition is usually formed by adding the word “not”
to the original proposition. Negation always has the opposite meaning as well as the opposite
truth value of the original proposition.

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The negation of a proposition p, denoted by ~ p which is read as “not p”, is the

proposition whose truth value depends on p as shown on the following truth table.

P ~p
T F
F T

Remark: Negation is not necessarily the direct opposite of a given proposition.

Definition 10.2.9. A conjunction is a compound proposition formed by combining two simple

propositions using the logical connective and. Each of the simple propositions is called a
conjunct.

Let p and q be propositions. The conjunction of p and q denoted by p  q which is read

as “p and q” is the proposition whose truth value depends on p and q as shown below. We
call each of p and q a conjunct.

P q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Definition 10.2.10. A disjunction is a compound proposition formed by combining two simple

propositions using the logical connective or. Each of the simple propositions is called a
disjunct.

Remark: The logical connective or can mean two different things. It can either be an
“exclusive or” or an “inclusive or”. An exclusive or, means “one or the other, but not both”
while an inclusive or, means “either or both”. (The logical connective or used in this worktext
is an inclusive or)

Let p and q be propositions. The disjunction of p or q denoted by p  q which is read

as “p or q” is the proposition whose truth value depends on p and q as shown below. We call
each of p and q disjunct.

P q pq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

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Order of Punctuations

1. The parenthesis is used whenever the word “both” goes with “and,” and “either” goes
with “or.” This is illustrated as follows:
a. Both p or q, and r: (p  q)  r
b. p, or both q and r: p  (q  r)
c. Either p and q, or r: (p  q)  r
d. p, and either q or r: p  (q  r)

2. Since “neither p nor q” is the same as “not either p or q,” then it is denoted by
~ (p  q). This is also expressed by the phrase “both p or q are not.”

3. The order of the words “both” and “not” should also be taken into consideration. This
is illustrated as follows:
a. p and q are not both: ~ (p  q)
b. p and q are both not: ~ p  ~q

4. The parentheses, brackets, and braces are used in symbolic logic in the same manner
as in mathematical expressions.

Quantifiers and Quantified Statements

Definition 10.2.11. The words all, every, no, none, some, and the phrases there exists and at
least one are called quantifiers. The words all, every, no, and none are called universal
quantifiers. On the other hand, the word some and the phrases there exists and at least one
are called existential quantifiers.

Definition 10.2.12. A quantified statement is a statement that contains one of the

quantifiers.

The quantified statements can be expressed in two equivalent ways that have exactly the
same meaning. The following table shows the equivalent quantified statements.

Quantified Statement An Equivalent Way to Express

the Statement
There exists P that is Q.
Some P are Q.
At least one P is Q.
All P are Q. There are no P that are not Q.
No P are Q. All P are not Q.
Some P are not Q. Not all P are Q.

Negations of quantified statements are summarized in the following table:

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Quantified
Negation
Statement
All P are Q. Some P are not Q.
Some P are Q. No P are Q.

10.3 Conditional, Biconditional, and Related Statements

Definition 10.3.1 A conditional or an implication is a compound proposition formed by

combining two simple propositions using the logical connective if-then. The simple
proposition that is an assertion that begins an argument and usually follows the word if is
called the hypothesis or antecedent. The simple proposition that closes an argument and
usually follows the word then is called the conclusion or consequent.

Let p and q be propositions. The conditional or implication “if p then q”, denoted by
p → q is the proposition whose truth value depends on p and q as shown below. We refer p
as the hypothesis or antecedent and we call q as the conclusion or consequent.

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Other propositions based on a given conditional are called related conditionals.

Definition 10.3.1.1. Given a conditional statement p → q. The following related conditional

statements
q→p
~ p → ~q
~q → ~p
are called the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of p → q, respectively.

Definition 10.3.1.1.1. The converse of a conditional statement is formed by interchanging

the hypothesis and the conclusion. In symbols, the converse of p → q is q → p.

Definition 10.3.1.1.2. The inverse of a conditional statement is formed by negating the

hypothesis and the conclusion. In symbols, the converse of p → q is ~p → ~q.

Definition 10.3.1.1.3. The contrapositive of a conditional statement is formed by negating

and interchanging the hypothesis and the conclusion. In symbols, the converse of p → q is
~ q → ~p.

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Definition 10.3.2. A biconditional is a compound proposition formed by combining two

simple propositions using the logical connective if and only if (abbreviated as iff).

A biconditional is the conjunction of a conditional and its converse. For the conditional
p → q, the converse is q → p. The biconditional can be written as (p → q)  (q → p) or in the
shorter form p  q, which is read “p if and only if q”.

Let p and q be propositions. The biconditional p  q is the proposition whose truth

value depends on p and q as shown below.

p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

10.4 Truth Tables and Tautologies

Definition 10.4.1. A truth table is an array that displays all possible combinations of the truth
values of propositional variables and all the possible truth values of the corresponding
propositional forms.

If a propositional form has n propositional variables as components, then its

corresponding truth table has 2n numbers of row. This is because one propositional variable
has two possible truth values. Thus, in n propositional variables, we have 2 • 2 • 2 • 2 • 2 • …
• 2 = 2n possible combinations of truth values.

In the previous lesson, the logical operators were defined using truth tables. Here, we
will look at the truth value of a propositional form through a truth table. To do so, consider
the following procedure:

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Procedure in Constructing a Truth Table

1. List the underlying component propositional variables, p, q, r, and so on.
2. For the first column (p), write T, in the first one half of the rows then F in the
remaining one half of the rows. That is, if a truth table has 8 rows, write T in the
first 4 rows, then write F in the remaining 4 rows.
3. For the second column (q), divide the total number of Ts from the first column in
half. That is, write T, in the first two rows followed by an equal number of F. Then,
repeat the previous values to complete the column.
4. For the third column (r), begin with a T and alternate between T and F. Note the
arrangement: the first column, under p, changes slower than the second column
under q, the second column changes slower than the third column, under r, and T
comes above F.
5. Proceed to working “inside-out” and step-by-step – to construct the resulting truth
values of the desired propositional form for each possible truth value combinations
of the propositional variables.

Definition 10.4.2. Equivalent propositions are two propositions that both have the same
truth values for all possible truth values of their component simple propositions.

Classification of Propositions (Propositional Forms)

Definition 10.4.3. A propositional form is a tautology if and only if its truth table column
consists entirely of entries with truth value T for each of the 2n possible truth value
combinations (T and F) of the component propositions.

In other words, a tautology is a propositional form that is always true.

Definition 10.4.4. A propositional form is a contradiction or an absurdity if and only if its

truth table column consists entirely of entries with truth value F for each of the 2 n possible
truth value combinations (T and F) of the component propositions.

In other words, a contradiction or an absurdity is a propositional form that is always

false.

Definition 10.4.5. A contingency is a propositional form that is neither a tautology nor a

contradiction.

10.5 Symbolic Arguments

Definition 10.5.1. An argument is any collection of propositions of which one is claimed to

follow from the others, which are regarded as providing support or grounds for the truth of
that one.

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An argument is not merely a collection of propositions; it is a cluster with a structure

that captures or exhibits some inference. In an argument, the cluster of propositions are tied
together; that is, one proposition is arrived at and affirmed based on some other
propositions.

This structure of the argument is described with the terms conclusion and premise.

Definition 10.5.2. The proposition that is affirmed based on the other propositions of the
argument is called the conclusion of the argument.

Definition 10.5.3. The propositions which are assumed as providing support or reasons for
accepting the conclusion are called the premises of the argument.

Definition 10.5.4. An argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever all the premises
are assumed to be true. An argument is invalid (or a fallacy) if the conclusion is false
whenever all the premises are assumed to be true.

Truth tables can be used to determine whether an argument is valid or invalid. This
can be done using any of the two methods.

Method A. Truth Table Procedure to Determine the Validity of an Argument

1. Write the argument in symbolic form.
2. Rewrite the argument as a conditional statement that has the following form:
[(premise 1)  (premise 2)  … (premise n)] → conclusion
where n is the number of premises.
3. Construct a truth table for the conditional in step 2.
4. If the conditional is a tautology, then the argument is valid. If the conditional is not a
tautology, then the argument is invalid.

Method B. Truth Table Procedure to Determine the Validity of an Argument

1. Write the argument in symbolic form.
2. Construct a truth table that shows the truth values of each premise and the truth
values of the conclusion for all combinations of truth values of the propositional
variables.
3. If the conclusion is true in every row of the truth table in which all the premises are
true, the argument is said to be valid.
4. If the conclusion is false in any row of the truth table in which all the premises are
true, the argument is said to be invalid. The row in which the conclusion is false, and
all the premises is true is the cause of invalidity.

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If some arguments have the same symbolic form as an argument that is known to be
valid, then the arguments are said to be valid. The following table shows the symbolic forms
of arguments that are known to be valid.

Standard Forms of Valid Arguments

1. Direct Reasoning p→q
(or Modus Ponens) p
q
2. Contrapositive p→q
Reasoning ~q
(or Modus Tollens) ~p
3. Disjunctive Reasoning p  q pq
(or Disjunctive ~p ~q
Syllogism) q p
4. Transitive Reasoning p→q
(or Hypothetical q→r
Syllogism) p → r

Likewise, arguments that have the same symbolic form as an argument that is known
to be invalid are said to be invalid. The following table shows the symbolic forms of arguments
that are known to be invalid.

Standard Forms of Invalid Arguments

1. Fallacy of the Converse p → q
q
p
2. Fallacy of the Inverse p→q
~p
~q
3. Misuse of Disjunctive pq pq
Syllogism p q
~q ~p
4. Misuse of Hypothetical p → q p→q
Syllogism q→r q→r
r → p ~p → ~r

10.6 Arguments and Euler Diagrams

Validity of arguments whose premises are quantified statements, that is, the premises
contain quantifiers, can be determined using the technique invented by the Swiss
mathematician, Leonhard Euler (1707-1783). This technique uses geometric ideas and

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involves four basic diagrams called Euler Diagrams. The following figures show Euler diagrams
that illustrate the four quantified statements.
All P are Q. No P are Q.
P P Q
Q
• •

Figure 10.6.1 Figure 10.6.2

Some P are Q. Some P are not Q.

P Q P Q

• •

Figure 10.6.3 Figure 10.6.4

Remark: In the Euler diagrams, circles are used to indicate relationships between premises
and conclusion. Furthermore, the size of a circle is not relevant. What is important is the
circle’s location.

The following is a step-by-step procedure for using Euler diagrams to determine

whether an argument is valid or invalid.

Procedure for using Euler diagrams to determine whether an argument is valid or invalid.
1. Make an Euler diagram for the first premise.
2. Make an Euler diagram for the second premise on top of the one for the first premise.
3. If every possible diagram illustrates the conclusion of the argument, then the argument is
valid. However, if there is at least one possible diagram that contradicts the conclusion,
this indicates that the conclusion is not true in every case, so the argument is invalid.

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Watch the following videos for further explanation and examples:

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Exercise 10.1
Logic Statements and Quantifiers

Name: ________________________________________________________
Score:
Course-Block: _________________ Schedule: ________________________
Professor: _____________________________________________________

A. Determine whether each of the following is a proposition or not. If it is a proposition, give its truth
value.
1. 8 + 19 = 27
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Mabuhay!
____________________________________________________________________________
3. I am lying.
____________________________________________________________________________
4. The sun is shining.
____________________________________________________________________________
5. This proposition is true.
____________________________________________________________________________
6. What is the value of x?
____________________________________________________________________________
7. Sarah Geronimo is a singer.
____________________________________________________________________________
8. Philippines is in Southeast Asia.
____________________________________________________________________________
9. Tawag ng Tanghalan is a singing contest.
____________________________________________________________________________
10. Corazon Aquino is the 12th president of the Philippines.
____________________________________________________________________________

B. Determine whether the following propositions is simple or compound. If it is a compound

proposition, identify its simple components.
1. 3 is odd and prime.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. Dr. Macasieb is a Math professor.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Piolo Pascual is an actor.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Chedy is a professor and a graduate student.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

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5. Mark is a father, a son and a brother.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
6. Romie eat pizza and drink pineapple juice.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
7. If I pass the exam, then I will get a high grade.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
8. Either Magnolia or San Miguel wins the Governor’s Cup.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
9. A rhombus is a square if and only if all its angles are right angles.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
10. If Dr. Atienza is a physics teacher and Prof. Dacumos is a chemistry teacher, then they are
faculty members of the College of Science.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

C. If S stands for “Math is a science.”, P stands for “Math is precise.” and E stands for “Math is
everywhere.”, express the following propositions into their propositional forms.
1. Math is not a science.
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Math is a science and it is precise.
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Math is precise unless it is a science.
__________________________________________________________________________
4. Math is neither precise nor everywhere.
__________________________________________________________________________
5. Math is not both precise and everywhere.
__________________________________________________________________________
6. Math is everywhere or precise, and it is a science.
__________________________________________________________________________
7. It is not the case the Math is precise.
__________________________________________________________________________
8. Math is a science, or it is both precise and everywhere.
__________________________________________________________________________
9. Math is a science, and it is either precise or everywhere.
__________________________________________________________________________
10. Either Math is precise and everywhere, or it is a science.
__________________________________________________________________________

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D. If J stands for “Josephine is present.”, A stands for “Alvin is present.”, C stands for “Chedy is
present.”, and R stands for “Robert is present.”, express the following propositional forms into
English sentences.
1. ~J
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. R  C
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. J → C
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. ~A  J
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. R → ~J
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
6. ~R  ~A
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
7. C  (J  ~R)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
8. ~C → (A  R)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
9. (R  J) → (A  C)
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
10. [C  (A  J)] → R
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

E. Let p and q be true propositions and r and s be false propositions. Using the truth table definitions
of negation, conjunction, and disjunction, determine whether the following propositions is true
or false.
1. ~p  s

2. ~q  ~r

3. ~(s  ~q)

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4. p  (r  q)

5. p  (p  q)

6. (p  r)  (s  q)

7. [p  (q  r)]  ~ s

8. ~(p  r)  (s  q)

9. [p  (q  r)]  ~(s  q)

10. (s  r)  [~q  (p  r)]

F. Express the quantified statement in an equivalent way, that is, in a way that has exactly the same
meaning.
1. Some music is pop.
___________________________________________________________________________
2. All poets are writers.
___________________________________________________________________________
3. All students are present.
___________________________________________________________________________
4. Some movies are actions.
___________________________________________________________________________
5. No common colds are fatal.
___________________________________________________________________________
6. Not all monkeys are playful.
___________________________________________________________________________
7. All teachers are considerate.
___________________________________________________________________________
8. Some Filipinos are Cebuano.
___________________________________________________________________________
9. Some thieves are not criminals.
___________________________________________________________________________
10. Nobody does not like Sarah Geronimo.
___________________________________________________________________________

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G. Write the negations of the quantified statements in E. (The negation should begin with “all”,
“some” or “no”.)

1. ___________________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________________________________________
6. ___________________________________________________________________________
7. ___________________________________________________________________________
8. ___________________________________________________________________________
9. ___________________________________________________________________________
10. ___________________________________________________________________________

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Exercise 10.2
Conditional, Biconditional, and Related Statements

Name: ________________________________________________________
Score:
Course-Block: _________________ Schedule: ________________________
Professor: _____________________________________________________

A. If g stands for “You will graduate.”, s stands for “You study hard.” and p stands for “You
passed all your courses.”, express the following sentences into their propositional forms.
1. You will graduate if you study hard.
____________________________________________________________________
2. You will pass all your courses if you study hard.
____________________________________________________________________
3. If you will not study hard then you will not pass all your courses.
____________________________________________________________________
4. If you study hard or pass all your courses, then you will graduate.
____________________________________________________________________
5. You will not graduate if and only if you did not pass all your courses.
____________________________________________________________________
6. Passing all your courses is necessary and sufficient for you to graduate.
____________________________________________________________________
7. You will graduate if and only if you study hard and pass all your courses.
____________________________________________________________________
8. You will not graduate only if you did not study hard or did not pass all your courses.
____________________________________________________________________
9. If you did not study hard or did not pass all your courses, then you will not graduate.
____________________________________________________________________
10. If you did not study hard, then you will not pass all your courses and will not
graduate.
____________________________________________________________________

B. Identify the hypothesis and the conclusion of the following conditionals.

1. If Math is a science, then it is exact.
Hypothesis:___________________________________________________________
Conclusion:___________________________________________________________
2. It is a rose whenever it is a flower.
Hypothesis:___________________________________________________________
Conclusion:___________________________________________________________
3. Tomorrow is Monday, if today is Sunday.
Hypothesis:__________________________________________________________
Conclusion:__________________________________________________________

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4. A number divisible by 9 is a sufficient condition for a number to be divisible by 3.

Hypothesis:_________________________________________________________
Conclusion:_________________________________________________________
5. Intramuros is in the Philippines provided that it is in Manila.
Hypothesis:_________________________________________________________
Conclusion:_________________________________________________________
6. If Bitoy is a comedian, then he makes people laugh.
Hypothesis:_________________________________________________________
Conclusion:_________________________________________________________
7. A picture tells a story is a logical consequence of a picture paints a thousand words.
Hypothesis:_________________________________________________________
Conclusion:_________________________________________________________
8. Two lines that meet at exactly one point implies that they are intersecting.
Hypothesis:_________________________________________________________
Conclusion:_________________________________________________________
9. Maegan Young is a Ms. World follows from Pia Wurzbach is a Ms. Universe.
Hypothesis:_________________________________________________________
Conclusion:_________________________________________________________
10. Every angle that measures between 90 and 180 is obtuse.
Hypothesis:_________________________________________________________
Conclusion:_________________________________________________________

C. Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the conditionals in B.

1. Converse: ___________________________________________________________
Inverse: _____________________________________________________________
Contrapositive: _______________________________________________________
2. Converse: ___________________________________________________________
Inverse: _____________________________________________________________
Contrapositive: _______________________________________________________
3. Converse: ___________________________________________________________
Inverse: _____________________________________________________________
Contrapositive: _______________________________________________________
4. Converse: ___________________________________________________________
Inverse: _____________________________________________________________
Contrapositive: _______________________________________________________
5. Converse: ___________________________________________________________
Inverse: _____________________________________________________________
Contrapositive: _______________________________________________________
6. Converse: ___________________________________________________________
Inverse: _____________________________________________________________
Contrapositive: _______________________________________________________
7. Converse: ___________________________________________________________
Inverse: _____________________________________________________________
Contrapositive: _______________________________________________________

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8. Converse: ___________________________________________________________
Inverse: _____________________________________________________________
Contrapositive: _______________________________________________________
9. Converse: ___________________________________________________________
Inverse: _____________________________________________________________
Contrapositive: _______________________________________________________
10. Converse: __________________________________________________________
Inverse: _____________________________________________________________
Contrapositive: _______________________________________________________

D. Suppose p, q, r, s are propositions such that p  q is true and r  s is false. Determine the
truth value of each of the following propositions.
1. ~ (p  r)

2. ~q → ~ s

3. ~ (p  ~q)

4. q  (s  r)

5. q → (p → r)

6. (s  p)  (q  r)

7. ~ [p  (s  q)] → r

8. ~ (p  q)  (r → s)

9. [q  (s  p)] → ~ r

10. (q  r) → [~s  (p  q)]

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Exercise 10.3
Truth Tables and Tautologies

Name: ________________________________________________________
Score:
Course-Block: _________________ Schedule: ________________________
Professor: _____________________________________________________

A. Construct a truth table for the following propositional forms.

1. p → (p  q)

2. p  (~p  q)

3. p  (~p  q)

4. (p → q) → (~p  q)

5. ~( p  q)  ~ q

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Chapter 10. Logic

6. p → [q → (p  ~p)]

7. (p  q)  (~p  ~q)

8. [(p  q)  ~p] → q

9. [p → (q → p)] → [(p → q) → (p → r)]

10. {[(p → q)  (r → s)]  (q  s)} → (p  r)

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B. Identify whether the propositions in A is a tautology, a contradiction, or a contingency.

1. ____________________________________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________________________________
4. ____________________________________________________________________
5. ____________________________________________________________________
6. ____________________________________________________________________
7. ____________________________________________________________________
8. ____________________________________________________________________
9. ____________________________________________________________________
10. ____________________________________________________________________

C. Use two truth tables to show that each of the propositions are equivalent.
1. p  ~p and ~p

2. p → q and ~q → ~p

3. ~p → ~q and p  ~q

4. ~ (p  q) and ~p  ~q

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Chapter 10. Logic

5. (p  q)  r and p  (q  r)

6. (p  q)  r and p  (q  r)

7. (p →q) → r and p →(q → r)

8. p  (q  r) and (p  q)  (p  r)

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 Chapter 10. Logic

9. p  (q  r) and (p  q)  (p  r)

10. p  ~q and (p → ~q)  (~q → p)

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Chapter 10. Logic

Exercise 10.4
Symbolic Arguments

Name: ________________________________________________________
Score:
Course-Block: _________________ Schedule: ________________________
Professor: _____________________________________________________

A. Write the following arguments in symbolic form using the propositional variables p, q, r
in each case.
1. If it is cold, I will wear a jacket. I am wearing a jacket. Therefore, it is cold.

2. There must be a lecture or there is a quiz. There is a quiz. Therefore, there is no

lecture.

3. If the door is close, then there is less noise. There is less noise. Therefore, the door is
close.

4. If I am tired, I am oversensitive. If I am oversensitive, I am offensive. Therefore, if I am

tired, I am offensive.

5. If it is raining or it is humid, then I will stay at home. I stayed at home. Therefore, it is

raining, or it is humid.

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 Chapter 10. Logic

6. If Caguioa and Tenorio play, then Barangay Ginebra wins. Caguioa played and
Barangay Ginebra did not win. Therefore, Tenorio did not play.

7. We criminalize drugs, or we damage the future of young people. We will not damage
the future of young people. Therefore, we criminalize drugs.

8. If all students follow the teacher’s rule, then no punishments are needed. Some
students do not follow the teacher’s rule. Therefore, some punishments are needed.

9. If Onika learn about the surprise, the party is over. If the party is over, the surprise
was revealed. The surprise was not revealed. Therefore, Onika did not learn about the
surprise.

10. If Jose P. Laurel was the 3rd Philippine president, then Sergio Osmena was the 4th
Philippine president. Sergio Osmena was the 4th Philippine president. Therefore, Jose
P. Laurel was the 3rd Philippine president.

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Chapter 10. Logic

B. Using Method A, determine whether each argument in A is valid or invalid.

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 Chapter 10. Logic

C. Use Method B to determine whether the following arguments is valid or invalid.

1. p
p  q

2. p → ~q
q
~p

3. ~p  q
q
~p

4. p  ~q
p
~q

5. p
q
p  q

6. p  q
p

7. (p  q) → r
~p  ~q
~r

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Chapter 10. Logic

8. (p  q) → r
~r
~p  ~q

9. (p  ~q)  (p  r)
r
pq

10. (p → q)  (r → s)
pr
qs

D. Use the standard forms of valid and invalid arguments to determine the validity of the
arguments. Likewise, state the names of its standard form.
1. If it is a bird, then it has wings. It has wings. Therefore, it is a bird.

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 Chapter 10. Logic

2. I will watch Eat Bulaga or Showtime. I am watching Showtime. Therefore, I did not
watch Eat Bulaga.

3. He will attend the meeting or his class. He did not attend the meeting. Therefore, he
attended his class.

4. If a number is divisible by 2, then it is an even number. The number is even. Therefore,

the number is divisible by 2.

5. If I buy the bag, then I will get a free wallet. If I get a free wallet, then I can save money.
Therefore, if I saved money, then I bought the bag.

6. If Alvin buys a new car, then he will not go on Philippine interisland tour. Alvin went
to an interisland tour. Therefore, Alvin did not buy a new car.

7. If a triangle has three congruent sides, then it is not a scalene triangle. A triangle has
three congruent sides. Therefore, the triangle is not scalene.

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Chapter 10. Logic

8. If I enrolled to a summer class, then I will not be able to work for a summer job. I did
not enroll to a summer class. Therefore, I work for a summer job.

9. If we serve sinigang, then Floyd will join us for lunch. If Floyd join us for lunch, then
Larry will not join us for lunch. Therefore, if we serve sinigang, Larry will not join us
for lunch.

10. If I had a hundred peso for every logic problem I have solved, then I would be rich. I
have not received a hundred peso for every logic problem I have solved. Therefore, I
am not rich.

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 Chapter 10. Logic

Exercise 10.5
Arguments and Euler Diagrams

Name: ________________________________________________________
Score:
Course-Block: _________________ Schedule: ________________________
Professor: _____________________________________________________

Use Euler diagrams to determine whether the following arguments are valid or invalid.

1. Some students like math. Jillian is a student. Jillian likes math.

2. Some dogs bite. All animals that bite are dangerous. Some dogs are dangerous.

3. All actors are artists. Joshua Garcia is an actor. Therefore, Joshua Garcia is an artist.

4. No math test is fun. All fun things are worth your time. No math test is worth your
time.

5. All chemists are scientists. All scientists attended college. Therefore, all chemists
attended college.

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6. No prime numbers are negative. The number 5 is not negative. The number 5 is a
prime number.

7. All logic problems make sense. Some jokes make sense. Therefore, some logic
problems are jokes.

8. All college courses are challenging. This course is a college course. Therefore, this
course is challenging.

9. Some people enjoy watching TV. Some people enjoy reading. Therefore, some people
who enjoy watching TV enjoy reading.

10. All candidates without a master’s degree will not be considered for the dean’s
position. All candidates who are not considered for the dean’s position should apply
for chairperson’s position. All candidates without a master’s degree should apply for
chairperson’s position.

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 Chapter 10. Logic

Chapter 10
Logic
Review Exercise

Name: ________________________________________________________
Score:
Course-Block: _________________ Schedule: ________________________
Professor: _____________________________________________________

Determine whether each of the following is a proposition or not. If it is a proposition, give its
truth value.

1. Get out!
________________________________________________________________________
2. Is that for real?
________________________________________________________________________
3. If 2 + 5 = 7 and 7 = 10 – 3, then 2 + 5 = 10 – 3.
________________________________________________________________________
4. Logic makes us a better thinker or it will make us go crazy.
________________________________________________________________________
5. The Philippine national anthem was originally composed by Jose Palma.
________________________________________________________________________

Use the following representations in items 6 – 10.

p: I am a college student.
q: I study Logic.
r: I go to school.

Express each English statement into propositional form.

6. I am a college student and I study logic.

________________________________________________________________________
7. If I am a college student, then I go to school and study logic.
________________________________________________________________________
8. I go to school unless I am a college student.
________________________________________________________________________

Express each propositional form into English statement

9. (p  q) → r
________________________________________________________________________

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Chapter 10. Logic

10. r  (p  q)
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Suppose p, q, r, s are propositions such that p  q is true and r  s is false. Determine the truth
value of each of the following propositions.

11. ~ (p → q)  [(r  s)  ~p]

12. ~ {[~q  ~(r  p)] → (p  ~s)}

Write the negations of the quantified statements in E. (The negation should begin with “all”,
“some” or “no”.)

13. Some girls wear makeup.

________________________________________________________________________
14. All numbers are divisible by 2.
________________________________________________________________________

Write the converse of

15. If last month is August, then next month is October.

________________________________________________________________________

Write the inverse of

16. If 27 is an integer, then 27 is a rational number.

________________________________________________________________________

Write the converse of

17. If Karylle is the daughter of Zsazsa Padilla, then Zsazsa Padilla is Karylle’s mother.
________________________________________________________________________

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 Chapter 10. Logic

Construct the truth table for the following propositional forms and identify whether it is a
tautology, a contradiction, or a contingency.

18. ~p  (p ~ q)

19. (r → p)  [~q  (p  q)]

Use two truth tables to show that the propositions are equivalent.

20. ~ [p  ~(q  r)] and ~p  (q  r)

21. “Today is not a holiday and tomorrow is not a holiday.” and “It is not true that today is a
holiday or tomorrow is a holiday.”

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Chapter 10. Logic

Use truth tables to determine whether the following arguments is valid or invalid. (You can
use either Method A or Method B)

22. If a dog performs tricks, it is intelligent. This dog is intelligent. Therefore, it performs
tricks.

23. I am nervous or I am excited. I am not nervous. Therefore, I am excited.

24. ~p → ~ (q  r)
qr
p

25. ~p  (q → r)
p
q→r

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 Chapter 10. Logic

Use the standard forms of valid and invalid arguments to determine the validity of the
arguments. Likewise, state the names of its standard form.

26. If I want to land on a good job, then I should earn a degree. If I want to earn a degree,
then I should study hard. Therefore, if I land on a good job, then I studied hard.

27. My suitor is handsome or rich. He is rich. Therefore, he is not handsome.

Use Euler diagrams to determine whether the following arguments are valid or invalid.
28. All insects have six legs. No spiders have six legs. Therefore, no spiders are insects.

29. All math subjects are difficult. Calculus is a math subject. Therefore, Calculus is difficult.

30. All professors are wise people. Some wise people are writers. Therefore, some professors
are writers.

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Chapter 10. Logic

References

Aufmann, R. N., et al. (2013). Mathematical Excursions. (3rd ed.) USA: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

Blitzer, R. (2011). Thinking Mathematically. (5th ed.) Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

Chiswell, I. & Hodges, W. (2007). Mathematical Logic. New York: Oxford University Press Inc.

Copi, I. M. (1979). Symbolic Logic. (5th ed.) New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.

Copi, I. M. & Cohen, C. (2002). Introduction to Logic. (11th ed.) Singapore: Pearson Education, Asia Pte
Ltd.

Copi, I. M., Cohen, C., & McMahon, K. (2014). Introduction to Logic. (14th ed.) England: Pearson
Education Limited

Dougherty, M. M. & Gieringer, J. (2012). First Year Calculus for Students of Mathematics and Related
Disciplines

Gantert, A. X. (2008). Geometry. New York: AMSCO School Publications, Inc.

Limjap, A. A. (n.d.). Introduction to Set Theory and Logic. De La Salle University-Manila.

Mendelson, E. (1997). Introduction to Mathematical Logic. (4th ed.) UK: Chapman & Hall.

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