Chapter 2 Chemical Basis in Life
Chapter 2 Chemical Basis in Life
Chapter 2 Chemical Basis in Life
and Physiology
Twelfth Edition
Chapter
2
Chemical Basis of Life
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2.1: Introduction
2
2.2: Structure of Matter
4
Elements and Atoms
• All matter is composed of elements
• Elements are the parts of compounds
• Elements are:
• Bulk elements
• Trace elements
• Ultratrace elements
• The smallest parts of atoms are elements
5
Atomic Structure
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Atomic Number
• Number of protons in the nucleus of one atom
• Each element has a unique atomic number
• Equals the number of electrons in the atom
Mass Number
• The number of protons plus the number of neutrons in one atom
• Electrons do not contribute to the weight of the atom
Atomic Weight
• Average of mass numbers of the isotopes of an element
7
Isotopes
Isotopes
• Atoms with the same atomic numbers but with
different mass numbers
• Different number of neutrons
• Oxygen often forms isotopes (O16, O17, and O18)
8
Molecules and Compounds
10
Bonding of Atoms
• Lower shells are filled first
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+ + 0
+ 0 0 + -
0 0
+ 0
+
- -
Cation
• A positively charged ion 11p+
12n0
17p+
18n0
• Formed when an atom loses electrons
Anion
Sodium atom (Na) Chlorine atom (Cl)
• A negatively charged ion
• Formed when an atom gains
electrons
12
Ionic Bonds
Ionic Bonds
• An attraction between a cation and an anion
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Na+
Cl–
+ 11p+
12n0
17p+
18n0
–
Sodium chloride
13
Covalent Bonds
• Formed when atoms share electrons
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H H H2
- -
-
+ + + +
H H
H H O O O O C O
H2 O2 H2O CO2
15
Bonding of Atoms:
Polar Molecules
Polar Molecules
• Molecule with a slightly negative end and a slightly positive end
• Results when electrons are not shared equally in covalent bonds
• Water is an important polar molecule
Slightly negative ends
16
(a)
Slightly positive ends
Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen Bonds
• A weak attraction between the positive end of one polar
molecule and the negative end of another polar molecule
• Formed between water molecules
• Important for protein and nucleic acid structure
H H
O
H
Hydrogen bonds
O
H
H
O
H
H O
H H
O
17
H
(b)
Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds form or
break among atoms, ions, or molecules
concentration of H+
Basic or alkaline – pH greater than 7;
indicates a greater concentration of OH-
22
Neutralization and Buffers
• Neutralization occurs when an acid and
base react to form a salt and water in a
displacement reaction.
– HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
– Termed neutralization because water is
formed neutralizing the solution.
• Buffers act as acids when pH is high and
bases when pH is low.
– Carbonic acid-bicarbonate system.
2.3: Chemical Constituents
of Cells
Organic v. Inorganic Molecules
Organic molecules
• Contain C and H
• Usually larger than inorganic molecules
• Dissolve in water and organic liquids
• Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
Inorganic molecules
• Generally do not contain C and H
• Usually smaller than organic molecules
• Usually dissociate in water, forming ions
• Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and inorganic salts
24
Inorganic Substances
Water
• Most abundant compound in living material
• Two-thirds of the weight of an adult human
• Major component of all body fluids
• Medium for most metabolic reactions
• Important role in transporting chemicals in the body
• Absorbs and transports heat
Oxygen (O2)
• Used by organelles to release energy from nutrients in
order to drive cell’s metabolic activities
• Necessary for survival
25
Inorganic Substances
Inorganic salts
• Abundant in body fluids
• Sources of necessary ions (Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca2+, etc.)
• Play important roles in metabolism
26
Organic Substances
Carbohydrates
• Provide energy to cells
• Supply materials to build cell structures
• Water-soluble
• Contain C, H, and O
• Ratio of H to O close to 2:1 (C6H12O6)
• Monosaccharides – glucose, fructose
• Disaccharides – sucrose, lactose
• Polysaccharides – glycogen, cellulose
27
Organic Substances
Carbohydrates
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H O
C
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H C O H
H
H O C H H C O H
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H C O H C O O
H H
H C O H H
C
O H H C
H O H O O H
C C C
H H O H
(a) Some glucose molecules (b) More commonly, glucose (c) This shape symbolizes
(C6H12O6) have a straight molecules form a ring structure. the ring structure of a
chain of carbon atoms. glucose molecule.
28
Organic Substances
Carbohydrates
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O O O
O
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(c) Polysaccharide
29
Organic Substances
Lipids
• Soluble in organic solvents; insoluble in water
• Fats (triglycerides)
• Used primarily for energy; most common lipid in the body
• Contain C, H, and O but less O than carbohydrates (C57H110O6)
• Building blocks are 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids per molecule
• Saturated and unsaturated
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H O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H C O C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H C O C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
O H H H H H H
H C O C C C C C C
H H H H H H
30
Glycerol Fatty acid
portion portions
Neutral Fats
• Triglycerides are formed from a fatty acid and glycerol (a
sugar).
• They are the most plentiful source of stored energy to our
bodies.
– Two types:
• Saturated- contain only single bonds
• Unsaturated- contains one(mono) or more(poly) double bonds
• Short, unsaturated fats are liquids (oils) and come from
plants.
• Long, saturated fats are solid (butter and meat fat) and
come from animals.
Organic Substances
Lipids
• Phospholipids
• Building blocks are 1 glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and 1 phosphate per
molecule
• Hydrophilic and hydrophobic
• Major component of cell membranes
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H Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
H H C O Fatty acid
CH3 CH3
H2 CH3 H
C C CH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH
H2 C C CH2
CH3
H2 CH3
C HC CH CH2
H2C C CH
HO C C CH2
H C C
H2 H
33
(a) General structure of a steroid
(b) Cholesterol
Organic Substances
Proteins
• Structural material • Protein building blocks are
• Energy source amino acids
• Hormones • Amino acids held
• Receptors together with peptide bonds
• Enzymes H
• Antibodies H C
C
C H
H
H C C H
S C
R H C H H C H
H N C C OH H N C C OH H N C C OH
H H O H H O H H O
34
Organic Substances
Proteins
Four Levels of Protein Structure
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Amino acids H H
Three-dimensional
C C R
H H H folding
H N C O C
C
Secondary structure C O
H
H
H
N
H
H
HO
N
C
R
H
C C R
R R C
N
N H O C N C C
R O
O C N H C H
R R H H O
R
C C C H
N
H N
H H
C O
O
H
C
C N
R
Quaternary structure
C O H N O C
H H H
H H R
R C C R N C
N C
N H O C R C O
C H
O C N H
H HO
R R R
C H
C C N C
H H C N
H N C O O
H
Pleated C O H N Coiled O
H H
structure C C
structure
35
Animation: Protein Denaturation
36
Organic Substances
Nucleic Acids
• Carry genes
• Encode amino acid sequences of proteins
• Building blocks are nucleotides
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P B
S
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S
P B P B B
P
S S
S
P B P B B
P
S S
S
P B P B B
P
S S
S
P B P B B
P
S S
S
P B P B B
P
S S
S
P B P B B
P
S S 38
(a) (b)