Python

Cheat Sheet
Andrei Dumitrescu

This cheat sheet provides you with all the Python fundamentals in one place.
If you want to MASTER all the Python key concepts starting from Scratch, check out my Python
Complete Bootcamp course. No prior Python knowledge is required.

V1.0
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Variables
Defining variables, Comments in Python

Data Types
Python Operators
Arithmetic Operators, Assignment Operators, Arithmetic Built-in Function, Comparison and Identity
Operators, Boolean Variables, Truthiness of Objects, Boolean Operators

Python Strings
Introduction, User Input and Casting, Indexing and Slicing, Formatting Strings, String Methods

if ... elif ... else Statements

Syntax, or / and operators, The truthiness of a variable

For Loops
range(), for and continue, for and break

While Loops
Python Lists
Introduction, Iterating over a list, List Membership, List Methods, List Comprehension

Python Tuples
Introduction, Iterating over a tuple, Tuple membership, Tuple Methods

Sets and Frozensets in Python

Intro, Iterating, Set Membership, Set Methods, Set and Frozenset Operations, Set Comprehension

Dictionaries in Python
Introduction, Dictionary Methods, Iterating, zip() Built-in Function, Dictionary Comprehension

Python Functions
Introduction, Function's Arguments, Scopes and Namespaces, Lambda Expressions

Working with Files in Python, Exceptions Handling

Object Oriented Programming (OOP)
Back to Table of Contents Page 1 of 35
Variables

Defining variables

miles = 10 # type integer

first_name = 'John' # type string (the value of the variable is between single quotes)
last_name = "Wick" # type string (use single or double quotes)
a, b, c = 1.5, 3, 'x' # defining 3 variables on the same line (float, an integer and a string)

# PEP 8 recommends using snake case for variable names

max_permitted_value = 500 # snake-case notation
maxPermittedValue = 500 # camel-case notation

# Illegal or not recommended names

4you = 10 # not permitted, name starts with a digit
valu!es = 100 # not permitted, name contains special characters
str = 'Python' # not recommended, name str is a Python language keyword
_location = 'Europe' # not recommended name.
# Avoid names that start with underscores (they have special meaning)

Comments in Python

Comments in Python start with the hash character # and extend to the end of the physical line.
If you want to comment out more lines, insert a hash character at the beginning of each line.

# This line is a comment.

The following line is commented out and will be ignored by the Python Interpreter
#x=1

a = 7 # defines a variable that stores an integer

my_str = 'A hash character # within a string literal is just a hash character'

Data Types

Back to Table of Contents Page 2 of 35

age = 31 # type int
miles = 3.4 # type float
finished = True # type bool
name = 'Andrei' # type str (string)
years = [2018, 2019, 2020] # type list
week_days = ('Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday') # type tuple
vowels = {'a', 'e', 'o', 'u'} # type set
fs = frozenset((1, 2, 'abc', 'xyz')) # type frozenset

# type dictionary
countries = {'de':'Germany', 'au':'Australia', 'us':'United States of America', 'gr':'Greece'}

Python Operators

Arithmetic Operators

a=9
b=4
a+b # addition operator => 13
a-b # subtraction operator => 5
a*b # multiplication operator => 36
a/b # division operator => 2.25
a // b # floor division operator => 2
5.0 // 3.0 # => 1.0 -> works on floats too
a ** b # exponentiation operator (a to the power of b) => 6561
a%b # modulus operator => 1

Assignment Operators

a=5
a += 2 # shorthand for a = a + 2 => a = 7
a -= 3 # shorthand for a = a - 3 => a = 4
a /= 2 # shorthand for a = a / 2 => a = 2
a *= 3 # shorthand for a = a * 3 => a = 6
a **=2 # shorthand for a = a ** 2 => a = 36

Back to Table of Contents Page 3 of 35

Arithmetic Built-in Function

divmod(9, 4) # returns the quotient and the remainder using integer division => (2, 1)
sum([1,2,4]) # returns the sum of an iterable => 7
min(1,-2,3) # returns the minimum value => -2
max(1,2,4) # returns the maximum value => 4
a = 10/3 # a = 3.3333333333
round(a, 4) # returns a number rounded with 4 decimals => 3.3333
pow(2, 4) # 2 ** 4 = 16

Comparison and Identity Operators

# Assignment operator is =
a=2
b=3

# Equality operator is ==
# It compares the values stored in variables
a == b # => False
b == b # => True

# Inequality operator is !=
a != b # => True

# Other comparisons
a > b # => False
5 >= 5 # => True
b <= a # => False

'Python' == 'python' # => False, case matters

"Python" == 'Python' # => True, double and single quotes are equivalent

id(a) # => returns the address where the value referenced by a is stored. Ex: 140464475242000

# is operator checks if two variables refer to the same object (saved at the same memory
address)
a is b # => False = compares the address of a to the address of b
# equivalent to:
id(a) == id(b)

Back to Table of Contents Page 4 of 35

Boolean Variables

# True is 1 and False is 0

True == 1 # => True
bool(True) # => 1

False == 0 # => True

bool(False) # => 0

1 is True # => False

0 is False # => False

True > False # => True

a = (True + True ) * 10 # => 20

id(True) # => 10714848 (you'll get another value)

id(4 > 2) # => 10714848 - the address of True and False is constant during program execution

# The next 2 expressions are equivalent

(4 > 2) == True # => True
(4 > 2) is True # => True

Truthiness of objects

bool(0) # => False

bool(0.0) # => False
bool(10) # => True
bool(-1.5) # => True

bool('') # => False (empty string)

bool('py') # => True

bool([]) # => False (empty list)

bool([1,2]) # => True

bool(()) # => False (empty tuple)

bool((3,4)) # => True

bool({}) # => False (empty dictionary)

bool({1:'abc',2:55,'a':5}) # => True

Back to Table of Contents Page 5 of 35

Boolean Operators

# expression1 and expression2 => True when both expressions are True and False otherwise
# expression1 or expression2 => True when any expression is True

a, b = 3, 5
a < 10 and b < 10 # => True
a < 10 and b > 10 # => False

a < 10 or b < 10 # => True

a < 10 or b > 10 # => True

# The next 2 expressions are equivalent

2<a<6
a < 2 and a < 6 # more readable

a != 7 or b > 100 # => True

not a == a # => False
a == 3 and not b == 7 # => True

not a > 10 and b < 10 # => True

a < 10 or b > 10 # => True

not a < 10 or b > 10 # => False
not (a < 10 or b > 10) # => False

# !!
# Python considers 4 > 2 and 2 == True.
4 > 2 == True # => False
(4 > 2) == True # => True

Python Strings

Introduction to Strings
Strings (str objects) are enclosed in single or double quotes (' or "). Just be consistent within your
code and don't mix up " with '

message1 = 'I love Python Programming!'

message2 = "I love Python Programming!"

Back to Table of Contents Page 6 of 35

# The print() function displays the content of the variable at the terminal
print(message1)

# hello1 = 'Hi there! I\'m Andrei' # => error, cannot use ' inside ' ' or " inside " "
hello1 = 'Hi there! I\'m Andrei' # => correct. ' inside ' ' must be escaped using \
hello2 = "Hi there! I'm Andrei" # you can use ' inside " " or " inside ' '

# Instructions between triple quotes (""" or ''') are treated as comments, but they are not comments
but documentation.. It's recommended to use only # for commenting individual lines

"""
This is a documentation (treated as a comment)
a=5
print(a)
Comment ends here.
"""

# Defining a multiline string

languages = """ I learn Python,
Java,
Go,
PHP. Let's get started!
"""
print(languages)

# \n is a new line
print('Hello \nWorld!') # => it displays Hello World! on 2 lines

# \ is used to escape characters that have a special meaning

info = '\\ character is used to escape characters that have a special meaning'
print(info) # => \ character is used to escape characters that have a special meaning

User Input and Type Casting

# Getting user input

user_input = input("Enter some data: ") # returns the data as a string

# To perform arithmetic operations you must convert data to int or float

a = input('Enter a:') # => a is type string
b = int(input('Enter b:')) # => b is type int
c = float(a) * b # => multiplying float by int

Back to Table of Contents Page 7 of 35

# Type casting
a=3 # => type int
b = 4.5 # => type float
c = '1.2' # => type str

print('a is ' + str(a)) # => str(a) returns a string from an int

print('b is ' + str(b)) # => str(b) returns a string from a float
d = b * float(c) # => here I multiply two floats, d is type float.

str1 = '12 a'

# float(str1) # => error

String Indexing, Operations and Slicing

# A string is an ordered sequence of UTF-8 characters

# Indexing starts from 0
language = 'Python 3'
language[0] # => 'P'
language[1] # => 'y'
language[-1] # => '3'
language[-2] # => ' '
"This is a string"[0] # => 'T'

# language[100] # => IndexError: string index out of range

# Cannot modify a string, it's immutable

# language[0] = 'J' # => TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

# len() returns the length of the string

len("This is a string") # => 16

# Strings can be concatenated with + and repeated with *

print('Hello ' + 'world!') # => 'Hello world!'
print('Hello ' * 3) # => 'Hello Hello Hello '
print('PI:' + str(3.1415)) # => Can concatenate only strings

# Slicing returns a new string

# Slicing format [start:end:step ] where start is included, end is excluded, step is by default 1
movie = 'Star Wars'
movie[0:4] # => 'Star' -> from index 0 included to index 4 excluded
movie[:4] # => 'Star' -> start index defaults to zero
movie[2:] # => 'ar Wars' -> end index defaults to the index of the last char of the string
movie[::] # => 'Star Wars'

Back to Table of Contents Page 8 of 35

movie[2:100] # => 'ar Wars -> slicing doesn't return error when using index out of range
movie[1:6:2] # => 'trW' -> from index 1 included to 6 excluded in steps of 2
movie[6:1:-1] # => 'aW ra' -> from index 6 included to index 1 excluded in steps of -1 (backwards)
movie[::-1] # => 'sraW ratS -> reverses the string

Formatting Strings

price = 1.33
quantity = 5

# f-string literals (Python 3.6+) - PYTHONIC and recommended!

f'The price is {price}' # => 'The price is 1.33'
f'Total value is {price * quantity}' # => 'Total value is 6.65'
f'Total value is {price * quantity:.4f}' # => 'Total value is 6.6500' -> displaying with 4 decimals

# Classical method (old, not recommended)

'The price is {}'.format(price) # => 'The price is 1.33'
'The total value is {}'.format(price * quantity) # => 'The total value is 6.65'
'The total value is {:.4f}'.format(price * quantity) # => 'The total value is 6.6500' -> displaying with
4 decimals

'The price is {} and the total value is {}'.format(price, price * quantity) # => 'The price is 1.33 and
the total value is 6.65'
'The price is {0} and the total value is {1}'.format(price, price * quantity) # => 'The price is 1.33
and the total value is 6.65'
'The total value is {1} and the price is {0}'.format(price, price * quantity) # => 'The total value is
6.65 and the price is 1.33'

print('The total value is ', price * quantity) # => 'The total value is 6.65'

String Methods

dir(str) # => lists all string methods

help(str.find) # => displays the help of a method

# All string methods return a new string but don't modify the original one
my_str = 'I learn Python Programming'

# str.upper() returns a copy of the string converted to uppercase.

my_str.upper() # => 'I LEARN PYTHON PROGRAMMING'

Back to Table of Contents Page 9 of 35

# str.lower() returns a copy of the string converted to uppercase.
my_str.lower() # => 'i learn python programming'

# str.strip() removes leading and trailing whitespace

my_ip = ' 10.0.0.1 '
my_ip.strip() # => '10.0.0.1'

my_ip = '$$$10.0.0.1$$'
my_ip.strip('$') # => '10.0.0.1'

# str.lstrip() remove all leading whitespace in string

my_ip.lstrip() # => '10.0.0.1 '

# str.rstrip() Remove all trailing whitespace of string

my_ip.rstrip() # => ' 10.0.0.1'

my_str = 'I learn Python'

my_str.replace('Python', 'Go') # => 'I learn Go'

# str.split() returns a list from a string using a delimiter

my_ip.split('.') # => ['10', '0', '0', '1']

# By default the delimiter is one or more whitespaces

my_list = my_str.split() # => my_list = ['I', 'learn', 'Python', 'Programming']

# str.join() concatenates the elements of a list into a string

':'.join( ['10', '0', '0', '1']) # => '10:0:0:1'

# in and not in operators test membership

my_ip = ' 10.0.0.1 '
'10' in my_ip # => returns True
'10' not in my_ip # => returns False
'20' in my_ip # => returns False

# Other string methods

my_str = 'this is a string. this is a string'

# str.find() returns the first index in my_str where substring 'is' is found or -1 if it didn't find the
substring
my_str.find('is') # => 2
my_str.find('xx') # => -1

# str.capitalize() returns a capitalized copy of the string

my_str.capitalize() # => 'This is a string. this is a string'

Back to Table of Contents Page 10 of 35

 # str.isupper() returns True if my_str is an uppercase string, False otherwise
my_str.isupper() # => False

# str.islower() returns True if my_str is a lowercase string, False otherwise

my_str.lower().islower() # => True

# str.count(s) returns the number of occurrences of substring 's' in my_str

my_str.count('s') # => 6

'0123123'.isdigit() # => True

'0123123x'.isdigit() # => False
'abc'.isalpha() # => True
'0123123x'.isalnum() # => True

# str.swapcase() inverts case for all letters in string

my_str1 = 'Hi everyone!'
my_str1.swapcase() # => 'hI EVERYONE!'

if ... elif ... else Statements

Execute a specific block of code if a test condition is evaluated to True

Syntax

a, b = 3, 5
# if a is less that b execute the indented block of code under the if clause, otherwise go and test
the elif condition

if a < b:
print('a is less than b')
elif a == b:
print('a is equal to b')
else:
print('a is greater than b')

or / and operators

your_age = 14

Back to Table of Contents Page 11 of 35

#if ANY expression is True execute the indented block of code under the if clause
if your_age < 0 or your_age > 99:
print('Invalid age!')
elif your_age <= 2:
print('You are an infant')
elif your_age < 18:
print('You are a child')
else:
print('You are an adult')

a=3
if 1 < a <= 9:
print('a is greater than 1 and less than or equal to 9')

# equivalent to:
if a > 1 and a <= 9:
print('a is greater than 1 and less than or equal to 9')

# The following 3 examples test if number a is divisible by 6

a = 12

# 1st example - nested if

if a % 2 == 0:
if a % 3 ==0:
print('Example 1: a is divisible by 2 and 3 (or by 6)')

# 2nd example - and operator. It returns True if both expressions are True, False otherwise
if a % 2 == 0 and a % 3 == 0:
print('Example 2: a is divisible by 2 and 3 (or by 6)')

# 3rd example
if not (a % 2 and a % 3 ):
print('Example 2: a is divisible by 2 and 3 (or by 6)')

The truthiness of a variable

b=0
if b: # it tests the truthiness of b or bool(b)
print('The truthiness of b is True')
else:
print('The truthiness of b is False')

my_str = 'some string'

Back to Table of Contents Page 12 of 35

if my_str: # it tests the truthiness of my_str or bool(my_str)
print('The truthiness of my_str is True')
else:
print('The truthiness of my_str is False')

name = 'Andrei'

# Pythonic version
print('Hello Andrei') if name == 'Andrei' else print('You are not Andrei!')

# equivalent to:
if name == 'Andrei':
print('Hello Andrei')
else:
print('You are not Andrei')

For Loops

It iterates over a sequence and executes the code indented under the for clause for each element
in the sequence

movies = ['Star Wars', 'The Godfather', 'Harry Potter ', 'Lord of the Rings']

for m in movies:
print(f'One of my favorites movie is {m}')
else: #the code below gets executed when "for" has finished looping over the entire list
print('This is the end of the list')

range()

for i in range(100):
pass # => empty instruction or "do nothing"

for i in range (10): # => from 0 (default, included) to 10 excluded

print(i, end=' ')
# it prints: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

for i in range (3, 9): # => from 3 included to 9 excluded

print(i, end=' ')
# it prints: 3 4 5 6 7 8

Back to Table of Contents Page 13 of 35

for i in range (3, 20, 3): # => from 3 included to 20 excluded in steps of 3
print(i, end=' ')
# it prints: 3 6 9 12 15 18

for i in range (8, -4, -2): # => from 8 included to -4 excluded in steps of -2
print(i, end=' ')
# it prints: 8 6 4 2 0 -2

for and continue

# for ... continue -> it prints out all letters of the string without 'o'
for letter in 'Python Go and Java Cobol':
if letter == 'o':
continue # go to the beginning of the for loop and do the next iteration
print(letter, end='')

for and break

sequence = [1, 5, 19, 3, 31, 100, 55, 34]

for item in sequence:
if item % 17 == 0:
print('A number divisible by 17 was found! Breaking the loop...')
break # breaks out the loop
else: # belongs to for, not to if
print('There is no number divisible by 17 in the sequence')

# it prints out the numbers from 0 to 4

for number in range(10):
if number == 5:
break
print(number)

# it prints out the letters Pytho

for letter in 'Python':
print(letter)
if letter == 'o':
break

Back to Table of Contents Page 14 of 35

While Loops

a = 10

# Infinite Loop, it prints out 10 indefinitely

while a: # it tests the truthiness of a or bool(a) which is always True
print(a)

# Printing out the numbers from 10 to 1

while a: # => "while a:" is equivalent to "while a > 0:"
print(a)
a -= 1
else: # => executes the block of code below after finishing the while loop (and if no "break"
statement was executed)
print('Finishing printing numbers. a is now 0')

# Printing out only odd numbers between 1 and 20

a=0
while a < 20:
a += 1
if a % 2 == 0:
continue # go the the beginning of the while loop
print(f'Odd number {a}') #it reaches this line only if the continue statement wasn't executed

# printing out numbers greater than 2

a=7
while a > 0:
a -= 1
if a == 2:
break # => it breaks out the while loop and executes the next instruction after while
print(a)

print('Loop ended.')

Python Lists

Back to Table of Contents Page 15 of 35

Introduction to lists

# Creating lists
list1 = [] # empty list
list2 = list() # empty list
list3 = list('Python') # => ['P', 'y', 't', 'h', 'o', 'n'] -> creates a list from a string
list4 = ['Python', 'Go', 2018, 4.5, [1,2.3, 'abc']] # a list stores any type of object
len(list4) # => 5 -> returns the number of elements in the list

# Lists are indexed like strings

list4 = ['Python', 'Go', 2018, 4.5, [1,2.3, 'abc']]
list4[0] # => 'Python'
list4[-1] # => [1, 2.3, 'abc']
list4[4][1] # => 2.3
#list4[10] # Raises an IndexError (out of bounds index)

# A list is a mutable object and can be modified

list4[0] = 'Rust' # =>['Rust', 'Go', 2018, 4.5, [1, 2.3, 'abc']]

# Lists are sliced like strings. Slicing returns a new list

# General syntax: list[start:stop:step]
# start is included, stop is excluded and step is by default 1
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
numbers[1:4] # => [2, 3, 4]
numbers[1:40] # => [2, 3, 4, 5] -> out of bound slicing doesn't return error
numbers[:3] # => [1, 2, 3] -> by default start is zero
numbers[2:] # => [3, 4, 5] -> by default stop is the end of the list
numbers[::] # => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] -> returns the entire list
numbers[1:5:3] # => [2, 5] -> from 2 included to 5 excluded in steps of 3
numbers[4:1:-2] # => [5, 3]
numbers[0:2] = ['a', 'b'] # => ['a', 'b', 3, 4, 5] -> slicing modifies a list
numbers[0:2] = ['x', 'y', 'z'] # => ['x', 'y', 'z', 3, 4, 5]

l1 = [1, 2, 3]
l2 = l1 # l1 and l2 reference the same object, l2 IS NOT a copy of l1
l1 is l2 # => True
l1 == l2 # => True
l1.append(4) # here I've modified both l1 and l2, they are still the same list
l1 is l2 # => True
l1 == l2 # => True

l3 = l1.copy() # l2 is a copy of l1, they don't reference the same object

l1 == l2 # => True
l1 is l2 # => False
l3.remove(1)

Back to Table of Contents Page 16 of 35

 l1 == l3 # => False
l1 is l3 # => False

l1 = [1, 2]
id(l1) # => 139875652516360 (you'll get another value)
l1 += [3, 4] # => [1, 2, 3, 4] -> concatenating a new list to l1 - equivalent to using extend()
id(l1) # => 139875652516360 -> it's the same list

l1 = l1 + [5, 6] # => [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] -> concatenating a new list to l1

id(l1) # => 139875654318792 -> l1 is a new list

Iterating over a list

ip_list = ['192.168.0.1', '192.168.0.2', '10.0.0.1']
for ip in ip_list:
print(f'Connecting to {ip} ...')

List Membership
in and not in operators test list membership
'10.0.0.1' in ip_list # => returns True
'192' not in ip_list # => returns True
'192' in ip_list # => returns False

List Methods

dir(list) # returns a list will all list methods

# list.clear() removes all items from list

l1 = ['a', 'b', 'c']
l1.clear()

list1 = [1, 2.2, 'abc']

len(list1 ) # => 3

# list.append() adds a single element to the end of the list

list1.append(5) # => [1, 2.2, 'abc', 5]
# list1.append(6, 7) # TypeError: append() takes exactly one argument (2 given)
list1.append([6, 7]) # => [1, 2.2, 'abc', 5, [6, 7]]

# list.extend() extends the list with elements of an iterable object

list1.extend([5.2]) # => [1, 2.2, 'abc', 5, [6, 7], 5.2]
#list1.extend(5.2) # TypeError: 'float' object is not iterable

Back to Table of Contents Page 17 of 35

list1.extend(['x', 'y']) # => [1, 2.2, 'abc', 5, [6, 7], 5.2, 'x', 'y']

# list.insert() Inserts an item at a given index

list1.insert(2, 'T') # => [1, 2.2, 'T', 'abc', 5, [6, 7], 5.2, 'x', 'y']

# Insert on the last position

list1.insert(len(list1), 'Q') # => [1, 2.2, 'T', 'abc', 5, [6, 7], 5.2, 'x', 'y', 'Q']

# list.pop() removes and returns an element of the list

list1 = [1, 2.2, 'T', 'abc', 5, [6, 7], 5.2, 'x', 'y', 'Q']
print(list1) # => [1, 2.2, 'T', 'abc', 5, [6, 7], 5.2, 'x', 'y', 'Q']
list1.pop() # => 'Q'
list1.pop(2) #=> 'T'
print(list1) # => [1, 2.2, 'abc', 5, [6, 7], 5.2, 'x', 'y']
#list1.pop(50) # IndexError: pop index out of range

# list.remove() removes the first occurance and doesn't return an item of the list
print(list1) #[1, 2.2, 'abc', 5, [6, 7], 5.2, 'x', 'y']
list1.remove('abc') # => [1, 2.2, 5, [6, 7], 5.2, 'x', 'y']
#list1.remove('a') # ValueError: list.remove(x): x not in list

# list.index() returns the index of an item

letters = list('abcabcabc')
letters.index('b') # => 1
letters.index('b', 3) # => 4 -> it starts from index 3
letters.index('b', 3, 6) # => 4 -> it searches from index 3 to index 6

# list.count() returns the no. of occurrences of an item in a list

letters.count('a') # => 3

# Sort a list
# list.sort() and sorted(list)
nums = [6, -1, 55, 2.3]
sorted(nums) # => [-1, 2.3, 6, 55] -> returns a NEW sorted list
print(nums) # => [6, -1, 55, 2.3]

nums.sort() # sorts the list in-place

print(nums) # => [-1, 2.3, 6, 55]
max(nums) # => 55
min(nums) # => -1
sum(nums) # => 62.3

# These methods return an error if the list is not sortable

nums.append('5.5')

Back to Table of Contents Page 18 of 35

 #nums.sort() TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'str' and 'int'
#nums.max() AttributeError: 'list' object has no attribute 'max'

# Converting a list into a string and a string into a list

ip_list = ['192.168.0.1', '192.168.0.2', '10.0.0.1']
# str.join() returns a string from a list
ip_str = ':'.join(ip_list) # => ip_str is equal to '192.168.0.1:192.168.0.2:10.0.0.1'

# str.split() returns a list from a string

ip_list = ip_str.split(':') # => ip_list is equal to ['192.168.0.1', '192.168.0.2', '10.0.0.1']

List Comprehension

Syntax: list = [expression for item in iterable if condition]

s = [x for x in range(10)]
print(s) # => [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

evens = [x for x in s if x % 2 == 0]
print(evens) # => [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

word_list = 'I learn Python programming!'.split()

info = [[w.upper(), w.lower(), len(w)] for w in word_list]
print(info)

# Celsius to Fahrenheit
celsius = [7.12, 10.1, 14.15, 22.5, 29.4, 32.9]
fahrenheit = [ 1.8 * x + 32 for x in celsius ]
print(fahrenheit) # => [44.816, 50.18, 57.47, 72.5, 84.92, 91.22]

miles = [12, 10, 26, 80]

# 1 mile = 1.609 km
km = [m * 1.609 for m in miles]
print(km) # => [19.308, 16.09, 41.834, 128.72]

Python Tuples

A tuple is an immutable ordered sequence of objects of any type.

Back to Table of Contents Page 19 of 35
Introduction to tuples

# Creating tuples
t0 = () # empty tuple
t1 = tuple() # empty tuple
t = (1.2) # this isn't a tuple, it's a float!
type(t) # => float
t2 = (1.2,) # creating a tuple with a single element (comma is mandatory)
t3 = tuple('abc') # creating a tuple from an iterable (string)
t4 = tuple([1, 3.2, 'abc']) # creating a tuple from an iterable (list)
t5 = (1, 3.2, 'abc')

# Tuples are indexed like strings and lists

t5[0] # => 1
t5[2] # => 'abc'
t5[-1] # => 'abc'
#t5[10] # => IndexError: tuple index out of range

# Tuples are immutable objects. Can't be changed.

# t5[0] = 4 # => TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

# Tuples are sliced like strings and lists.

# The start is included and the stop is excluded
print(t5) # => (1, 3.2, 'abc')
t5[0:2] # => (1, 3.2)
t5[:2] # => (1, 3.2)
t5[::] # => (1, 3.2, 'abc')
t5[::2] # => (1, 'abc') -> in steps of 2
t5[-1:0:-1] # => ('abc', 3.2)

Iterating over a tuple

movies = ('The Wizard of Oz', 'The Legend', 'Casablanca')

for movie in movies:
print(f'We are watching {movie}')

Tuple membership
in and not in operators test tuple membership
'The Legend' in movies # => True
'The Legend' not in movies # => False

Back to Table of Contents Page 20 of 35

Tuple Methods

dir(tuple) # returns a list will all tuple methods

my_tuple = (1, 2.2, 'abc', 1)

len(my_tuple) # => 4

# tuple.index() returns the index of an item

my_tuple.index(1) # => 0 -> the index of the first element with value 1
my_tuple.index(10) # => ValueError: tuple.index(x): x not in tuple

# tuple.count() returns the no. of occurrences of the item in tuple

my_tuple.count(1) # => 2

# Sorting tuples
# tuple.sort() and sorted(tuple)
nums = (6, -1, 55, 2.3)
sorted(nums) # => (-1, 2.3, 6, 55) -> returns a new sorted list
max(nums) # => 55
min(nums) # => -1
sum(nums) # => 62.3

Sets and Frozensets in Python

A set is an unordered collection of immutable unique objects.

Introduction to sets

# Creating sets
set1 = set() # empty set
#x = {} # x is a dictionary, not a set

set2 = {'a', 1, 2, 1, 'a', 2.3, 'a'} # => {1, 2, 2.3, 'a'} -> unique unordered collection
set3 = set('hellooo python') # =>{'n', 'e', 'p', 't', 'o', 'h', 'l', ' ', 'y'}
set4 = set([1, 2.3, 1, 'a', 'a', 2.3, 'b', 5]) # => {1, 2.3, 5, 'a', 'b'}
#set4[0] # TypeError: 'set' object does not support indexing
set5 = {(1, 2), 'a'} # a set can contain immutable objects like tuples
#set6 = {[1, 2], 'a'} # TypeError: unhashable type: 'list' -> list is mutable, not allowed in set

s1 = {1, 2, 3}
s2 = {3, 1, 2}
s1 == s2 # => True - order does not matter

Back to Table of Contents Page 21 of 35

s1 is s2 # => False

# The assignment operator (=) creates a reference to the same object

s3 = s1
s3 is s1 # => True
s3 == s1 # => True
s3.add('x') # adds to the set
print(s1) # => {1, 2, 3, 'x'}
s3 == s1 # => True
s3 is s1 # => True

Iterating over a set

some_letters = set('abcabc')
for letter in some_letters: # prints: c a b
print(letter, end=' ')

Set Membership

# in and not in operators test set membership

'a' in some_letters # => True
'aa' in some_letters # => False
'bb' not in some_letters # => True

Set Methods

# set.copy() creates a copy of the set (not a reference to the same object)
s4 = s1.copy()
s4 is s1 # => False
s4 == s1 # => True
s4.add('z')
s4 == s1 # => False

s1 = {1, 2, 3, 'x'}
# set.pop() removes and returns an arbitrary set element
item = s1.pop()
print(f'item:{item}, s1:{s1}') # => item:1, s1:{2, 3, 'x'}

# set.discard() removes an element from a set if it is a member.

# If the element is not a member, do nothing.
s1.discard(2) # discards element from the set, s1 is {3, 'x'}

Back to Table of Contents Page 22 of 35

s1.discard(22) # no error if the element doesn't exist

# set.remove() removes an element from a set; it must be a member.

# If the element is not a member, raise a KeyError.
#s1.remove(100) # KeyError if element doesn't exist
s1.clear() # Removes all elements from this set

Set and Frozenset Operations

set1 = {1, 2, 3}
set2 = {3, 4, 5}

# set.difference() returns the set of elements that exist only in set1 but not in set2
set1.difference(set2) # => {1, 2}
set1 - set2 # => {1, 2}

# set.symetric_difference() returns the set of elements which are in either of the sets but not in
both
set1.symmetric_difference(set2) # => {1, 2, 4, 5}
set1 ^ set2 # => {1, 2, 4, 5}

# set.union() returns the set of all unique elements present in all the sets
set1.union(set2) # => {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
set1 | set2 # => {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

# set.intersection() returns the set that contains the elements that exist in both sets
set1.intersection(set2) # => {3}
set1 & set2 # => {3}

set1.isdisjoint(set2) # => False

set1.issubset(set2) # => False
set1 > set2 # => False
set1 <= set2 # => False
{1, 2} <= {1, 2, 3} # => True

# A frozenset is an immutable set

fs1 = frozenset(set1)
print(fs1) # => frozenset({1, 2, 3})

# All set methods that don't modify the set are available to frozensets
fs1 & set2 # => frozenset({3})

Back to Table of Contents Page 23 of 35

Set Comprehension
General Syntax: set = {expression for item in iterable if condition}

set1 = {item for item in [1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 4, 3]}

print(set1) # => {1, 2, 3, 4}

set2 = {item ** 2 for item in set1 if item %2 == 0}

print(set2) # => {16, 4}

# Lists with duplicates

cities = ['Paris', 'NYC', 'BERLIN', 'Liverpool', 'Osaka', 'Barcelona']
capitals = ['Paris', 'BERLIN', 'Madrid', 'Paris', 'BERLIN']

# Set comprehension returns a set with capitalized cities in both lists

capitals_unique = {word.capitalize() for word in set(cities) & set(capitals)}
print(capitals_unique) # => {'Paris', 'Berlin'}

Dictionaries in Python

A dictionary is an unordered collection of key: value pairs

Introduction to dictionaries

# Creating dictionaries
dict1 = {} # empty dictionary
dict2 = dict() # empty dictionary

# Keys must be immutable types, values can any type

# invalid_dict = {[1,2,3]: "123"} # => Raises a TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'

# key of type tuple is permitted (immutable). Values can be of any type

valid_dict = {(1,2,3):[1,2,3], 3: 'abc', 'abc':{14,'a'}, 4.5:True}

product = {'id':1234, 'name':'Laptop'}

product['seller'] = 'Amazon' # adds a new key:value pair
product.update({'price':888.99}) # another way to add to a dictionary

p = product['price'] # getting the value of a key, p is 888.00

del product['seller'] # removing a key:value pair

print(product) # => {'id': 1234, 'name': 'Laptop', 'price': 888.99}

Back to Table of Contents Page 24 of 35

#seller = product['seller'] # Looking up a non-existing key is a KeyError

# dict.get() retrieves the value of a key

product.get("id") # => 1234
product.get("review") # => None -> it doesn't return KeyError

# dict.get() supports a default argument which is returned when the key is missing
product.get("id", 4) # => 1234
product.get("review", 'N/A') # => 'N/A'

# dict.pop() removes the specified key and returns the corresponding value.
# If key is not found, a default value is given, otherwise KeyError is raised
name = product.pop('name') # name is 'Laptop'
print(product) # => {'id': 1234, 'price': 888.99}
# name = product.pop('name') # => KeyError: 'name', key 'name' doesn't exist anymore
name = product.pop('name', 'No such key') # => name is 'No such key'

Dictionary Operations and Methods

product = {'id':1234, 'price':888.99}

# in and not in operators test dictionary key membership

'price' in product # => True
5 in product # => False

# Getting dictionary views: dict.keys(), dict.values() and dict.items()

keys = product.keys() # getting all keys as an iterable
keys = list(keys) # it can be converted to a list
print(keys) # => ['id', 'price']

values = product.values() # getting all values as an iterable

values = list(values) # it can be converted to a list
print(values) # => [1234, 888.99]

key_values = product.items() # getting all key:value pairs as tuples

key_values = list(key_values) # it can be converted to a list of tuples
print(key_values) # => [('id', 1234), ('price', 888.99)]

# dict.copy() creates a copy of a dictionary

prod = product.copy()

# Return the number of key:value pairs in the dictionary

len(prod)

Back to Table of Contents Page 25 of 35

 # dict.clear() removes all items from dictionary
product.clear()

Iterating over a dictionary

product = {'id':1234, 'price':888.99}

# Iterating over the keys

for k in product:
print(f'key:{k}')

#equivalent to:
for k in product.keys():
print(f'key:{k}')

# Iterating over the values

for v in product.values():
print(f'value:{v}')

# Iterating over both the keys and the values

for k,v in product.items():
print(f'key:{k}, value:{v}')

zip() Built-in Function

Returns an iterator of tuples, where the i-th tuple contains the i-th element from each of the
argument sequences or iterables.

The iterator stops when the shortest input iterable is exhausted.

years = [2015, 2016, 2017, 2018]

sales = [20000, 30000, 40000, 45000]

# Zipping in a list of tuples

sales_list = list(zip(years, sales))
print(sales_list) # => [(2015, 20000), (2016, 30000), (2017, 40000), (2018, 45000)]

# Zipping in a dictionary
sales_dict = dict(zip(years, sales))
print(sales_dict) # => {2015: 20000, 2016: 30000, 2017: 40000, 2018: 45000}

Back to Table of Contents Page 26 of 35

Dictionary Comprehension

d1 = {'a':1, 'b':2, 'c':3}

## Doubled values
d2 = {k: v * 2 for k, v in d1.items()}
print(d2) # => {'a': 2, 'b': 4, 'c': 6}

## Doubled keys, squared values

d3 = {k * 2: v * 3 for k, v in d1.items() }
print(d3) # => {'aa': 3, 'bb': 6, 'cc': 9}

sales = {2015: 20000, 2016: 30000, 2017: 40000, 2018: 45000}

# Creating a dictionary called vat considering that the value added tax is 20%
vat = {k: v * 0.2 for k, v in sales.items()}
print(vat) # => {2015: 4000.0, 2016: 6000.0, 2017: 8000.0, 2018: 9000.0}

Python Functions

Introduction to Functions

# Use def to define new functions

def my_function1():
"""
This is the function's docstring.
"""
print('This is the function's body!')
# this function returns None implicitly

# Calling the function

my_function1() # => This is a function!
my_function1.__doc__ # => This is the function's docstring.

# The return statement exits the function

def my_function2():
x=1
return x # the function ends here
print('Never reaches this line!') # it will never reach this line

# Calling the function

my_function2() # returns 1

Back to Table of Contents Page 27 of 35

# A function can return more values as a tuple
def add_multiply_power(x, y):
return x + y, x * y, x ** y

# Calling the function

a, b, c = add_multiply_power(2, 3) # returns (2 + 3, 2 * 3, 2 ** 3)
print(a, b, c) # => 5 6 8

Function's Arguments

# 1. Function with positional arguments

def add(x, y):
print(f"x is {x} and y is {y}")
return x + y # returns the result of x + y

# Calling function with positional arguments

s = add(5, 6) # => prints out "x is 5 and y is 6" and returns 11, s is 11

# Calling function with keyword arguments

s = add(y=1, x=8) # => prints out "x is 8 and y is 1" and returns 9, s is 9

# 2. Function with default arguments

def add(x=1, y=0):
print(f"x is {x} and y is {y}")
return x + y # returns the result of x + y

# Calling function with default arguments

s = add() # => prints out "x is 1 and y is 0" and returns 1, s is 1
s = add(5) # => prints out "x is 5 and y is 0" and returns 5, s is 5
s = add(5,3) # => prints out "x is 5 and y is 3" and returns 8, s is 8

# wrong way to define a function => SyntaxError: non-default argument follows default argument
# def my_function(a, b=5, c):
# print(a, b, c)

#3. Function that takes a variable number of positional arguments

def concatenate(*args):
result = ''
for tmp in args:
result = result + tmp

Back to Table of Contents Page 28 of 35

 return result

# Calling the function

result = concatenate()
print(result) # => '' -> empty string

result = concatenate('Python', '!')

print(result) # => Python!

result = concatenate('I', 'love ', 'programming')

print(result) # => Ilove programming

#4. Function that takes a variable number of keyword arguments

def device_info(**kwargs): #kwargs is a dictionary
for k, v in kwargs.items():
print(f'{k}: {v}')

# Calling the function

device_info(name='Cisco Router', ip='10.0.0.1', username='u1', password='secretpass')
# or:
d1 = {name='HP', ip='192.168.0.1', username='root', password='secret123'
device_info(**d1)

Scopes and Namespaces

x = 3 # this is a global scoped variable

def my_func1():
print(f'x is {x}') # this is "x" from the global namespace

# Calling the function

my_func1() # => x is 3

def my_func2():
x=6 # this is a local scoped variable
print(f'x is {x}') # this is NOT "x" from the global namespace

# Calling the function

my_func2() # => x is 6
print(x) # => 3 -> "x" variable was not modified inside the function

Back to Table of Contents Page 29 of 35

def my_func3():
global x # importing "x" from the global namespace
x = x * 10 # this is "x" from the global namespace
print(f'x is {x}')

# Calling the function

my_func3() # => x is 30
print(x) # => 30 -> global "x" variable was modified inside the function

def my_func4():
print(f'x is {x}')
x += 7 # this is an error, we used local x before assignment

## Calling the function

my_func4() # => UnboundLocalError: local variable 'x' referenced before assignment

Lambda Expressions

# "x" and "y" are lambdas arguments.

add = lambda x, y: x + y # this creates an anonymous function
type(add) # => function

# Assigning lambda expression to a variable

result = add(2, 3) # => 5

# You can use default arguments

add = lambda x=1, y=0: x + y
result = add() # => 1

# You can even use *args and **kwargs

my_function = lambda x, *args, **kwargs: (x, *args, {**kwargs})
# x is 2.3, args is (a, b, c) and kwargs is {arg1='abc', arg2='def', arg3='geh'}
my_function(2.3, 'a', 'b', 'c', arg1='abc', arg2='def', arg3='geh')

# Passing lambda as an argument to a function

# Lambdas are functions and can therefore be passed to any other function as an argument (or
returned from another function)
def my_func(x, fn):
return fn(x)

Back to Table of Contents Page 30 of 35

result = my_func(2, lambda x: x**2)
print(result) # => 4

result = my_func(2, lambda x: x**3)

print(result) # => 8

result = my_func('a', lambda x: x * 3)

print(result) # => 'aaa'

result = my_func('a:b:c', lambda x: x.split(':'))

print(result) # => ['a', 'b', 'c'] -> this is a list

result = my_func(('p', 'y', 't', 'h', 'o', 'n'), lambda x: '-'.join(x))

print(result) # => p-y-t-h-o-n > this is a string

Working with Files in Python

# Open a file named a.txt and return a file object called f

# a.txt it's in the same directory with the python script
f = open('a.txt', 'r') # it opens the file in read-only mode

content = f.read() # reads the entire file as a string

print(content)

f.closed # => False, file is not closed

# Close the file

f.close()

## Open the file in read-only mode and reads its contents as a list
## the file object will be automatically closed
with open('a.txt', 'r') as my_file:
content = my_file.readlines() # content is a list

my_file.closed # => True, my_file has been closed automatically

# file object is an iterable object

with open('a.txt', 'r') as my_file:
for line in my_file: #iterating over the lines within the file
print(line, end='')

Back to Table of Contents Page 31 of 35

# Open the file in write-only mode.
# Create the file if it doesn't exist or overwrite the file if it already exists
with open('my_file.txt', 'w') as file:
file.write('This file will be overwritten!')

# Open the file in append-mode.

# Create the file if it doesn't exist or append to it if it exists
with open('another_file.txt', 'a') as file:
file.write('Appending to the end!')

# Open the file for both read and write

# Do not create the file if it doesn't exist
with open('my_file.txt', 'r+') as file:
file.seek(0) # the cursor is positioned at the beginning of the file
file.write('Writing at the beginning') # writing at the beginning

file.seek(5) # moving the cursor at position 5

content = file.read(10) # reading 10 characters starting from position 5
print(content)

Exceptions Handling

Exceptions are run-time errors.

a=2

# for ZeroDivisionError
b=0

# for TypeError
b = '0'

# for another Exception

# del b

try:
# Try to execute this block of code!
c=a/b
print(c)
except ZeroDivisionError as e:
# This block of code is executed when a ZeroDivisionError occurs

Back to Table of Contents Page 32 of 35

 print(f'There was Division by zero: {e}')
except TypeError as e:
# This block of code is executed when a TypeError occurs
print(f'There was a Type Error: {e}')
except Exception as e:
# This block of code is executed when other exception occurs
print(Another exception occurred: {e}')
else:
# This block of code is executed when no exception occurs
print(f'No exception was raised. c is {c}')
finally:
print('This block of code is always executed!')

print('Continue script execution...')

# Other instructions and statements
x=2

Object Oriented Programming (OOP)

# Defining a new class

class Robot:
"""
This class implements a Robot.
"""
population = 0 # class attribute

# this is the constructor

# it gets executed automatically each time an object is created
def __init__(self, name=None, year=None):
self.name = name # instance attribute, default None
self.year = year # instance attribute, default None
Robot.population += 1 # incrementing the class attribute when creating a new object

# this is de destructor, it's automatically called then the object gets out of scope
# MOST of the time it's not recommended to implement it (Python has a garbage collector)
def __del__(self):
# print('Robot died')
pass

def set_energy(self, energy):

self.energy = energy # instance attribute, set in methods

Back to Table of Contents Page 33 of 35

 def __str__(self): # magic method, called automatically when printing the object
return f'Name: {self.name}, Built Year: {self.year}'

def __add__(self, other): # magic method, called automatically when adding 2 objects
return self.energy + other.energy

r0 = Robot() # creating an instance with attributes set to default None

print(r0) # => Name: None, Built Year: None

r1 = Robot('R2D2', 2030) # creating an instance (object)

print(r1.__doc__) # => This class implements a Robot. -> class docstring

print('Robot name:', r1.name) # => R2D2 -> accessing an instance attribute

print(r1.__dict__) # => {'name': 'R2D2', 'year': 2030} -> dictionary with instance attributes

r1.set_energy(555) # creating the "energy" attribute

print(r1.energy) # => 555

print(Robot.population) # => 2
print(r1.population) # => 2

r1.population += 10 # creating an instance attribute (doesn't modify the class attribute)

print(Robot.population) # => 2
print(r1.population) # => 12

Back to Table of Contents Page 34 of 35