MODULE- 2

Materials for Memory and Display Systems

Memory device
Memory device aka storage device is a hardware having the primary function of electronically
storing information. Today, silicon-based semiconductor memory is used for digital data storage.
The data is stored within metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) memory cells on a silicon
integrated circuit memory chip.
The main essential requirements for a material to show memory effect are as follows.
1. The individual memory cells, must possess at least two stable states. In silicon-based
electronic memory device, the data are stored based on the amount of charge stored in the
memory cells. Memory cells exhibit two charge states which are coded as “0” and “1”.
2. These states must be stable for a period appropriate for the data storage.
3. They can be switched between two states by an external stimulus. This is called as the
writing process.
4. The states can be distinguished by applying a further external signal. This called as the
reading process
The current digital era demands high performance electronic gadgets. This necessitates dense
packing of more components onto a single chip. However, Silicon-based semiconductor devices
cannot be subjected to high compactness. Reduction in size of transistor below certain level
increases power consumption and results in unwanted heat generation. The fidelity of addressing
the memory units also diminishes.
In order to overcome the limitations Silicon-based semiconductor devices, lot of research efforts
have been made to find alternative memory devices.
Among them organic/polymer memory devices have evinced more interest due to their
advantageous properties.
The advantages of organic and polymer electronic memory devices are:
1. High availability of raw materials and easy processing
2. Tailor-made synthesis
3. Simple fabrication of the device and miniaturization
4. Low production cost
5. Low power consumption during operation
6. Exhibition of multiple state properties.
7. 3D stacking capability and Data storage capacity can increased to very large value.
Classification of Electronic memories
Electronic memories can be classified into several categories based on various factors, including
the technology used for storage, the access method, the duration of data retention, and the speed
of data access as shown in the below table. Each type of electronic memory has its own
advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of memory type depends on the specific
requirements of the application.
Basis Type
Based on technology Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM)
Static random-access memory (SRAM)
Read-only memory (ROM)
Flash memory
Magnetic random-access memory (MRAM)

Based on access method Random access memory (RAM)

Sequential access memory

Based on data retention Volatile memory (data is lost when the power is turned off)
Non-volatile memory (data is retained even when the power is
turned off)

Based on speed Cache memory

Main memory
Secondary memory

Types of electronic memory technologies

1. The transistor-type electronic memory technology:
This uses transistors as the basic storage elements for digital data. One of the most common
types of transistor-based memory is the static random-access memory (SRAM), which uses a
pair of transistors to store each bit of data.
A transistor is a miniature electronic component that can work either as an amplifier or a switch.

A computer memory chip consists of billions of transistors, each transistor is working as a

switch, which can be switched ON or OFF. Each transistor can be in two different states and
store two different numbers, ZERO and ONE.
Since chip is made of billions of such transistors and can store billions of Zeros and Ones, and
almost every number and letter can be stored
2. Capacitor- type electronic memory technology:
It uses capacitors to store digital data. This type of memory is most commonly used in dynamic
random-access memory (DRAM) devices. In a DRAM cell, each bit of data is stored as a charge
in a capacitor. A transistor is used to control the flow of charge to and from the capacitor,
allowing the memory to be read and written.
A capacitor consists of two metal plates which are capable of storing an electric charge. It is used
to store data. It is like a battery that holds data based on energy
3.Charge transfer type electronic memory technology:
It uses the movement of charge to store digital data. It is based on the principle of charge
transfer, where a charge is transferred from one storage element to another to represent a binary
value of "0" or "1". One example of a charge transfer memory device is the charge transfer
device (CTD). Charge transfer type memory devices are still in the early stages of development
and have not yet been widely adopted in commercial applications. However, they offer the
potential for high-density, low-power, and non-volatile memory, making them a promising
technology for future memory applications.
4. Resistor-Type Electronic Memory
Memory devices containing switchable resistive materials are classified as resistor-type memory,
or resistive random access memory (RRAM).
Resistor-type electronic memory usually has a simple structure, having a metal-insulator-metal
structure generally referred to as MIM structure. The structure comprises of an insulating layer
(I) sandwiched between the two metal (M) electrodes and supported on a substrate (glass, silicon
wafer, plastic or metal foil).

History of Polymer electronic memory devices

Polymer electronic memory devices are a type of memory technology that uses polymer
materials as the active layer for storage. These materials have unique electronic and mechanical
properties, such as high flexibility, low cost, and high stability, that make them well suited for
use in memory devices.
Polymer electronic memory devices are still in the early stages of development, but they have the
potential to offer a new type of memory technology with unique properties and capabilities.
Some of the potential applications of polymer memory devices include flexible electronics,
wearable devices, and Internet of Things (IoT) devices.
Some of milestones are listed here.
1. In 1970s, some polymers such as PMMA, PEMA, and PS were reported to show bistable
switching effects
2. In 1980s, thin films of ferroelectric polymer materials capable of exhibiting non-volatile
memory effects were invented
3. In 1990s, development of polymer ferro- electric random access memory (FeRAM)
4. In 2000s, an organic field- effect transistors (OFETs) memory device was developed
5. Till today, development of numerous charge transfer (CT) complexes with an electron donor
and an electron acceptor, exhibiting bistable electrical switching and memory effect
Types of organic memory materials

1. Organic molecules
2. Polymeric materials
3. Organic- inorganic hybrid materials.
In each class, several materials have been explored for memory device applications. Typical
examples are explained below.
Organic molecules
There are different category of organic molecules which show bistable or multistable states when
external field is applied. When a threshold voltage is applied they undergo a transition from the
OFF state to the ON state, or from the ON state to the OFF state. All these materials can be used
in organic electronic memory devices.
TYPES
1. p-Type Organic Semiconductor
2. n-Type Organic Semiconductor
Acene derivatives are the first compounds to find applications in memory devices. Acenes are
the polycyclic aromatic compounds consisting of linearly fused benzene rings. The best example
is pentacene, in which five benzene rings are fused linearly. It can be synthesized in thin film or
crystal form. Both forms exhibits a very good hole mobility and hence it behaves as a p-type
semiconductor.

The perfluoropentacene, obtained by substituting all H atoms by F atoms, behaves as n-type

semiconductor due to high electronegativity of F atoms.

Thus, Pentacene and Perfluoropentacene, both have similar structure and similar crystal packing
but former behaves as p-type semiconductor and latter behaves as an n-type semiconductor.
Therefore, these molecules together exhibit charge-transfer processes that are useful for memory
applications. When a threshold voltage is applied they undergo a transition from the OFF state to
the ON state, or from the ON state to the OFF state.
Polymer molecules
Functional polyimides (PIs) are one of the most commonly used polymeric materials for organic
electrical memory applications. They have high thermal stability (>500 ℃) and mechanical
strength and can be easily processed from solution. In functional PIs, phthalimide acts as the
electron acceptor, and triphenylamine acts as an electron donor to form a Donor-Acceptor
structure. They exhibit two stable charge states under applied electric field. These states arise due
to transfer of electrons from donor to acceptor. This bistability is used to store data in memory
device.
 Display systems
Display: Display is a out put device used to present visual information
Optoelectronic devices are the electronic devices that can manipulate and convert light into
electrical signals or vice versa. They find applications in communications, imaging, sensing, and
lighting. Examples include light-emitting diodes (LEDs), photodiodes, photovoltaic cells, and
laser diodes.
The interaction between light and matter is the basic working principle. The interaction can take
various forms, such as absorption, reflection, transmission, refraction, or emission of light.
Example 1: Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) emit light when an electric current is passed through
them. The light emission occurs as a result of the recombination of electrons and holes within the
semiconductor material.
Example 2: When light strikes the photodiode, it creates electron-hole pairs within the
semiconductor material, resulting in a flow of electrical current.

An optoelectronic display system is a type of display technology that uses optoelectronic devices
to generate and control images. Examples include LED displays and LCD displays. These
display systems are widely used in applications such as televisions, computer monitors,
smartphones, and wearable devices.
In recent years, new organic materials which exhibit electro-optical properties superior to
classical inorganic semiconductor materials have been discovered. They offer many advantages
over inorganic materials such as lightweight, low-cost, ease of synthesis, tunable properties and
flexible structures.
Photoactive materials: Definition and working principle in display systems
Photoactive materials are those materials which can absorb light and convert it into electrical
energy or that can emit light when excited.
Photoactive materials are used in display systems to convert electrical signals into visible light,
resulting in the creation of images on a display screen.
For example, organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) use a layer of organic photoactive materials
that emit light when a voltage is applied to them. The organic layer is typically made up of small
molecules or polymers that are specially designed to emit light when excited.

Electroactive materials: Definition and working principle in display systems

Electro active materials are materials that can change their optical, electrical, or mechanical
properties in response to an external electric field. They undergo change in their shape, size, or
optical properties under an electrical field.
These materials have unique properties, such as piezoelectricity or electroluminescence that
allow them to be used in a variety of display technologies. They provide unique features such as
high contrast and low power consumption.
One example of an electroactive material used in display systems is electrophoretic ink (E Ink)
used in e-readers. E Ink consists of millions of tiny microcapsules filled with black and white
particles suspended in a clear fluid. The particles have opposite charges, and when an electrical
field is applied to the microcapsules, the particles move to the top or bottom of the capsule,
creating the appearance of text or images on the screen.
In summary, the main difference between electroactive and photoactive materials is their
response to external stimuli. Electroactive materials change their properties when an electric
field is applied, while photoactive materials convert light into electrical energy or emit light in
response to electrical energy.
Chemically, organic compounds with extensive conjugation and π-electron systems are capable
of exhibiting above mentioned set of properties.
Organic photoactive and electroactive materials find applications in organic photovoltaic devices
(OPVs), organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDS), and organic field-effect transistors (OFETS).
They are also known as organic semiconductors.
Nanomaterials (Silicon Nanocrystals)
Low-dimensional structures (nanostructures) are yet another alternative to classical bulk
semiconductor materials. With sufficient reduction in one or more dimensions of a bulk material,
novel electrical, mechanical, chemical, magnetic, and optical properties can be introduced and
tuned as per requirement due to the quantum confinement effect.
Silicon Nanocrystals are low-dimensional structures of silicon. Quantum dots (0-dimensional
structure) doped with other elements such as germanium or boron have been explored for opto-
electronic devices.
One application of silicon nanocrystals in optoelectronics is in the development of efficient light-
emitting diodes (LEDs). Silicon is not an efficient emitter of light due to its indirect bandgap, but
when reduced to nanoscale dimensions, it exhibits a direct bandgap and can emit light efficiently.
Silicon nanocrystals can be incorporated into LEDs to produce bright, efficient, and tunable light
emission.
Polythiophenes [P3HT]
Polythiophenes are a class of semiconducting organic polymers that have a conjugated backbone
consisting of alternating single and double bonds between carbon and sulfur atoms. One best
example is Poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) which is a representative material of soluble organic
semiconducting polymers. The repeating unit is shown below.

The following properties of polythiophenes make them useful in a wide range of applications,
including optoelectronics.
1. Conjugated structure: They consists of alternating double bonds and single bonds along the
polymer backbone. This allows efficient π-π stacking conjugated backbone, responsible of
movement of electrons and holes.
2. High charge carrier mobility: They can transport charges over relatively long distances
without significant loss of energy due to extensive conjugation.
3. Strong light absorption: They are strong absorbers of visible light, useful property for solar
cells and photodetectors
4. Tunable absorption: The absorption spectrum of polythiophenes can be tuned by changing
the chemical structure of the polymer.
5. Solubility: They are often soluble in common organic solvents allowing easy synthesis and
process
6. Stability: They can be designed to be stable under a range of conditions, including exposure
to air and light. This makes them useful for applications such as OLEDs and energy storage
devices.
Poly[9-vinylcarbazole] (PVK)]
It is a semiconducting polymer, made up of 9-vinylcarbazole monomers, which is shown below.

The carbazole unit is a tricyclic structure consisting of two benzene rings fused on either side of
a five-membered nitrogen-containing ring.
The following properties of PVK make it useful in a wide range of applications, including
optoelectronics.
1. Electrical conductivity: It is a semiconducting polymer, which can be controlled by doping.
2. Thermal stability: It has a high thermal stability allowing high-temperature processing or
operation.
3. Solubility: PVK is soluble in a variety of organic solvents, which makes it easy to process
into thin films or other shapes.
4. Optical properties: It is transparent in the visible range. This makes it useful in applications
such as optical sensors, waveguides, and electroluminescent devices.
5. Mechanical properties: PVK exhibits high tensile strength and good flexibility, useful in
flexible electronics.
Liquid crystals (LC’s) - Introduction, classification properties and application in Liquid
Crystal Displays (LCD’s)
A liquid crystal is a thermodynamically stable state of matter observed between the crystalline
(solid) and isotropic (liquid) states.
In crystalline solids, molecules exhibit both positional and orientational order and hence, they are
anisotropic in nature. In liquids, molecules exhibit neither positional nor orientational order and
hence, isotropic in nature. In a liquid crystal, the molecules are able to move around and flow
like a liquid, but they maintain a certain degree of alignment, like a solid crystal. Hence, the
phase is called “mesophase” and molecules are referred to as mesogens.
The distinguishing characteristic of the liquid crystalline state is the tendency of the molecules
(mesogens) to point along a common axis, called the director (the molecular direction of
preferred orientation in liquid crystalline mesophases).
To quantify just how much order is present in a material, an order parameter (Q) is defined as
follows:

Where theta is the angle between the director and the long axis of each molecule. The brackets
denote an average over all of the molecules in the sample. When Q = 1 the liquid crystal has
complete orientational order; when Q = 0 it has no orientational order and has therefore become
an isotropic liquid. Typical values for the order parameter of a liquid crystal range between 0.3
and 0.9.
Classification of Liquid crystals
1. Thermotropic liquid crystals:
The materials that exhibit liquid crystalline behavior on variation of temperature alone are
referred to as thermotropic liquid crystals. Their liquid crystalline phase occurs within a limited
temperature range between the solid and liquid phase.
They are further classified as
 Nematic liquid crystals
 Smectic liquid crystals
 Chiral Nematic liquid crystals (Cholesteric liquid crystals)
1.1 Nematic liquid crystals
Nematic liquid crystals have no positional order – they only have orientational order. They are
formed by compounds that are optically inactive. Example is para-azoxyanisole (PAA) which
exhibits liquid crystalline behavior in the temperature range of 118 ℃ to 135 ℃.

1.2 Smectic liquid crystals

They consist of molecules arranged into separate layers. The molecules within each layer aligned
in a particular direction. Thus, there is a small amount of orientational order and also a small
amount of positional order. Based on the orientation of the director there are three types of
smectic phases, called Smectic A, B, and C types.
1.3 Chiral (Twisted) Nematic liquid crystals
As the name indicates, these are obtained by doping the nematic LC with optically active
molecules (chiral). In these systems, there is a weak tendancy for neighboring molecules to
allign at a slight angle at one another. This leads a local director to form a helix in space.
Thus, in a chiral nematic liquid crystal, the molecules are arranged in layers, with the direction of
alignment rotating as one moves along the axis of the helix. The pitch of the helix (the distance
required for a full 360-degree rotation) is determined by the chiral structure of the molecules.

2. Lyotropic liquid crystals

The amphiphilic materials that exhibit liquid crystalline by the action of solvent are referred to as
lyotropic liquid crystals. The amphiphilic compounds have both lyophilic and lyophobic end. For
example, the surfactant consists of polar hydrophilic head and non-polar hydrophobic tail.
Lyotropic Liquid Crystals are usually obtained by mixing the amphiphilic compound in a slovent
and increasing the concentration of compound till liquid crystal phase is observed. Lyotropic LC
phases are frequently encountered in everyday life (soap - water mixture), and most importantly,
life itself is critically based on such ordered fluids (biological membranes, DNA etc).
Properties of liquid crystals
Liquid crystals are a unique state of matter that share properties of both liquids and solids. Here
are some of their key properties:
1. Anisotropy
Liquid crystals exhibit different values of physical properties when measured in different
directions. For example, Nematic LCs have two dielectric constants- one in the direction parallel
to the director and the other perpendicular to the director. The difference between the dielectric
constants parallel and perpendicular to the director is called as Dielectric anisotropy.
The anisotropic nature is important for the electro-optic effects in liquid crystals. They can rotate
the polarization of light and can be made to block or pass light depending on the orientation of
the molecules.
2. Viscosity:
Liquid crystals have a relatively high viscosity, which means they flow like a liquid but have
some resistance to movement like a solid.
3. Electrical properties:
Liquid crystals are sensitive to electrical fields, which can cause them to change their orientation
and optical properties. This property is used in the operation of LCDs.
4.The intermolecular forces are rather weak and can be perturbed by an applied electric field.
5.They interact with an electric field, which causes them to change their orientation slightly.
Applications of liquid crystals
1. Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs): The liquid crystal layer in LCDs allows for the display
of images and text through the use of electrical currents that control the orientation of the
crystals.
2. Sensors: Liquid crystal sensors are used in various applications such as temperature
sensing, humidity sensing, and chemical sensing.
3. Optical Devices: Liquid crystals are used in various optical devices such as optical
communication systems, spectroscopy, and imaging.
4. Medicine: Liquid crystals have been used in drug delivery systems, where the drug is
encapsulated in the liquid crystal matrix and delivered to specific target cells
Application of LCs properties in Display system
Liquid Crystal Displays can be used to display numeric, alphanumeric and graphic images
The liquid crystal having a thickness of nearly about 10 to 20 micrometres is placed between two
glass sheets. The inner surface of glass sheets have electrode patterns formed by a layer of
indium tin oxide. The whole arrangement is placed between two crossed polarizers
.

Now, if an electric field is applied between two polarizers, then liquid crystal molecules will
rearrange themselves to applied field and hence the rotation of plane of the polarized light is also
affected. Thus, light passing through first polarizer cannot pass through second polarizer and it
gives dark appearance to display. This is illustrated below.

A simple numeric display consists of seven segments for each digit as shown in below Figure.
Seven segments of the display are labelled as a, b, c, d, e, f and g
When the light of the display is ON and electric field is not applied to any of the segments, then
all the segments appear bright. Now, if electric field is applied to a, b, c, d, and e segments of the
number, then these segments will appear dark. Display will show number 3 as shown in figure
above.
Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED’s)
OLEDs are thin film devices consisting of a stack of organic layers sandwiched between two
electrodes.
Properties of OLED
1. Thin and flexibility: OLEDs are very thin and flexible, which makes them suitable for
use in curved or flexible displays
 2. High contrast: OLEDs have a high contrast ratio, which means that they can produce
images with rich colors.
3. Fast response time: which means that they can switch on and off quickly, resulting in
smooth and seamless motion in video content
4. Wide viewing angle: which means that the image quality is maintained even when
viewed from different angles.
5. Energy efficiency: lower power consumption.
6. Long lifespan: OLEDs have a long lifespan
Applications
Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) have a wide range of applications due to their unique
properties, including high contrast, energy efficiency, thinness, and flexibility. Here are some of
the applications of OLED:
1. Televisions and displays: OLED displays are used in televisions, monitors, smartphones, and
other electronic devices.
2. Lighting: OLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications, including
automotive lighting, street lighting, and architectural lighting.
3. Wearable devices: The thin and flexible nature of OLEDs makes them suitable for use in
wearable devices, such as smartwatches and fitness trackers.
4. Automotive: OLEDs can be used in automotive applications, such as dashboard displays,
interior lighting, and taillights.
5. Medical: OLEDs can be used in medical applications, such as in surgical lighting and medical
imaging. They offer bright and highly accurate lighting options that can help improve medical
procedures and diagnosis.
Quantum light emitting diodes (QD-LEDs)
Quantum dot light emitting diodes are a form of light emitting technology and consist of nano-
scale crystals that can provide an alternative for applications such as display technology”.
This technology could be used for creating large-area displays that might find applications in
TVs, cell phones, and digital cameras. They are the next generation's display technology after
OLED displays.
Properties of QLED
1. Accurate and vibrant colors: QLEDs are capable of producing highly accurate and vibrant
colors due to their use of quantum dots, which emit light of a specific color when they are
excited by a light source or an electrical current.
2. Energy-efficient: QLEDs are more energy-efficient than traditional LCD displays
because they do not require as much backlighting.
3. High contrast: QLED displays have high contrast ratios, which means that the difference
between the darkest and brightest areas of the display is greater, resulting in more
detailed and lifelike images.
4. Long lifespan: QLEDs have a longer lifespan than traditional LCD displays because they
do not suffer from the same issues of backlight burnout or color fading over time.
5. Fast response times: QLED displays have fast response times, which means that they can
display fast-moving images without motion blur or ghosting.
6. Flexibility: QLEDs can be made on flexible substrates, which allows for the creation of
flexible displays that can be bent or curved
Applications of QLED
 Televisions and displays: QLED displays are commonly used in televisions, monitors,
smartphones, and other electronic devices. They offer superior image quality and color
accuracy compared to traditional LCD displays.
 Lighting: QLEDs can also be used as a source of lighting in various applications,
including automotive lighting, street lighting, and architectural lighting. They offer
energy-efficient and highly customizable lighting options.
 Medical imaging: QLEDs can be used in medical imaging applications, such as in MRI
machines, to produce high-resolution and accurate images.
 Virtual and augmented reality: QLED displays are suitable for use in virtual and
augmented reality applications due to their ability to produce vibrant and accurate colors,
which can enhance the immersive experience.
 Advertising displays: QLED displays can be used in advertising displays, such as
digital billboards and signage, to produce high-quality and eye-catching visuals