1

ENGINEERING MECHANICS: STATICS

ADRIAN C. CHUMMAC
Instructor I
Engineering Sciences, College of Engineering
Central Luzon State University

INTRODUCTION

Engineering mechanics is the study of forces and their impact or effect on rigid bodies.
This field of study is divided into two branches: a) statics and b) dynamics. Statics deals with the
effect and distribution of forces on rigid bodies which remain at rest. It studies how a rigid body
response to an external force being applied at rest, while dynamics deals with the motion of rigid
bodies caused by the forces applied to them. This means how will a body moves after a force is

U 3
being applied.

D 2
In this review material, topics discussed in statics are force as a vector, resultant of a

E
O 20
force vector, equilibrium of forces, analysis of structure, friction, centroids, and moment of
inertia.
R LA BE

C
Principle of Statics

R S
Rigid body – a definite amount of matter where its parts are fixed in position relative to each
T C A
other.
EP S
Force – an action that changes or tends to change the state of motion of a body (i.e., external
N W SU

effect of a force).

Forces impact a body externally and internally. Engineering mechanics focuses on the external
effect of force to a body (tends to change or change the motion) while strength of materials
O IE L

focuses on the internal effect of force to a body (i.e., deformation, distort).

D EV C

Force is characterized by a) point of application, b) magnitude, c) its direction.

O
R

Figure 1. Characterization of a Force

Magnitude - is the amount, quantity or intensity of a force which is represented in terms of

vectors.

Direction - is the direction of the line along which it acts and may be expressed as vertical,
horizontal, or at some angle with the vertical or horizontal.

Point of application - is the point of contact between two bodies or the point where the force
acts in the body.
Sense - is the way its acts along its line of action upward, downward to the right or left and its
generally denoted by an arrowhead.

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 2

Principle of Transmissibility

This states that a force applied to a body has the same external effects in all points of a body
along its line of action.

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A

Figure 2. Illustration of the transmissibility principle (http://mechanicsmap.psu.edu)

EP S
N W SU

Force System – arrangement of two or more forces that act on a body or a group of related
bodies.

Types of Force System:

O IE L

a) Coplanar force system – term when the line of action of all the forces in a force
D EV C

system lie in one plane.

O
R

Figure 3. Angle bars bolted in plate, an example of coplanar force system. The plate acts
as the plane and the bars act as the forces.

b) Non-coplanar force system - when the line of action of all the forces in a force
system do not lie in one plane.

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 3

Figure 4. System of forces acting on the corner of the prism. They are non-coplanar since the
forces are acting on different planes.

U 3
Force systems are further classified as shown in figure 5.

D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L

Figure 5. Classification of other types of force systems

D EV C

a) Collinear force system - when the lines of action of all the forces of a system act
along the same line; when a set of forces will have a common line of action
O
R

Figure 6. Collinear force system.

b) Concurrent force system – forces in which their line of action passes through or
intersects a common point; it can be coplanar or non-coplanar.

“If all the forces lie in a single plane and meet at one point, coplanar and concurrent
force system” (figure 3)

“If all the forces lie in a different plane but pass through a single point, non-coplanar
and concurrent force system”

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 4

U 3
Figure 7. A tower supported by three cables is an example of non-coplanar and
concurrent force system

D 2
E
c) Parallel force system – forces in which their line of action is parallel to each other.

O 20
These forces can also be a coplanar of non-coplanar.
R LA BE

C
“If all the forces lie in a single plane and their line of action are parallel, coplanar and
parallel force system”

R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L

Figure 8. Your arm at 90° when holding a load is an example of coplanar and parallel
D EV C

force system (https://www.hkdivedi.com).

“If all the forces do not lie in a single plane but their line of action are parallel, non-
coplanar and parallel force system”
O
R

Figure 9. Table with supports as the force is an example of non-coplanar and parallel
force system

d) Non-concurrent forces system – neither concurrent nor parallel systems. The line of
action of the forces neither parallel nor intersect a common point. When the forces of a
system do not meet at a common point of concurrency

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 5

“If the line of action of the forces lie on a single plane and neither parallel nor intersect a
common point, coplanar and non-concurrent force system otherwise non-coplanar and
non-concurrent force system”

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
Figure 10. Free body diagram of the forces and supports acting on a beam.
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C

Figure 11. A tower with various cables connected is an example of non-coplanar and
O

non-concurrent force system

Components of a Force Vector

R

Forces are vectors (i.e., has magnitude and direction). The effect of a force system on a body is
expressed in terms of a resultant (force vector). A force vector can be decomposed into its
rectangular components,

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 6

Figure 12. Force vector in 3D space

U 3
D 2
E
Components Angles/Direction

O 20
𝐹𝑥
𝜃𝑥 = cos −1 | |
R LA BE 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃𝑥 𝐹

C
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃𝑦 𝐹𝑦
𝜃𝑦 = cos −1 | |
𝐹𝑧 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃𝑧 𝐹
𝐹𝑧
𝜃𝑧 = cos −1 | |

R S 𝐹
T C A
EP S
Resultant (Magnitude)
2
𝐹 = √(𝐹𝑥 )2 + (𝐹𝑦 ) + (𝐹𝑧 )2
N W SU

In most cases, we only deal with forces acting on a plane or a 2D spaces as shown in figure 13.
O IE L
D EV C

Figure 13. Force vector in 2D space

O

For the force vector F, we can decompose its components into:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃𝑥 𝐸𝑞. 1
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 𝜃𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃𝑦 𝐸𝑞. 2
R

The direction of the force F is calculated as,

𝐹𝑦
𝜃𝑥 = tan−1 ( ) 𝐸𝑞. 3
𝐹𝑥

Note that the angle 𝜃𝑥 is with respect to the x-axis.

If the components of the vector F are known, the resultant (magnitude) is calculated as,

𝐹 = √𝐹𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑦 2 𝐸𝑞. 4
CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics
 7

If the slope of the line of action of the force is given, components of the force is calculated as,

Figure 14. Direction of a force vector in which the given is the slope
of its line of action

ℎ
𝐹𝑥 = |𝑭| ( ) 𝐸𝑞. 5
𝑟

U 3
𝐹𝑦 = |𝑭| ( ) 𝐸𝑞. 6
𝑟

D 2
E
O 20
Different cases at which force vector is acting on other direction. Refer to the table. Note of the
R LA BE
sign of the components. Throughout this review material we use the negative sign convention for

C
forces acting towards the left and downward while positive sign for forces directed rightward and
upward sense.

R S
T C A

Components Resultant/Direction Free-Body Diagram

EP S
In quadrant II
𝐹𝑥 = −𝐹 cos 𝜃𝑥 = −𝐹 sin 𝜃𝑦 2
N W SU

𝐹 = √(𝐹𝑥 )2 + (𝐹𝑦 )

𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 𝜃𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃𝑦
𝐹𝑦
𝜃𝑥 = tan−1 | |
𝐹𝑥
O IE L
D EV C

In quadrant III
𝐹𝑥 = −𝐹 cos 𝜃𝑥 = −𝐹 sin 𝜃𝑦 2
𝐹 = √(𝐹𝑥 )2 + (𝐹𝑦 )

𝐹𝑦 = −𝐹 sin 𝜃𝑥 = −𝐹 cos 𝜃𝑦
𝐹𝑦
𝜃𝑥 = tan−1 | |
𝐹𝑥
O

In quadrant IV
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃𝑥 = 𝐹 sin 𝜃𝑦 2
𝐹 = √(𝐹𝑥 )2 + (𝐹𝑦 )

𝐹𝑦 = −𝐹 sin 𝜃𝑥 = −𝐹 cos 𝜃𝑦
R

𝐹𝑦
𝜃𝑥 = tan−1 | |
𝐹𝑥

Sample Problem

A force of 200 lb is directed as shown in the figure below. Calculate the x and y components of
the force.

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 8

The force 𝐹 = 200 𝑘𝑁 directed to the left at an angle 𝜃𝑥 = 30° can be decomposed into

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
𝐹𝑥 = −200 cos 30 = −173.2 𝑙𝑏
𝐹𝑦 = 200 sin 30 = 100 𝑙𝑏

R S
T C A
EP S
Sample Problem
N W SU

Calculate the x and y components of a 200 kN force as shown in the figure,

O IE L
D EV C

Given is the slope of the force instead of angle. We can calculate the angle using the slope then
substitute it in eq. 1 and eq. 2 to solve its x and y components. But we can directly use the slope
O

in solving its components by first calculating the hypotenuse of the slope triangle,

𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √42 + 32 = 5
R

We note that the slope triangle and the resultant and its x, y components are similar triangles,

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 9

Applying the definition of sine and cosine for right triangle,

4 3
cos 𝜃 = ; sin 𝜃 =
5 5
4
𝐹𝑥 = 200 cos 𝜃 = 200 ( ) = 160 𝑘𝑁

U 3
5
3
𝐹𝑦 = 200 sin 𝜃 = 200 ( ) = 120 𝑘𝑁

D 2
5

E
O 20
R LA BE

C
Components of a Force in a rotated axis

Sample Problem

R S
T C A
Find the components in the x, y, u and v directions of the force P.
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C

Solution

To find the x and y components (i.e., with respect to x, y axes). We draw the free body diagram
by decomposing the forces into its components with respect to the drawn x and y axes as shown
in the figure below,
O
R

Solving the values of the x and y components,

𝐹𝑥 = 10 cos 60 = 𝟓 𝒌𝑵
𝐹𝑦 = 10 sin 60 = 𝟖. 𝟔𝟔 𝒌𝑵

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 10

On the other hand, to find the u and v components (i.e., with respect to u, v axes). We draw the
free body diagram by decomposing the forces into its components with respect to the drawn x
and y axes as shown in the figure below,

Solving the values of u and v components wit respect to the drawn u, v axes,

𝐹𝑢 = 10 cos 40 = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟔 𝒌𝑵

U 3
𝐹𝑣 = 10 sin 40 = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟑 𝒌𝑵

D 2
E
Moment of a Force

O 20
R LA BE
Moment of a force about an axis or line (also known as “torque”) is the measure of its ability to

C
produce turning or twisting about the axis.

R S
Moment is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the pivot point to the
line of action of the force,
T C A
EP S
𝑀 =𝐹×𝑑
N W SU

Where, 𝑀 – moment
𝐹 – force perpendicular to the moment arm
𝑑 – moment arm of the force
O IE L
D EV C

Figure 15. Moment formula

O

Sample Problem

Calculate the moment at point A as shown in the figure below,

R

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 11

Solution:

In the figure, the force applied is 𝐹 = 10𝑁 and the perpendicular distance of the force from point
A is 30cm. the moment at point A,

𝑀𝐴 = 5(30) = 150 𝑁 ∙ 𝑐𝑚

Note the moment with respect to an axis or point is calculated using the perpendicular force and
perpendicular distance.

Throughout this review material, we use the positive convention for a clockwise moment and
negative for a counterclockwise moment.

U 3
Sample Problem

D 2
A metal rod of length 100 cm is held horizontally at its left end. A force of 10N acts at the right

E
O 20
end of the rod pulling it upwards. It forms an angle of 30 deg. with the rod. What is the
magnitude of the torque on the rod?
R LA BE

C
Solution:

R S
We draw the free body diagram,
T C A
EP S
N W SU

The definition of moment is the product of the perpendicular force to the moment arm, thus
O IE L

since the force is inclined by 30 degrees with the rod, the perpendicular force to the rod is its y –
component. Its x component does not cause a moment to the rod.
D EV C
O

𝐹𝑦 = 10 sin 30 = 5𝑁

𝑀 = 𝐹𝑦 × 𝑑 = 5 ∙ 100 = 500𝑁 ∙ 𝑐𝑚 = −5𝑁 ∙ 𝑚, the moment is negative because it is

counterclockwise.
R

Resultant of Forces

Vector Analysis of Force

Vector Addition: All vector quantities obey the parallelogram law of addition.

Parallelogram law: Resultant of two forces is the diagonal of the parallelogram formed on the
vectors of these forces.

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 12

Resultant Force – vector sum of 2 or more force vector.

Parallelogram Law

“Resultant of two forces is the diagonal of the parallelogram formed on the vectors of these
forces.”

U 3
Figure 16. Parallelogram law: graphical addition of two vector

D 2
E
In figure 16, to add a two vector forces A and B:

O 20
R LA BE

C
1. Extend the tail of the forces until they become concurrent forces (figure 16b).
2. From the head of force B (A), draw a parallel line with same length with force A (B). This
line will intersect at a point forming the adjacent side of the parallelogram (figure 16b).

R S
3. The diagonal of the parallelogram R is the resultant of the two forces (figure 16c).
T C A
EP S
From the parallelogram law, observed that we can also use triangle rule to add the two vectors.
N W SU

Triangle Rule

To add two force vectors by triangle rule,

O IE L
D EV C

Figure 17. Triangle rule: graphical addition of two vectors

Vector B (A) is added to A (B) in a “head-to-tail” fashion. By “head-to-tail”, connect the head of
O

A(B) to the tail of B(A) (figure 17b).

The resultant is the vector connected from the tail of vector B to the head of vector A (figure
17c).
R

Collinear Vectors

For a collinear vectors, the resultant is just the scalar sum of the two vectors.

Figure 18. Collinear vectors

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 13

Polygon Method

Polygon method is used to add more than two vectors. In the figure, the resultant is determined
by:

1. Connecting the vectors by “head-to-tail” fashion.

2. In the example (figure 19), adding the 3 vectors P, Q, S, way 1: we connect the head of
P to tail of Q then head of Q to tail of S.
3. The resultant R is the force vector connected from the tail of P to the head of S.

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE Figure 19. Polygon Method: Graphical Addition of more than 2 vectors

C
Note that in figure 19, it suggests another way and the magnitude of the resultant either way is
the same.

R S
T C A
EP S
Sample Problem
N W SU

Find the resultant of the forces Q and P and its direction.

O IE L
D EV C

We can perform graphical method or the mathematical method. By triangle rule

O
R

1. Solving by either parallelogram or triangle rule, connect the tail of force P (Q) to the
head of force Q (P) (figure A).
2. The resultant R of the forces Q and P is the force vector connecting the tail of force P to
head of force Q.
3. In figure C, identify the angles of the triangle.

To solve the magnitude of the resultant, we can apply the law of cosine or law of sine.
CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics
 14

Triangle Geometry

Cosine law:

𝑎 2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝛼

U 3
𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 + 𝑎 2 − 2𝑐𝑎 cos 𝛽
𝑐 2 = 𝑎 2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝛾

D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE Sine Law:

C
𝑐 𝑏 𝑎
= =
sin 𝛾 sin 𝛽 sin 𝛼

R S Geometry of Right Triangle

T C A
EP S
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
N W SU

𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒
sin 𝜃 =
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒
cos 𝜃 =
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝑂𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒
O IE L

tan 𝜃 =
𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒
D EV C

In the example we use cosine law to solve the magnitude of resultant R.

O
R

𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐵
𝑅2 = 𝑃 2 + 𝑄2 − 2𝑃𝑄 cos 155
𝑅 = √402 + 602 − 2(40)(60) cos 155
𝑹 = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟕𝟑𝑵

Using the sine law to solve the direction of the resultant force. Let’s find its direction with respect
to horizontal.

𝑐 𝑏 𝑎
= =
sin 𝐶 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐴

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 15

𝑅 60
=
sin 155° sin 𝐴

60 sin 155° 60 sin 155°

sin 𝐴 = =
𝑅 97.73

60 sin 155°
𝐴 = sin−1 ( ) = 15.04°
97.73

Angle A is the angle between the resultant R and force vector P, to solve the angle 𝛼 with
respect to horizontal,

𝛼 = 𝐴 + 20°
𝛼 = 15.04° + 20°
𝜶 = 𝟑𝟓. 𝟎𝟒°

U 3
We can also solve the magnitude and its direction of the resultant R by resolving the x and y

D 2
components of the forces Q and P.

E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU

Force Vector 𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦
Q 60 cos 45 = 42.43𝑁 60 sin 45 = 42.43𝑁
O IE L

P 40 𝑐𝑜𝑠 20 = 37.59𝑁 40 𝑠𝑖𝑛 20 = 13.68𝑁

∑𝑭 80.02𝑁 59.11𝑁
D EV C

2 2
𝐹 = √(∑ 𝐹𝑥 ) + (∑ 𝐹𝑦 )

∑ 𝐹𝑦
𝜃𝑥 = tan−1 ⌊ ⌋
∑ 𝐹𝑥
O

𝐹 = √(80.02)2 + (59.11)2 = 99.48𝑁

59.11
𝜃𝑥 = tan−1 ⌊ ⌋ = 36.45°
80.02
R

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 16

U 3
Resultant of Two or more Concurrent Forces

D 2
The resultant of two or more concurrent forces is the vector sum of all the forces.

E
O 20
R LA BE 𝟐 𝟐

C
𝑅 = √(∑ 𝐹𝒙 ) + (∑ 𝐹𝒚 ) 𝐸𝑞. 7

R S
where, 𝑅 – magnitude of the resultant
T C A
∑ 𝐹𝒙 - summation of the x-components of the forces
EP S
∑ 𝐹𝒚 – summation of the y-components of the forces
N W SU

The direction of the resultant is calculated as,

∑ 𝐹𝒚
𝜃𝑥 = tan−1 | | 𝐸𝑞. 8
∑ 𝐹𝒙
O IE L
D EV C

Sample Problem

Consider the concurrent forces shown in the figure below, determine the magnitude of the
resultant and its direction.
O
R

We decomposed each force into their x and y components,

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 17

Forces 𝐹𝒙 𝐹𝒙
𝐹𝟏 𝐹𝑥 = 58 cos 30 = 29√3 𝐹𝑦 = 58 sin 30 = 29
𝐹𝟐 𝐹𝑥 = −50 cos 45 = − 25√2 𝐹𝑦 = 50 sin 45 = 25√2
5 12
𝐹𝟑 𝐹𝑥 = −45 ( ) = −4.27 𝐹𝑥 = −45 ( ) = −11.92
45.28 45.28

𝐹𝟒 𝐹𝑥 = 40 cos 0 = 40 𝐹𝑦 = 40 sin 0 = 0
Sum 50.60 kN 52.44 kN

𝑅 = √50.62 + 52.442 = 72.87 𝑘𝑁

52.44
𝜃𝑥 = tan−1 ( ) = 46.02° up to the rigth (since both ∑ 𝐹𝑥 , ∑ 𝐹𝑦 are positive )
50.6

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
Sample Problem
N W SU

Calculate the resultant and its direction for the concurrent forces as shown in the figure,
O IE L
D EV C
O
R

In order to implement vector sum, we have to decompose the x and y components of each force
vector. Slope were given as the direction of some force vector,

For force 𝑃, we solve the hypotenuse from the slope

ℎ = √22 + 32 = √13
2
𝑃𝑥 = 722 ( ) = 400.49 𝑙𝑏
√13

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 18

3
𝑃𝑥 = 722 ( ) = 600.74 𝑙𝑏
√13

For force 𝑄,

𝑄𝑥 = −200 cos 60 = −100 𝑙𝑏

𝑄𝑦 = 200 sin 60 = 173.21 𝑙𝑏

For force 𝐹, we solve the hypotenuse

ℎ = √22 + 12 = √5
2
𝐹𝑥 = −448 ( ) = −400.70 𝑙𝑏
√5

U 3
1

D 2
𝐹𝑦 = −448 ( ) = −200.35 𝑙𝑏
√5

E
O 20
R LA BE

C
For force 𝑇,

𝑇𝑥 = 400 sin 20 = 136.81 𝑙𝑏 or 400 cos 70 = 136.81 𝑙𝑏

R S
T C A
Note that we can apply both. Cosine is applied when the angle is with respect to the horizontal or
EP S
x – axis and Sine is applied when angle is with respect to the vertical or y – axis.
N W SU

𝑇𝑦 = −400 cos 20 = −375.88 𝑙𝑏 or 400 sin 70 = −375.88 𝑙𝑏

∑ 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑥 = 400.49 − 100 − 400.7 + 136.81 = 36.6 𝑙𝑏

O IE L

∑ 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑦 = 600.74 + 173.21 − 200.35 − 375.88 = 197.72 𝑙𝑏

D EV C

𝑅 = √36.62 + 197.722 = 201.08 𝑙𝑏

197.72
𝜃𝑥 = tan−1 ( ) = 79.51° 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
36.6
O

Resultant of Parallel Forces

Parallel force system contains forces in which their line of actions is parallel. The resultant is
simply the scalar sum of all the parallel forces.
R

𝑅 = ∑ 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠

It is scalar because we are just adding forces with the same line of action, the direction of the
resultant force will have the same line of action to the parallel forces but may have a different
sense.

Note that the sign of the direction can be chosen arbitrarily (in this review material we take
positive for upward and right direction, negative for downward and left direction).

For the figure shown, the resultant 𝑅 is calculated as,

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 19

𝑅 = ∑ 𝐹𝑖 = −𝐹1 − 𝐹2 + 𝐹3 − 𝐹4

The sense of the resultant force will then be determined by the magnitude of the forces:

U 3
Downward: if ∑ 𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 > ∑ 𝐹𝑢𝑝

D 2
Upward: if ∑ 𝐹𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 < ∑ 𝐹𝑢𝑝

E
O 20
The concern now in the above figure is the location of the resultant force (i.e., distance 𝑑)?
R LA BE

C
To determine the location of the resultant, we apply the concept of moment. Assuming the body
is in equilibrium, the moment produces by the forces 1, 2, 3, and 4 should be equal to the

R S
moment produce by the resultant 𝑅.
T C A
EP S
𝑅𝑑 = ∑ 𝐹𝑖 𝑥𝑖
N W SU

Take the moment at 𝐹1 ,

𝑅𝑑 = 𝐹1 𝑥1 + 𝐹2 𝑥2 − 𝐹3 𝑥3 + 𝐹4 𝑥4
O IE L

𝐹2 𝑥2 − 𝐹3 𝑥3 + 𝐹4 𝑥4
𝑑=
𝑅
D EV C

Distributed Load

The resultant of a distributed load is equal to the area of the load diagram. The resultant is
action on the center of mass of the load diagram.
O
R

Figure 19. Results of Distributed Loads

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 20

Sample Problem

A parallel force system acts on the lever shown in the figure. Determine the magnitude and
position of the resultant.

Solution:

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
We calculate the resultant of the parallel forces,

R S
T C A
𝑅 = ∑ 𝐹𝑖 = −30 − 60 + 20 − 40
EP S
𝑅 = −110 𝑙𝑏
N W SU

Since the resultant is negative, its sense will be downward.

To solve the location of the resultant, we take the moment at point A,

O IE L

𝑅𝑑 = 30(2) + 60(5) − 20(7) + 40(11)

D EV C

30(2) + 60(5) − 20(7) + 40(11)

𝑑=
110

𝒅 = 𝟔 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉 to the right of point A.

Couple – system of forces whose magnitude of the resultant is zero and does not have a
O

moment. It is a parallel force system, a special case in which resultant is zero but has a moment
effect to a body. Geometrically, couple is composed of two equal forces that are parallel to each
other and acting in opposite direction. The magnitude of the couple is given by
R

𝐶 =𝐹∙𝑑

Where, 𝐶 – couple
𝐹 – equal forces
𝑑 – distance between equal forces

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 21

Figure 20. Couple

In the figure below, the magnitude of the resultant is zero.

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
𝑹 = −10 + 20 + 30 − 40 = 0𝑁
T C A
EP S
It should not be concluded that since the resultant is zero, there will be no effect to the rigid
body.
N W SU

If we take the moment sum at point A we will have,

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 10(2) − 20(5) − 30(6) + 40(8)

O IE L

𝑀𝐴 = 60𝑁 ∙ 𝑚
D EV C

It can be seen that the system produces some effect to the body and it is a moment (i.e.,
tendency to rotate) with a magnitude of 60𝑁 ∙ 𝑚. Thus, when resultant is zero, check if there are
moment.

Another property of couple, its effect is the same regardless of its location. To prove it, try to
take the moment about point B, C, and D, you will calculate the same value, 60𝑁 ∙ 𝑚.
O

Equilibrium of Force System

R

Equilibrium – state at which a body remains at rest if originally at rest or has a constant
velocity if originally in motion. Equilibrium is often used to describe an object at rest. Thus, an
object at rest or maintain equilibrium, should satisfy the Newton’s first law of motion.

Newton’s First Law of Motion:

If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, the particle remains at rest (if originally at
rest) or moves with constant speed in a straight line (if originally in motion).

Equilibrium should satisfy the following conditions:

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 22

1. ∑ 𝑭𝑖 = 0 , All forces are balance, meaning the resultant is zero.

2. ∑ 𝑴 = 0 , Moment is zero, this means that the object is not under a couple which causes
the object to rotate.

Before we can write the equations of equilibrium for a rigid body, we must first identify all of the
forces acting on that body and then draw the corresponding free-body diagram.

Free-body diagram - representation of a single body or a subsystem of bodies isolated from its
surroundings showing all the forces acting on it.

In analyzing a structure, we consider reactions that falls into three types of supports and
connections.
1. Reactions Equivalent to a Force with a Known Line of Action
- Supports and connections causing reactions of this type include rollers, rockers,
frictionless surfaces, short links and cables, collars on frictionless rods, and

U 3
frictionless pins in slots. Weight of the structure is also an example.
- This type of reaction has only one unknown, i.e., its magnitude

D 2
- Its direction or line of action is known, where in it prevents the motion in one

E
direction.

O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C

Figure 21. Reactions Equivalent to a Force with a Known Line of Action

2. Reactions Equivalent to a Force of Unknown Direction and Magnitude.

- Supports and connections causing reactions of this type include frictionless pins in
fitted holes, hinges, and rough surfaces.
- They can prevent translation of the free body in all directions, but they cannot
O

prevent the body from rotating about the connection.

- This reaction has two unknowns, i.e., its magnitude and direction.
R

Figure 22. Reactions Equivalent to a Force of Unknown Direction and Magnitude

We can resolve the components of the reaction into its components, by its components
we can solve its direction.

3. Reactions Equivalent to a Force and a Couple

- These reactions are caused by fixed supports that oppose any motion of the free
body and thus constrain it completely.
CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics
 23

- Fixed supports actually produce forces over the entire surface of contact; these
forces, however, form a system that can be reduced to a force and a couple.
- Reactions of this group involve three unknowns usually consisting of the two
components of the force and the moment of the couple.

Figure 23. Reactions Equivalent to a Force of Unknown Direction and Magnitude

U 3
Sample Problem

D 2
A fixed crane has a mass of 1000 kg and is used to lift a 2400-kg crate. It is held in place by a

E
pin at A and a rocker at B. The center of gravity of the crane is located at G. Determine the

O 20
components of the reactions at A and B.
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU

Solution:

Draw a free-body diagram to show all of the forces acting on the crane, then use the equilibrium
O IE L

equations to calculate the values of the unknown forces. Mass of crane = 1000kg; mass of the
object = 2400kg; crane is held by a pin at A and rocker at B. Given are the mass of the crane
D EV C

and the object, we need to convert them into their weight, by multiplying the gravitational
acceleration g = 9.81 m/s2.
O
R

At point A, since it is a pin, thus there will be a reaction designated as A and its components with
respect to x, y axis are Ax and Ay.

At point B, since it is rocker, a reaction is acting on the crane at a direction perpendicular to the
wall.

Now that we have drawn the free body diagram, to solve the reactions at A and B, we use the
equilibrium equations, ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0, ∑ 𝑀 = 0
CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics
 24

Take the ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0; 𝐵 + 𝐴𝑥 = 0
Take the ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0; 𝐴𝑦 − 9.81 − 23.5 = 0

Solving 𝐴𝑦 using 𝐴𝑦 − 9.81 − 23.5 = 0,

𝐴𝑦 − 9.81 − 23.5 = 0
𝐴𝑦 = 9.81 + 23.5
𝐴𝑦 = 33.31𝑘𝑁

Take the ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0; −𝐵(1.5) + 9.81(2) + 23.5(6)

We can now solve the magnitude of B,

𝐵(1.5) = 9.81(2) + 23.5(6)

U 3
9.81(2) + 23.5(6)

D 2
𝐵= = 107.08𝑘𝑁
1.5

E
O 20
Solving the value of 𝐴𝑥 using 𝐵 + 𝐴𝑥 = 0
R LA BE

C
−𝐴𝑥 = 𝐵; 𝐴𝑥 = −107.08𝑘𝑁
𝑨𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟎𝟖𝒌𝑵 to the left

R S
T C A
The negative sign just indicates that the direction of 𝐴𝑥 should be to the left, in other words it
EP S
just indicates that the direction we assumed initially which is to the right should be to the left.
N W SU

Now that we know the values of 𝐴𝑥 = −107.08𝑘𝑁, 𝐴𝑦 = 33.31𝑘𝑁 and 𝐵 = 107.08𝑘𝑁, solving the
magnitude and direction of the reaction A,

𝐴 = √(−107.08)2 + (33.31)2
O IE L

𝐴 = 112.14𝑘𝑁
D EV C

33.31
𝜃𝑥 = tan−1 | | = 17.29°
107.08

Sample Problem: Equilibrium of Concurrent Forces

A system of cords knotted together at A and B support the weight as shown in the figure.
Determine the tensions P, Q, F and T acting in various cords.
O
R

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 25

Solution:

We can solve the forces using the horizontal and vertical axes or using a rotated axis. The
convenience of using the axes depends on the orientation of the forces.

Method 1. Using horizontal and Vertical Axes

This method employs the typical horizontal and vertical Cartesian plane. First, we draw the free
body diagram of the problem oriented with the horizontal and vertical axes,

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
By taking the ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 and ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0,

R S
T C A

𝑃 cos 15 − 𝑄 cos 30 = 0
EP S
𝑃 sin 15 − 𝑄 sin 30 − 300 = 0
N W SU

Solving the two equations will yield to,

𝑃 = 367.42 𝑙𝑏
𝑄 = 409.81 𝑙𝑏
O IE L
D EV C

Method 2: Using rotated axes

In the figure below, the x and y axes where rotated such that one of the forces is oriented along
the x axis (force Q is oriented along the x axes). This method requires imagination as you need
to determine the changes in the angles,
O
R

By taking the ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 and ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0,

−𝑄 + 𝑃 cos 45 + 300 cos 60 = 0

𝑃 sin 45 − 300 sin 60 = 0

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 26

The advantage of this method can be appreciated since you can generate an equation that can
be directly solve, i.e., 𝑃 sin 45 − 300 sin 60 = 0.

300 sin 60
𝑃= = 367.42 𝑙𝑏
sin 45

𝑄 = 𝑃 cos 45 + 300 cos 60 = 367.42 cos 45 + 300 cos 60 = 409.81 𝑙𝑏

To further solving the value of forces 𝐹 and 𝑇, we can either use one of the above methods, in
this example we use a rotated axis where in the x axis is oriented along the force 𝑇,

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
By taking the ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 and ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0,
T C A
EP S
𝑇 + 200 cos 60 − 𝐹 cos 45 − 367.42 cos 45 = 0
N W SU

𝐹 sin 45 − 367.42 sin 45 − 200 sin 60 = 0

Solving forces 𝐹 and 𝑇 using the above equations,

O IE L

367.42 sin 45 + 200 sin 60

𝐹= = 612.37 𝑙𝑏
sin 45
D EV C

𝑇 = −200 cos 60 + 612.37 cos 45 + 367.42 cos 45 = 592.82 𝑙𝑏

Sample Problem: Equilibrium of Three Coplanar Forces are Concurrent force

O

The bell crank shown in the figure is supported by pin at A. a 100 lb force is applied vertically at
C, rotation being prevented by the force P acting at B. Determine the value of P and the pin
reaction at A.
R

Solution:
CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics
 27

To solve the force P and the reaction at pin A, we note that the bell is in equilibrium thus the
three force (𝑃, 𝑅𝐴 and 100 lb) acting on it must pass through a common point.

If we extend the lines of action of the forces, they will meet at point D wherein the reaction at
pin A must pass through also in point D. By geometry of the figure below shows that the distance
AE is 13.67 in and CD is 21.67 in. So, the direction of pin reaction 𝑅𝐴 is,

21.67
𝜃𝑥 = tan−1 ( ) = 69.74°
8

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
We plot the polygon of forces that are acting on the bell crank as shown in the figure above, by
applying the law sine we have,
N W SU

100 𝑃 𝑅𝐴
= =
sin 24.75° sin 20.25° sin 135°

Thus,
O IE L

𝑃 = 82.67 𝑙𝑏
D EV C

𝑅𝐴 = 168.9 𝑙𝑏

In the above method, it is somehow difficult to comprehend. Another approach is by simply

implementing the ∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0, ∑ 𝐹ℎ = 0 and ∑ 𝑀 = 0 since the body under investigation is in
equilibrium where in all forces are balance and even moments.
O
R

By taking the ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0, by convention we use a positive moment if it causes the body to rotate
in clockwise direction and negative for a counter clockwise direction.

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 28

100(8) − 𝑃𝑥 (𝑦) − 𝑃𝑦 (𝑥) = 0

Note that the equation above is derived by taking the moment at A. The definition of moment is
the product of a perpendicular force to its moment arm, thus the moment arms for 𝑃𝑥 and 𝑃𝑦 are
𝑦 and 𝑥, respectively.

By geometry we can solve the values of 𝑦 and 𝑥

𝑥 = 10 sin 30 = 5
𝑦 = 10 cos 30 = 5√3

We also note that the value of 𝑃𝑥 and 𝑃𝑦 are the components of force 𝑃 where 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃 cos 45 and
𝑃𝑦 = 𝑃 sin 45, thus

Solving the value of 𝑃

U 3
D 2
100(8) − 𝑃𝑥 (𝑦) − 𝑃𝑦 (𝑥) = 0

E
100(8) − 𝑃 cos 45 (5√3) − 𝑃 sin 45 (5) = 0

O 20
100(8) − 𝑃 (cos 45 (5√3) + sin 45 (5)) = 0
R LA BE

C
𝑃 (cos 45 (5√3) + sin 45 (5)) = 100(8)
100(8)
𝑃= = 82.82 𝑙𝑏

R S
cos 45 (5√3) + sin 45 (5)
T C A
EP S
Solving the horizontal and vertical components of the reaction at pin A by taking the ∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0,
∑ 𝐹ℎ = 0
N W SU

∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0

𝐴𝑣 − 100 − 𝑃 sin 45 = 0
O IE L

𝐴𝑣 = 100 + 82.82 sin 45 = 158.56 𝑙𝑏

D EV C

∑ 𝐹ℎ = 0

𝐴ℎ − 𝑃 cos 45 = 0
𝐴ℎ = 82.82 cos 45 = 58.56 𝑙𝑏
Solving for the reaction at pin A,

𝑅𝐴 = √(𝐴ℎ )2 + (𝐴𝑣 )2
O

𝑅𝐴 = √158.562 + 58.562 = 169.03 𝑙𝑏

R

In the analysis of forces in equilibrium, it is important to note that we implement the equilibrium
equations,

∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0

∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0

∑𝑀 = 0

Analysis of Structure

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 29

Analysis of structure – process of determining how loads applied to structures are being
distributed throughout the structure.

Truss – a structure made of members fastened together to resist change in shape. These
structures are used to support larger loads or greater span for which a truss is to be built.

Note that trusses are made of members forming triangular shape which make the structure rigid.

In trusses, a member in tension causes forces to pull the member away from its end joints while
a member in compression causes forces to push toward its end joints.

Method of Analysis

U 3
1. Method of Joints – this method assumes that all members are two-force members
carrying axial loads which means that the free body diagram of any joint is a concurrent

D 2
force system.

E
O 20
This method implements the analysis by applying equilibrium principles to the concurrent
R LA BE

C
force systems acting in each joint.

2. Method of Section – this method, in contrast to method of section, implements the

R S
analysis to non – concurrent force system. It allows to determine directly the axial force
T C A
in almost any member instead of proceeding to that member by a joint-to-joint analysis.
EP S
This is done by cutting a plane through the entire truss, separating it into two parts
N W SU

without cutting more than three members.

Sample Problem: Method of Joints

O IE L

Solve the axial forces of the truss members AB, BE, CE, AE EF, CF CD and DF. Identify also
whether the member is in compression or tension.
D EV C
O
R

First and foremost, a pin joint or a bearing in a truss has a pin or bearing reaction which can be
decomposed into a horizontal and vertical component. For rollers, its reaction is on the vertical
only.

For instance, in the truss example at point A, it is pinned while at point D has rollers. This means
that at point A, it has a horizontal and vertical component while at point D has only vertical
components. We draw the free body diagram as,

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 30

We calculate the reactions at the pinned and roller joints of the truss before we perform the truss
analysis (method of joints or section).

U 3
By implementing the equilibrium equations,

D 2
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0

E
O 20
R LA BE

C
𝐴𝐻 + 80 = 0

We can already know that the horizontal component of the reaction at A (𝐴𝐻 ) is,

R S
𝐴𝐻 = −80𝑘𝑁. The negative sign indicates the direction of the force. In our first assumption
T C A
(based on the free body diagram), the horizontal component of reaction A is towards right, the
EP S
negative sign indicates that it should be towards left.
N W SU

Since we already assume that the horizontal component of reaction A is towards right then we
retain the negative sign in the computation.

∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0
O IE L

−𝐴𝑉 + 𝐷𝑉 − 50 = 0
D EV C

We need another equation to solve the unknowns,

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0

By the taking the summation of moment at A,

80(0.75) + 50(2) − 𝐷𝑉 (3) = 0

O

We arrive into this equation by taking the moment at point A, positive for a clockwise moment
and negative for an anti-clockwise moment. From this equation, we can now solve 𝐷𝑉 ,
R

80(0.75) + 50(2)
𝐷𝑉 = = 53.33 𝑘𝑁
3

Again, the positive sign of 𝐷𝑉 indicates that we assumed the correct direction.

Now that we know 𝐷𝑉 , we can now solve the value of 𝐴𝑉 ,

−𝐴𝑉 + 𝐷𝑉 − 50 = 0
𝐴𝑉 = 𝐷𝑉 − 50 = 53.33 − 50 = 3.33 𝑘𝑁

Again, the positive sign of 𝐴𝑉 indicates that we assumed the correct direction. Now that we know
the reactions, we proceed to the method of joints, consider joint A,
CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics
 31

Solve the axial load in member AB and AE,

U 3
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0

D 2
3

E
𝐹𝐴𝐵 ( ) = 3.33

O 20
5R LA BE

C
5
𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 3.33 ( ) = 5.55 𝑘𝑁 tention
3

R S
The member AB is in tension because the axial load is pulling the member away from its end
T C A
joints.
EP S
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0
N W SU

4
𝐹𝐴𝐸 + (−80) + 𝐹𝐴𝐵 ( ) = 0
5
O IE L

4 4
𝐹𝐴𝐸 = 80 − 𝐹𝐴𝐵 ( ) = 80 − 5.55 ( ) = 75.56 𝑘𝑁 tension
5 5
D EV C

Axial forces at member AB and AE are in tension because the forces pulls the member away from
its joints.

Now we consider point B,

O
R

Note how the free body diagram of joint B is constructed. The axial force o member AB was
identified to be in tension thus, its line of action is away from the joint. The other direction of the
member BC and BE were assumed such that the forces at the member BE and BC will counter
the force at member AB.

∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 32

4
𝐹𝐵𝐶 − 𝐹𝐴𝐵 ( ) = 0
5

4
𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 5.55 ( ) = 4.44 𝑘𝑁 tension
5

∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0

3
𝐹𝐵𝐸 − 𝐹𝐴𝐵 ( ) = 0
5

3
𝐹𝐵𝐸 = 5.55 ( ) = 3.33 𝑘𝑁 compression
5

U 3
Consider joint E,

D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU

Again, note the line of action for axial force at member BE, since it identified as compression so it
is directed towards its joints. Same with the axial force of member AE, its line of action is away
from its joints because it was identified as tension.
O IE L

∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0
D EV C

3
𝐹𝐶𝐸 ( ) − 𝐹𝐵𝐸 = 0
5

5 5
𝐹𝐶𝐸 = 𝐹𝐵𝐸 ( ) = 3.33 ( ) = 5.55𝑘𝑁 tension
3 3

∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0
O

4
𝐹𝐹𝐸 + 𝐹𝐶𝐸 ( ) − 𝐹𝐴𝐸 = 0
5
R

4
𝐹𝐹𝐸 = −𝐹𝐶𝐸 ( ) + 𝐹𝐴𝐸
5

4
𝐹𝐹𝐸 = −5.55 ( ) + 75.56 = 71.12𝑘𝑁 tension
5

Consider joint F,

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 33

By inspection, we can note that forces at member CF and DF were balanced by the 50 kN force
and axial force of member FE, respectively.

U 3
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0

D 2
E
𝐹𝐶𝐹 − 50 = 0

O 20
R LA BE

C
𝐹𝐶𝐹 = 50𝑘𝑁 tension

∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0

R S
T C A
𝐹𝐷𝐹 − 𝐹𝐹𝐸 = 0
EP S
𝐹𝐷𝐹 = 71.12𝑘𝑁 tension
N W SU

Consider joint C,
O IE L
D EV C

Since only the axial forces at member CD is unknown, we can either use the ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 or ∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0
O

which both will yield the same value.

∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0
R

3 3
𝐹𝐶𝐷 ( ) − 𝐹𝐶𝐸 ( ) − 50 = 0
5 5

5 3 5 3
𝐹𝐶𝐷 = ( ) (𝐹𝐶𝐸 ( ) + 50) = ( ) (5.55 ( ) + 50) = 88.88 𝑘𝑁 compression
3 5 3 5

To verify, we take

∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 34

4 4
−𝐹𝐶𝐷 ( ) − 𝐹𝐵𝐶 − 𝐹𝐶𝐸 ( ) + 80 = 0
5 5

5 4 5 4
𝐹𝐶𝐷 = ( ) (−𝐹𝐵𝐶 − 𝐹𝐶𝐸 ( ) + 80) = ( ) (−4.44 − 5.55 ( ) + 80) = 88.90 𝑘𝑁
4 5 4 5

It is almost equal. We have also idenfied and calculated the axial forces in each member of the
truss. It can be summarize into,

U 3
D 2
E
You can further consider joint D for verification purposes. We stop at joint C because we already

O 20
solve all the axial forces in each member of the truss.
R LA BE

C
Sample Problem: Method of Section

R S
T C A
We use the same problem, by method of section, determine the axial forces acting on members
EP S
BC, CE, and EF.

In this method we cut the entire truss by a plane separating them into two parts without cutting
N W SU

more than three members. In this example the free body diagram is, but just like in method of
joints, we have to solve the reactions first before we proceed.
O IE L
D EV C
O
R

We consider either the left or right side in the analysis. In this example we consider the left side
of the free body diagram,

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 35

We apply the equilibrium equations to solve the axial forces of the members,

U 3
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0

D 2
E
3

O 20
𝐹𝐶𝐸 ( ) − 3.33 = 0
5
R LA BE

C
5
𝐹𝐶𝐸 = 3.33 ( ) = 5.55 𝑘𝑁 tension
3

R S
T C A
EP S
∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0
N W SU

4
𝐹𝐸𝐹 + 𝐹𝐶𝐸 ( ) + 𝐹𝐵𝐶 − 80 = 0
5

We need another equation to solve the other unknown, we use ∑ 𝑀 = 0.

O IE L

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0, take the summation of moment at point A,

D EV C

3
−𝐹𝐶𝐸 ( ) (1) + 𝐹𝐵𝐶 (0,75) = 0
5

Knowing the axial load on member CE, we can solve BC

3
𝐹𝐵𝐶 (0,75) = 𝐹𝐶𝐸 ( ) (1)
5
O

1 3
𝐹𝐵𝐶 = ( ) (5.55) ( ) (1) = 4.44 𝑘𝑁
0.75 5
R

We can now solve the axial load EF using,

4
𝐹𝐸𝐹 + 𝐹𝐶𝐸 ( ) + 𝐹𝐵𝐶 − 80 = 0
5
4 4
𝐹𝐸𝐹 = −𝐹𝐶𝐸 ( ) − 𝐹𝐵𝐶 + 80 = −(5.55) ( ) − 4.44 + 80 = 71.12 𝑘𝑁
5 5

In summary,

𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 4.44 𝑘𝑁 tension

𝐹𝐶𝐸 = 5.55 𝑘𝑁 tension
𝐹𝐸𝐹 = 71.12 𝑘𝑁 tension

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 36

Method of section is convenient when solving a certain axial force in a truss unlike method of
joints that you need to identify the forces each joint.

Sample Problem

Calculate the axial forces in each of the member of the warren truss as shown in the figure
below.

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
Solution:

R S
We calculate first the reaction at A and E, we note that there is a pin reaction at E and a roller
T C A

reaction at A. Therefore, there at E there is a horizontal and vertical component of reaction E,

EP S
however, we also note in the figure that there are no external horizontal forces, only vertical
forces so there will only be a vertical reaction force at pin A,
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C
O

Solving the reaction at A and E,

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
R

2000(5) + 4000(10) + 3000(15) − 𝐸𝑉 (20) = 0

2000(5) + 4000(10) + 3000(15)
𝐸𝑉 = = 4750 𝑙𝑏
20

∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0

𝐴𝑉 + 𝐸𝑉 − 2000 − 4000 − 3000 = 0

𝐴𝑉 = 2000 + 4000 + 3000 − 4750 = 4250 𝑙𝑏

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 37

By performing either method of section or method of joints or combination of the two, we will
have

𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 4907.48 𝑙𝑏 compression

𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 2453.74 𝑙𝑏 tension
𝐹𝐵𝐶 = 2598.08 𝑙𝑏 tension
𝐹𝐵𝐷 = 3752.78 𝑙𝑏 compression
𝐹𝐶𝐷 = 2020.72 𝑙𝑏 tension
𝐹𝐶𝐸 = 2742.42 𝑙𝑏 tension
𝐹𝐷𝐸 = 5484.82 𝑙𝑏 compression

Friction

Friction – contact resistance exerted by one body upon a second body when the second body

U 3
moves or tends to move past the first body.

D 2
Friction is a retarding force always acting opposite to the motion or the tendency to move.

E
O 20
Friction exist due to the roughness of the contact surface where in it is neglected for smooth
R LA BE

C
surfaces.

Friction have pros and cons. Pros when use in frictions drives and brakes, cons because friction

R S
reduces the power transmission.
T C A
EP S
Once static friction is overcome by the external forces being applied, the body will be in motion
and the frictional resistance drops below the acting friction.
N W SU

Static friction - frictional force resisting the applied force on a body which maintains the object at
rest until static friction is overcome.

Kinetic frictional resistance – frictional force resisting the body in motion.

O IE L

Maximum frictional resistance is proportional to the normal pressure and it can be expressed as
D EV C

𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁
Where, 𝐹 – frictional resistance
𝜇 – coefficient of friction
𝑁 – normal pressure

We will only focus on dry friction, a type of friction also known as Coulomb friction that occurs
when unlubricated surfaces of two solids are in contact and slide or tend to slide from each
O

other.
R

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 38

In the figure above, we note that F and N are components of the total reaction R exerted by the
plane surface against the object. The angle ϕ (angle of friction) between R and N depends on
the value of the frictional resistance. If 𝐹 = 0, ϕ = 0, if 𝐹 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠, ϕ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠.

Mathematically, angle of friction is define as,

𝐹
tan ϕ =
𝑁

Since 𝜇 = 𝐹 ⁄𝑁, thus, tan ϕ = 𝜇. The tangent of the angle of friction is equivalent to the
coefficient of friction.

Sample Problem

A 400 lb block is resting on a rough horizontal surface for which the coefficient of friction is 0.40.

U 3
Determine the force P required to cause motion to impend if applied to the block (a) horizontally
or (b) downward at 30° with the horizontal. (c) What minimum force is required to start motion?

D 2
E
Solution:

O 20
R LA BE

C
Given

Weight (W) = 400 lb

R S
Coefficient of friction, 𝜇 = 0.4
T C A
EP S
a) Force P that will be resisted by the frictional force when force P is applied horizontal
causing the that will cause to impede the m
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C

∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0
O

𝑁 = 400 𝑙𝑏, now that we know N, we determine the value of frictional F using the
relation

𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁 = 0.4(400) = 160 𝑙𝑏
R

To determine the force P, we take the ∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0,

𝑃 = 𝐹 = 160 𝑙𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟

b) Force P that will be resisted by the frictional force when force P is applied downward at
30° with the horizontal.

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 39

Same process, we solve the normal force exerted perpendicular to the surface of contact
(N).

Take the ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0,

U 3
𝑁 − 𝑃 sin 30 − 400 = 0 we can simplify this equation into 𝑁 = 𝑃 sin 30 + 400 and we

D 2
substitute this equation to 𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁

E
O 20
𝐹 = 0.4(𝑃 sin 30 + 400) = 0.4𝑃 sin 30 + 160
R LA BE

C
We are solving three unknowns so we need another equation, we take the ∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0,

𝑃 cos 30 = 𝐹, solving this equation and 𝐹 = 0.4𝑃 sin 30 + 160 simultaneously to

R S
determine the value of 𝑃,
T C A
EP S
𝑃 cos 30 = 0.4𝑃 sin 30 + 160
𝑃 cos 30 − 0.4𝑃 sin 30 = 160
N W SU

𝑃(cos 30 − 0.4 sin 30) = 160

160
𝑃= = 240.23 𝑙𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
cos 30 − 0.4 sin 30
O IE L

Sample Problem
D EV C

The 2225-N block is in contact with 45° incline. The coefficient of static friction is 0.25. Compute
the value of the horizontal force P necessary to (a) just start the block up the incline or (b) just
prevent motion down the incline. (c) If P = 1780 N, what is the amount and direction of the
friction force?
O
R

Solution:

Given:

W = 2225 N
Angle of inclination = 45 deg.
Coefficient of friction = 0.25

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 40

a) Force P needed to just start the block up the incline. This means we want to determine
the minimum force P needed to push the block upward. Since the block is push upward,
the friction is oriented to resist the upward motion,

U 3
We use a rotated axis wherein it is oriented such that the x – axis is parallel with the

D 2
incline as shown in the figure above.

E
O 20
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
R LA BE

C
𝑁 = 𝑃 sin 45 + 2225 sin 45 𝐸𝑞. 1

R S
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
T C A
EP S
𝐹 = 𝑃 cos 45 − 2225 cos 45 𝐸𝑞. 2
N W SU

We substitute the value of N from eq. 1 into

𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁 = 0.25(𝑃 sin 45 + 2225 sin 45) 𝐸𝑞. 3

O IE L

Now, we substitute the value of N from Eq. into Eq. 3 to solve the force P,
D EV C

𝑃 cos 45 − 2225 cos 45 = 0.25(𝑃 sin 45 + 2225 sin 45)

𝑃 cos 45 − 2225 cos 45 = 0.25𝑃 sin 45 + 556.25 sin 45

𝑃 cos 45 − 0.25𝑃 sin 45 = 2225 cos 45 + 556.25 sin 45
𝑃(cos 45 − 0.25 sin 45) = 2225 cos 45 + 556.25 sin 45
𝑃 = 3708.33 𝑙𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
O

b) Force P needed to prevent the block to slide down the incline. Since the block has the
tendency to move downward, so the frictional force is oriented to resist the downward
motion of the bock thus the diagram becomes,
R

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 41

Once again, we use a rotated axis orienting x-axis parallel with the inclined plane.

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

𝑁 = 𝑃 sin 45 + 2225 sin 45 𝐸𝑞. 1

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0

𝐹 = 2225 cos 45 − 𝑃 cos 45 𝐸𝑞. 2

Now we substitute the value of N in eq. into

𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁 = 0.25(𝑃 sin 45 + 2225 sin 45) 𝐸𝑞. 3

U 3
Equating eq. 2 and eq. 3 to solve for P,

D 2
2225 cos 45 − 𝑃 cos 45 = 0.25(𝑃 sin 45 + 2225 sin 45)

E
O 20
2225 cos 45 − 𝑃 cos 45 = 0.25𝑃 sin 45 + 393.33
0.25𝑃 sin 45 + 𝑃 cos 45 = 2225 cos 45 − 393.33
R LA BE

C
𝑃 (0.25 sin 45 + cos 45) = 2225 cos 45 − 393.33
𝑃 = 1335 𝑙𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟

R S
T C A
EP S
c) Given a force P = 1780 N, determine the magnitude and direction of frictional force.
To determine the direction of the friction whether it is going upward or downward, we
N W SU

determine the forces along the incline plane. If the x-component of the weight of the
block is greater than the x component of the force P (𝑊𝑥 > 𝑃𝑥 ), then the block will move
downward thus the friction force is upward. If the x-component of the force P is greater
than the x-component of the block then, the block will be push upward, therefore the
O IE L

friction will be oriented downward.

D EV C

We calculate the x-components of the weight and force P,

𝑊𝑥 = 2225 cos 45 = 1573.32 𝑙𝑏

𝑃𝑥 = 1780 cos 45 = 1258.65 𝑙𝑏

Since 𝑊𝑥 > 𝑃𝑥 , the block will move downward therefore the frictional force is upward,
O
R

To solve the frictional resistance,

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 42

𝑃 cos 45 + 𝐹 = 2225 cos 45

𝐹 = 314.66 𝑙𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟

Wedges

Friction in wedges applies the same principle.

Sample Problem

Determine the minimum weight of block B that will keep it at rest while a force P starts blocks A
up the incline surface of B. The weight of A is 100 lb and the angle of friction for all surfaces in
contact is 15°.

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
Solution:

R S
T C A
EP S
Given:
N W SU

Weight of Block A = 100 lb

Angle of friction = 15 deg

We can solve the problem by using directly the angle of friction or convert the angle of friction
into coefficient of friction (i.e., the tangent of angle of friction is the coefficient of friction)
O IE L

Since the given is angle of friction, we use it to solve the problem. Remember that the angle of
D EV C

friction is the angle between the frictional normal force 𝑁 to the total reaction force 𝑅 exerted by
the plane surface against the object as shown in the figure below.
O
R

If we analyze the whole system, we have the following free body diagram,

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 43

U 3
D 2
E
In block A, a normal force is exerted normal or perpendicular to the sliding surface of the block.

O 20
Since the block is to slide up, therefore the frictional force is oriented downward, thus the
R LA BE
reaction is exerted upward to the left. The angle friction 15° is the angle between the normal

C
force and the total reaction 𝑅1 .

R S
In block B, there are two sliding surfaces where friction occurs. First is on the contact surface
T C A
between block A and B. Second, the plane surface where block B stands.
EP S
On the contact surface of block A and B focusing on block B, it seems that block B is being push
to the left (but actually at rest) because the block A is sliding up. Thus the frictional force here in
N W SU

block B is oriented upward. So the reaction 𝑅1 is oriented down to the right.

On the plane surface where block B stands, the block B is being push to the right thus the friction
is resisting it therefore it is oriented to the left. The reaction 𝑅2 is then oriented upward to the
O IE L

left.
D EV C

Now, we solve the minimum weight of block B to resist while force P is applied to a 10lb block A,

In the FBD of block A,

O
R

∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0

𝑅1 cos 45 = 100
100
𝑅1 = = 141.42 𝑙𝑏
cos 45

In FBD of block B,

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 44

∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0

𝑅1 sin 45 = 𝑅2 sin 15

𝑅1 sin 45 141.42 sin 45

U 3
𝑅2 = = = 386.77 𝑙𝑏
sin 15 sin 15

D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE
To solve the minimum weight of block B,

C
∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0

R S
T C A
𝑊𝐵 + 𝑅1 cos 45 = 𝑅2 cos 15
EP S
𝑊𝐵 = 𝑅2 cos 15 − 𝑅1 cos 45
N W SU

𝑊𝐵 = 386.77 cos 15 − 141.42 cos 45 = 273.6 𝑙𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟

O IE L
D EV C

Centroids and Centers of Gravity

Centroid – also known as “center of mass”, “center of gravity”, is the center point of an object.
O

Centroids of Common Geometric Shapes

Shape Area or Length 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅

R

Rectangle

1 1
𝐴 = 𝑏𝑑 𝑥̅ = 𝑏 𝑦̅ = 𝑑
2 2

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 45

Triangle

1 1
𝐴= 𝑏ℎ 𝑦̅ = ℎ
2 3

For right triangle

U 3
D 2
E
1 1 1
𝑥̅ = ℎ 𝑦̅ = ℎ

O 20
𝐴= 𝑏ℎ
2 3 3
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
Circle
N W SU
O IE L

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑥̅ = 0 𝑦̅ = 0
D EV C

Semi-circle
O

𝜋𝑟 2 4𝑟
𝐴= 𝑥̅ = 0 𝑦̅ =
2 3𝜋
R

Semi-circular arc 2𝑟
𝐿 = 𝜋𝑟 𝑥̅ = 𝑦̅ = 0
𝜋

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 46

U 3
Quarter Circle

D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
𝜋𝑟 2 4𝑟 4𝑟
𝐴= 𝑥̅ = 𝑦̅ =
4 3𝜋 3𝜋

R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU

Sector Circle
O IE L
D EV C

2𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝐴 = 𝑟 2 𝜃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑥̅ = 𝑦̅ = 0
3𝜃𝑟𝑎𝑑
O

Segment of an arc
R

𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝐿 = 2𝑟𝜃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑥̅ = 𝑦̅ = 0
𝜃𝑟𝑎𝑑

Ellipse
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏 𝑥̅ = 0 𝑦̅ = 0

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 47

Half-ellipse

𝜋𝑎𝑏 4𝑏
𝐴= 𝑥̅ = 0 𝑦̅ =
2 3𝜋

U 3
D 2
E
Quarter Ellipse

O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
𝜋𝑎𝑏 4𝑎 4𝑏
EP S
𝐴= 𝑥̅ = 𝑦̅ =
4 3𝜋 3𝜋
N W SU
O IE L

Parabolic segment
D EV C

2 3 2
𝐴= 𝑏ℎ 𝑥̅ = 𝑏 𝑦̅ = ℎ
3 8 5
O
R

Area under spandrel

1 1 𝑛+1
𝐴= 𝑏ℎ 𝑥̅ = 𝑏 𝑦̅ = ℎ
𝑛+1 𝑛+2 4𝑛 + 2

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 48

Sample Problem

The dimensions of the T-section of a cast-iron beam are shown in the figure. How far is the
centroid of the area above the base?

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
Solution:
EP S
The centroid of the area above the base is the 𝑦̅. If we draw the x and y axis in the such that x-
axis is in line with the base of the beam and the y axis passes the center of the beam,
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C
O
R

In the free body diagram, we note that the 𝑥̅ = 0. To solve for the 𝑦̅, we separate the upper
rectangular body and the lower rectangular body of the beam:

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 49

U 3
We have two areas and each areas have centroid, for area 1, 𝐴1 = 8 × 1 = 8, 𝑥̅ = 0, 𝑦̅ = 4. For
area 2, 𝐴2 = 1 × 6 = 6 𝑥̅ = 0, 𝑦̅ = 1. Now we determine the distances between the 𝑦̅ of each

D 2
area to the base of the beam or the x – axis.

E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C

In the above free body diagram, the distance of 𝑦1 = 1 + 4 = 5 and 𝑦2 = 0.5. Solving the
centroid of the beam using the equation,

𝐴1 𝑦1 + 𝐴2 𝑦2 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛 𝑦𝑛
𝑦̅ =
𝐴𝑇

We have,
O

8(5) + 6(0.5)
𝑦̅ = = 3.07 𝑖𝑛. 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
8+6
R

Sample Problem

Determine the coordinates of the centroid of the area shown in the figure with respect to the
given axes.

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 50

Solution:

U 3
Note the location of the axes, the origin is located at point O. To solve the centroid of the area

D 2
with respect to the axes, we have to know the centroid formula for the shape. In the figure, we

E
have a semi-circle and a triangle. The centroid formulas for the shapes are:

O 20
R LA BE

C
Semi-circle Right Triangle

R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU

Note the axes at which it is located because it

is the basis of the formulas.
O IE L

𝜋𝑟 2 1
D EV C

𝐴= 𝐴= 𝑏ℎ
2 2

4𝑟 1
𝑦̅ = 𝑥̅ = 𝑏
3𝜋 3

𝑥̅ = 0 1
𝑦̅ = ℎ
3
O

We separate the shapes and calculate the distance of their centroids to the x and y axes and the
area of the shape.
R

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 51

U 3
D 2
E
For the semi-circle For the triangle

O 20
R LA BE

C
𝜋(3)2 9 1
𝐴1 = = 𝜋 = 14.14 𝐴2 = (6)(9) = 27
2 2 2

1
𝑦̅ =
3𝜋
R S
4(3) 4
= = 1.27
𝜋
𝑥̅ =
3
(6) = 2
T C A

𝑥̅ = 0
EP S
1
𝑦̅ = (9) = 3
By inspection, 𝑥1 = 3 3
N W SU

For 𝑦1 ,
By inspection 𝑥2 = 𝑥̅
4 For 𝑦2 ,
𝑦1 = 9 + 𝑦̅ = 9 + = 10.27
𝜋
𝑦2 = 9 − 𝑦̅ = 9 − 3 = 6
O IE L
D EV C

Or, we note that

2 2
𝑦2 = ℎ = (9) = 6
3 3

Knowing all the values, we calculate the centroid of the area with respect to the x and y axes
using the following equation,
O

𝐴1 𝑥1 + 𝐴2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛 𝑥𝑛
𝑥̅ =
𝐴𝑇

𝐴1 𝑦1 + 𝐴2 𝑦2 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛 𝑦𝑛
R

𝑦̅ =
𝐴𝑇

14.14(3) + 27(2)
𝑥̅ = = 2.34 𝑖𝑛. 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
14.14 + 27

14.14(10.27) + 27(6)
𝑦̅ = = 7.47 𝑖𝑛. 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
14.14 + 27

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 52

Moments of Inertia

Moment of inertia, also known as “second moment of area” is the rotational inertia of the body.
It is the product of the squared moment arm to the area. Mathematically as,

𝐼 = ∫ 𝜌2 𝑑𝐴

Where 𝐼 – moment of inertia

𝜌 – perpendicular distance from area 𝑑𝐴 to the axis of inertia
𝑑𝐴 – area of the body

Its definition means that an area is divided into smaller area 𝑑𝐴 and multiply each of the area to

U 3
the square of its moment arm about a reference axis. In the figure below, if the coordinates of
the center of the differential area 𝑑𝐴 are (x,y), the moment of inertia about the X axis is the

D 2
summation of the product of each 𝑑𝐴 by the square of its moment arm 𝑦,

E
O 20
R LA BE 𝐼𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴

C
The same also when the moment of inertia is about Y axis,

R S 𝐼𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C

Moment of inertia gains its significance when use in combination with other terms like flexural
stress.
O

Polar moment of inertia – moment of inertia for an area relative to a line or polar axis
perpendicular to the plane of the area. Mathematically,

𝐽 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑌
R

Radius of Gyration - measure of the elastic stability of a cross-section (cross-section resistance)

against buckling. It is given by,

𝐼
𝑘=√
𝐴
Where 𝑘 – radius of gyration
𝐼 – moment of inertia
𝐴 – cross sectional area

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 53

Transfer Formula for Moment of Inertia

Transfer formula for moment of inertia is formulated to accommodate the calculation of moment
of inertia when it is transferred from centroidal axis to another parallel axis.

U 3
It is given by,

D 2
𝐼 = 𝐼 ̅ + 𝐴𝑑 2

E
O 20
where 𝐼 – moment of inertia with respect to the x axis
R LA BE 𝐼 ̅ – moment of inertial with respect to the centroidal axis

C
𝐴 – area of the section
𝑑 – distance between the centroidal axis and the x-axis

R S
T C A
EP S
Moments of Inertia for Common Geometric Shapes
N W SU

Shape Moment of Inertia Radius of Gyration

Rectangular

ℎ
𝑏ℎ3 𝑘̅𝑥 =
O IE L

𝐼𝑥̅ = √12
12
D EV C

ℎ
𝑏ℎ3 𝑘𝑥 =
𝐼𝑥 = √3
3

Triangle
O

ℎ
𝑏ℎ3 𝑘̅𝑥 =
𝐼𝑥̅ = √18
36
R

ℎ
𝑏ℎ3 𝑘𝑥 =
𝐼𝑥 = √6
12

𝜋𝑟 4 𝑟
𝐼𝑥̅ = 𝑘̅𝑥 =
4 2

Circle ℎ
𝜋𝑟 4 𝑘𝑥 =
𝑗̅ =
2 √2

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 54

Semi-Circle

𝐼𝑥̅ = 0.11𝑟 4 𝑟
𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘̅𝑦 =
2
𝜋𝑟 2
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦̅ = 𝑘̅𝑥 = 0.264𝑟
8

U 3
D 2
Quarter Circle

E
O 20
R LA BE

C
𝜋𝑟 4 𝑟
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑦 =
16 2

R S 𝐼𝑥̅ = 𝐼𝑦̅ = 0.055𝑟 4 𝑘̅𝑥 = 𝑘̅𝑦 = 0.264𝑟

T C A
EP S
N W SU

Ellipse

𝑏
𝜋𝑎𝑏 3 𝑘̅𝑥 =
O IE L

𝐼𝑥̅ = 2
4
𝑎
D EV C

𝜋𝑏𝑎3 𝑘̅𝑦 =
𝐼𝑦̅ = 2
4
O

Sample Problem

Find the moment of inertia for a rectangle of base b and height h with respect to: a) centroidal
R

axis parallel to the base b, b) axis coinciding with the base.

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 55

a) Moment of inertia with respect to the centroidal axis parallel to the base (𝑋0 ),

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
We apply the equation for the moment of inertia with respect to axis 𝑋0
N W SU

𝐼𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
By definite integration, we calculate the moment of inertia of the shape with respect to
𝑋0 . The integral is bounded from –h/2 to h/2, we have
O IE L
D EV C

ℎ/2 ℎ/2
ℎ/2
𝑦3 𝑏ℎ3
𝐼𝑥̅ = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑏𝑑𝑦 = 𝑏 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑏𝑑𝑦 = 𝑏 [ ] = 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
3 −ℎ/2 12
−ℎ/2 −ℎ/2

b) Moment of inertia with respect to 𝑋 axis, parallel to the centroidal axis,

We use the transfer formula to find the moment of inertia,

O

𝐼 = 𝐼 ̅ + 𝐴𝑑 2
We already know the centroidal moment of inertia 𝐼𝑥̅ , the area of the shape is 𝑏𝑑 and the
distance of the 𝑋 axis to the centroidal axis 𝑋0 is 𝑑 = ℎ⁄2, so we have
R

𝑏ℎ3 ℎ 2 𝑏ℎ3
𝐼𝑥 = + 𝑏𝑑 ( ) = 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
12 2 3

Moment of inertia for composite area

Composite area is can be divided into several geometric shapes with known moment of inertia.
The moment of inertia for a composite shape is the summation of the moment of inertia in each
shape with respect to a common axis. Take note of the common axis. It means that before you

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 56

take the summation, the moment of inertia in each shape should be calculated based on a
common axis.

Sample problem

Find the moment of inertia with respect to the centroidal X and Y axes of the wide flange beam
section shown in the figure below.

U 3
Solution:

D 2
E
O 20
Composite moment of inertia is the sum of all the moment of inertia calculated in each parts that
is based on the same axis.
R LA BE

C
Moment of inertia with respect to the centroidal X aixs, by inspection the centroidal X axis is at 6”
above the base of the beam and the centroid for the Y axis is at 8” from the right or left of the

R S
outer most fiber of the beam.
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C

We can solve the problem by simply considering the large rectangle 8 × 12 from which a two
smaller rectangle of 3.5 × 10 are subtracted,
O
R

We can see that all three parts coincide with the X axis which is a requirement in calculating the
moment of inertia of the composite figure.

Solving the moment of inertia of the bigger rectangle with respect to X axis,

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 57

𝑏ℎ3 8(12)3
𝐼𝑋 = = = 1152 𝑖𝑛4
12 12

Solving the moment of inertia of the two smaller rectangle with respect to X axis,

𝑏ℎ3 3.5(10)3
𝐼𝑋 = = = 291.67 𝑖𝑛4
12 12

Since there are two rectangles, we have 𝐼𝑋 = 291.67 × 2 = 583.33

The moment of inertia for the composted area (unshaded area in the figure above) is,

𝐼𝑋 = 291.67 𝑖𝑛4 − 583.33 𝑖𝑛4 = 568.67 𝑖𝑛4

Another approach is to use the transfer formula. We can divide the composite area into three

U 3
parts as shown in the figure

D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU

In the figure we note that only the Area 2 intersect the X axis, so to solve the moment of inertia
for area 1 and area 2 we use the transfer formula.
O IE L
D EV C
O

For area 1 and area 3, we use the transform formula (note also that their moment of inertia are
R

the same since they have same area and same distance from the centroid of the composite
area).

𝑏ℎ3 8(1)2
𝐼𝑋 = + 𝐴𝑑 2 = + 8(1)(5.5)2 = 242.67 𝑖𝑛4
12 12

For area 3, since it its centroid intersect the centroidal X axis of the component,

𝑏ℎ3 1(10)3
𝐼𝑋 = = = 83.33 𝑖𝑛4
12 12

We take the sum of the moment of inertia for areas 1, 2, and 3,

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 58

𝐼𝑋 = 242.67 (2) + 83.33 = 568.67 𝑖𝑛4 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟

This is also the same with the first approach. Try solving the moment of inertia with respect to
the centroidal Y axis (use both method). The moment of inertia with respect to Y axis is 𝐼𝑌 =
86.17 𝑖𝑛4

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C
O
R

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Engineering Mechanics: Statics

 1

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

VAN M. PASTOR, CE, RMP, ME-1,TPICQS

Alumnus
College of Engineering, Central Luzon State University

INTRODUCTION

Strength of Materials is focused on analyzing stresses and deflections in materials under

load. Knowledge of stresses and deflections allows for the safe design of structures that are
capable of supporting their intended loads.

SIMPLE STRESS

Stress

U 3
Stress is the strength of a material per unit area or unit strength.

D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU

AXIAL STRESS AND STRAIN

Simple Strain
O IE L

Simple Strain also known as a unit deformation, is the ratio of the change in length
caused by an applied force, to the original length.
D EV C
O
R

THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS

Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or gas under a pressure is subjected to tensile forces,
which resist bursting, developed across longitudinal and transverse sections.

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Strength of Materials

 2

U 3
SHEARING DEFORMATION

D 2
Shearing Deformation

E
O 20
Shearing forces cause shearing deformation. An element subject to shear does not
change in length but undergoes a change in shape.
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU

TORSION

Torsion

Torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque.

O IE L
D EV C
O
R

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Strength of Materials

 3

HELICAL SPRINGS

Helical Springs

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
FLEXURE FORMULA

Flexure Formula

R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C

SHEARING STRESS FORMULA

Shearing Stress Formula

O
R

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Strength of Materials

 R
D EV C
O IE L

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023

N W SU
O
T C A
R LA BE
EP S
R S
O 20
D 2
U 3
4

Strength of Materials
C
E
 5

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS QUESTIONS

1. A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100 mm must carry a tensile load of 400
kN. Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the stress is limited to 120 MN/m2.
A. 113.95 mm C. 119.35 mm
B. 193.15 mm D. 115.39 mm

2. What force is required to punch a 20-mm-diameter hole in a plate that is 25 mm thick?

The shear strength is 350 MN/m2.
A. 549.78 KN C. 459.78 KN
B. 549.78 N D. 459.78 N

3. A hole is to be punched out of a plate having a shearing strength of 275 Mpa. The
compressive stress in the punch is limited to 350 Mpa. Compute the maximum thickness
of plate in which a hole 75 mm in diameter can be punched.

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R SA. 28.36 mm C. 26.83 mm
T C A
B. 23.86 mm D. 26.38 mm
EP S
4. If the plate is 5 mm thick, determine the diameter of the smallest hole that can be
N W SU

punched.
A. 11.57 mm C. 17.15 mm
B. 17.51 mm D. 15.71 mm

5. Assume that a 20-mm-diameter rivet joins the plates that are each 110 mm wide. The
O IE L

allowable stresses are 120 MPa for bearing in the plate material and 60 MPa for shearing
of rivet. Determine the minimum thickness of each plate.
D EV C

A. 8.75 mm C. 7.83 mm
O

B. 7.85 mm D. 7.58 mm

6. Determine the largest average tensile stress in the plates.

A. 23.94 MPa C. 26.75 MPa
R

B. 26.68 MPa D. 27.63 MPa

7. The wall thickness of a 1.2m-diameter spherical tank is 8 mm. Calculate the allowable
internal pressure if the stress is limited to 60 Mpa.
A. 1.2 MPa C. 1.6 MPa
B. 1.4 MPa D. 1.8 MPa

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Strength of Materials

 6

8. A cylindrical pressure vessel is fabricated from steel plating that has a thickness of 20 mm.
The diameter of the pressure vessel is 450 mm and its length is 2.0 m. Determine the
maximum internal pressure that can be applied if the longitudinal stress is limited to 140
MPa, and the circumferential stress is limited to 60 MPa.

A. 24.89 MPa C. 3.53 MPa

B. 28.49 MPa D. 5.33 MPa

9. A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is stretched between two fixed points.
The tensile load at 70°F is 1200 lb. Assume α = 6.5 × 10-6 in/(in·°F) and E = 29 × 106
psi. What will be the stress at 0°F?

A. 17 ksi C. 19 ksi
B. 18 ksi D. 20 ksi
\
10. At what temperature will the stress be zero?

U 3
A. 94.56°F C. 96.45°F

D 2
B. 96.54°F D. 95.46°F

E
O 20
11. A steel shaft 3 ft long that has a diameter of 4 in is subjected to a torque of 15 kip·ft.
R LA BE
Determine the maximum shearing stress and the angle of twist. Use G = 12 × 106psi.

C
A. 14.32 ksi, 1.32° C. 14.32 ksi, 1.23°
B. 13.42 ksi, 1.32° D. 13.42 ksi, 1.23°

R S
T C A
12. What is the minimum diameter of a solid steel shaft that will not twist through more than
EP S
3° in a 6-m length when subjected to a torque of 12 kN·m? Use G = 83 GPa.
N W SU

A. 113.98 mm C. 118.93 mm
B. 119.38 mm D. 118.39 mm

13. What maximum shearing stress is developed?

O IE L

A. 41.27 MPa C. 36.33 MPa

B. 35.92 MPa D. 36.83 MPa
D EV C

14. A steel marine propeller shaft 14 in. in diameter and 18 ft long is used to transmit 5000 hp
at 189 rpm. If G = 12 × 106 psi, determine the maximum shearing stress.

A. 3,904.6 psi C. 3,049.6 psi

B. 3,094.6 psi D. 3,409.6 psi

15. A steel propeller shaft is to transmit 4.5 MW at 3 Hz without exceeding a shearing stress
O

of 50 MPa or twisting through more than 1° in a length of 26 diameters. Compute the

proper diameter if G = 83 GPa.

A. 352 mm C. 290 mm
B. 209 mm D. 325 mm
R

16. Determine the maximum torque that can be applied to a hollow circular steel shaft of 100-
mm outside diameter and an 80-mm inside diameter without exceeding a shearing stress
of 60 MPa or a twist of 0.5 deg/m. Use G = 83 GPa.

A. 6,959 N•m C. 6,995 N•m

B. 6,956 N•m D. 4,198 N•m

17. Determine the maximum shearing stress and elongation in a helical steel spring composed
of 20 turns of 20-mm-diameter wire on a mean radius of 90 mm when the spring is
supporting a load of 1.5 kN. G = 83 GPa.

A. 90.72 Mpa, 105.4 mm C. 90.72 Mpa, 104.5 mm

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Strength of Materials

 7

B. 92.07 Mpa, 105.4 mm D. 92.07 Mpa, 104.5 mm

18. Compute the maximum shearing stress developed in a phosphor bronze spring having
mean diameter of 200 mm and consisting of 24 turns of 20-mm diameter wire when the
spring is stretched 100 mm. Use A.M. Wahl Formula and G = 42 GPa.

A. 31.98 Mpa C. 31.89 Mpa

B. 38.91 Mpa D. 39.81 Mpa

19. From the given figure, Determine the maximum positive shear.

U 3
D 2
A. 30 KN C. 24 KN

E
B. 26 KN D. 22 KN

O 20
R LA BE

C
20. Determine the maximum negative moment.

A. -30 KN•m C. -26 KN•m

-48 KN•m -24 KN•m

R S
B. D.
T C A
21. Determine the location of the zero moment from point B.
EP S
A. 1.415 m C. 1.514 m
N W SU

B. 1.451 m D. 1.154 m

22. From the given figure. Determine the maximum negative shear.
O IE L
D EV C

A. -10 KN C. -30 KN
B. -20 KN D. -40 KN

23. Determine the maximum positive moment.

O

A. 33.33 KN•m C. 67.67 KN•m

B. 60.00 KN•m D. 40.00 KN•m
R

24. Determine the location of the maximum moment from point A.

A. 3.67 m C. 4.35 m
B. 3.45 m D. 4.53 m

25. A rectangular steel bar, 15 mm wide by 30 mm high and 6 m long, is simply supported at
its ends. If the density of steel is 7850 kg/m3, determine the maximum bending stress
caused by the weight of the bar.

A. 96.30 Mpa C. 69.30 Mpa

B. 36.90 Mpa D. 63.90 Mpa

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Strength of Materials

 8

26. A timber beam 80 mm wide by 160 mm high is subjected to a vertical shear V = 40 kN.
Determine the maximum shearing stress.

A. 4.86 MPa C. 6.48 MPa

B. 4.69 MPa D. 6.84 MPa

27. A wide flange section is formed by bolting together three planks, each 80 mm by 200
mm, arranged as shown in the figure. If each bolt can withstand a shearing force of 8
kN, determine the pitch if the beam is loaded so as to cause a maximum shearing stress
of 1.4 MPa.

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
A. 81.48 mm C. 88.14 mm
B. 84.18 mm D. 81.84 m
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C
O
R

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Strength of Materials

 1

THERMODYNAMICS AND REFRIGERATION

EFREN A. DELA CRUZ

Associate Professor III
Engineering Sciences

I. Introduction

The word thermodynamics was derived from Greek words “Therme” means heat and
“Dynamis” means Force (strength or power). Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the
study of energy and entropy; it deals with the properties of matter/substance related to heat and
work; it deals with processes and cycles on the transformation of energy of all kinds, from one
form to another. Refrigeration deals with processes of cooling; it deals with the processes and
cycles of different methods of refrigeration; analysis of Carnot and vapor compression refrigeration
systems; refrigerant and their properties; and the application of psychometrics in air conditioning.

U 3
II. Basic Concepts, Properties and Definitions

D 2
E
Thermodynamics System

O 20
An important step in any engineering analysis is to describe precisely what is being studied.
R LA BE
A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study. It may be as

C
simple as a closed, rigid-walled tank or as complex as an entire Industrial refinery. The composition
of the matter inside the system may be fixed or may be changing through chemical or nuclear
reactions. The shape or volume of the system being analyzed is not necessarily constant, as when

R S
a gas in a cylinder is compressed by a piston or an inflated balloon.
T C A
The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings. The real or imaginary
EP S
surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the boundary (Fig. 1.1). The
boundary of a system can be fixed or movable. Note that the boundary is the contact surface
shared by both the system and the surroundings. Mathematically speaking, the boundary has zero
N W SU

thickness, and thus it can neither contain any mass nor occupy any volume in space.
O IE L
D EV C

Fig. 1.1 System, Surroundings and Boundary

Types of Systems
Two basic kinds of systems are studied in this material. Systems may be considered to be
O

closed or open, depending on whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study.
A closed system (also known as a control mass or just system when the context makes it clear)
consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary. That is, no mass can
enter or leave a closed system, as shown in Fig. 1.2 (a). But energy, in the form of heat or work,
can cross the boundary; and the volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed.
R

If, as a special case, even energy is not allowed to cross the boundary, that system is
called isolated system. Consider the piston-cylinder device shown in Fig. 1.2 (b). Let us say that
we would like to find out what happens to the enclosed gas when it is heated. Since we are focusing
our attention on the gas, it is our system. The inner surfaces of the piston and the cylinder form
the boundary, and since no mass is crossing this boundary, it is a closed system. Notice that energy
may cross the boundary, and part of the boundary (the inner surface of the piston, in this case)
may move. Everything outside the gas, including the piston and the cylinder, is the surroundings.

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 2

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.2 Closed System

U 3
An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly selected region
in space. It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or

D 2
nozzle Fig. 1.3. Flow through these devices is best studied by selecting the region within the device
as the control volume. Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.

E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU

Fig. 1.3 Open System

Thermodynamics deals with the macroscopic as opposed to microscopic analysis in

describing the system behavior.
O IE L

In microscopic analysis we must look and analyze the molecular action.

In macroscopic we can define the system behavior with the overall effect of the molecular
D EV C

interaction.

Laws of Thermodynamics
• Zeroth law - when two bodies have equality of temperature with a third body, they in turn
have equality of temperature with each other.

• First Law – also known as the Conservation of Energy principle, states that energy can neither
be created not destroyed, it can only change forms.
O

• Second Law - deals with the quality of energy (energy degradation). There are two classical
statements of this law:
⮚ Kelvin-Planck statement: It is impossible to construct a device that will operate in a cycle
and produce no effect other than the raising of a weight and the exchange of heat with
R

a single reservoir.
⮚ Clausius statement: It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and
produces no effect other than the transfer of heat from a cooler-body to a hotter body.

• Third law – states that the entropy of a perfect crystal is zero at the absolute zero of
temperature.

Properties of Thermodynamics substance/ system.

Characteristic quality of the entire systems and depends not on how the system change
state but only on the final particular state of the substance/system.

Extensive Properties - those properties that vary directly with mass.

Ex. mass, volume of solids.
Intensive properties -Those properties that are independent of the mass.

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 3

Ex. Tem. , Pressure.

Phase and state of Thermodynamic substance.

Phase- quantity of matter that is homogeneous throughout
(solid, liquid, gas)

Change of Phase
▪ Solid to Liquid - Melting
▪ Liquid to Solid - Solidification (Freezing)
▪ Liquid to Gas - Evaporation
▪ Gas to liquid - Condensation
▪ Solid to Gas - Sublimation

State of Substance - condition of a substance as described by certain observable macroscopic

parameter called Properties.

Processes and Cycles

U 3
Process- Simply the change of state

D 2
Types of processes

E
O 20
● Isothermal - constant temperature.
●
R LA BE
Isobaric - constant pressure

C
● Isometric - constant volume
● Reversible Adiabatic - constant entropy
● Isenthalpic - constant enthalpy
●

R S
Polytropic – PVn = C
T C A
EP S
Cycle - a series of processes one after the other such that the initial and final states are the same.

III. Properties and Property Relations

N W SU

Mass And Weight

The mass of a body is the absolute quantity of matter in it.

Mass equivalent based on gram

O IE L

▪ Gram- 1 g
▪ lb- 454 g
D EV C

▪ kg- 1000 g
▪ slug- 14600 g

The weight of the body is the force exerted by gravity on the given mass.

Relation of Mass and Weight

Fg = mg from F= ma
Or
W= mg
O

g- Acceleration due to gravity If observe gravity (go) is not given, then, used the
standard gravity (gs)
32.174 ft/s2 9.80665 m/s2
2
32.2-ft/s 9.81 m/s2
R

Other units related to mass and weight

For English & MKS
W= m go /gs
Only for kgf & lbf
kgm & lbm

If go = gs (m = w) for:
1lbm= 1 lbf & 1kgm= 1kgf

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 4

Mass Fundamentals
Newton’s Physics- mass is constant anywhere in the universe.

Law of conservation of mass states that mass is indestructible, provided that there is no
nuclear process involved.
min= m change + mout

if Δm= O
Then
min= mout

Density, Specific Volume, and Specific Weight

The density (ρ)of any substance is its mass per unit volume.
ρ= m/V
Density of Water at Standard Condition
English
62.4 lbm/ft3

U 3
8.33 lbm/Gal
MKS

D 2
1000 kgm/m3

E
1 kgm/l

O 20
SI
R LA BE 1000 kgm/m3

C
Specific Volume is the volume of substance per unit mass

v = V/m = 1/(m/V) = 1/ρ

R S
For water non at standard condition look @ steam table
T C A
EP S
The specific weight of any substance is the force of gravity (weight) per unit volume.

γ = W/V
N W SU

For water at standard condition

English
γ = 62.4 lbf/ft3
= 8.33 lbf/Gal
O IE L

MKS
γ = 1000 kgf/m3
D EV C

= 1 kgf/l
SI
γ = 9806.65 N/m3
= 9.80665 KN/m3

For fluid passing through a given section (Applying the law of conservation of mass)
Q = AV
ṁ = Q/v = AV/v = AVρ
where:
O

Q - volume flow rate

A - cross sectional area of section
V - average speed (velocity)
ṁ – mass flow rate
R

ṁin = ṁout
AVρin = AVρout

Specific Gravity Or Relative Density

For solids and liquids
Ratio of weight to the weight of water of equal volume

SG = W/Wwater = γ V/ γwater Vwater = γ / γwater

= ρ.g/ ρwaterg = ρ / ρwater
= vwater/ v
For Gasses

SG = MW/MWa

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 5

where
MWa = 28.97 = 29

Specific Heat (c)

The specific heat of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat required to change the
temperature of unit mass through one degree.
cp dry air = 1.0062 kJ/ kg.K
cp water = 4.187 kJ/ kg. K

Temperature
Measures of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
Always use absolute temp. in the analysis of thermodynamics.

For absolute temp.

T = 459.69 + oF in oR
= 273.15 + oC in oK

U 3
Conversion of oF & oC

D 2
o
F = 1.8 oC + 32

E
o
C = (oF- 32)/1.8

O 20
R LA BE
Pressure

C
For solids
P = F/A (Stress)
For liquids and gasses

R S
Measuring pressure
T C A
1) Using manometers open to atmosphere
EP S
a) Absolute press. is greater than atmospheric press.
P= Patm + γ h
N W SU

b) Absolute press. is less than atmospheric press.

P = Patm - γ h

Where
P- Absolute press.
O IE L

Patm- atmospheric press.

γ - specific weight of fluid in the manometer
D EV C

h- height of fluid

2) Using pressure gages

a) absolute press. is greater than atmospheric
P = Patm + Pg
b) Absolute press. is less than atmospheric
P= Patm - Pg (vacuum)
Where
Pg- gage press.
O

Patm or 1atm =101.325 kPa

=14.7 Psi
= 760 mm Hg
= 29.92 in Hg
R

IV. Conservation of Energy

Gravitational Potential Energy (P)

The gravitational potential energy of a body is its energy due to its position or elevation.

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 6

Kinetic Energy (K)

The energy or stored capacity for performing work possessed by a moving body, by virtue
of its momentum is called kinetic energy.

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
Internal Energy (U, u)
Internal energy is energy stored within a body or substance by virtue of the activity and
configuration of its molecules and of the vibration of the atoms within the molecules.

R S
u = specific internal energy (per unit mass) Δu = u2 – u1
T C A
U = mu = total internal energy (m-mass) ΔU = U2 – U1
EP S
Work (W)
Work is the product of the displacement of the body and the component of the force in
N W SU

the direction of the displacement. Work is energy in transition; that is, it exists only when a force
is “moving through a distance.”

Heat (Q)
Heat is energy in transit (on the move) from one body or system to another, solely because
O IE L

of a temperature difference between the bodies or systems.

D EV C

Q is positive when heat is added to the body or system.

Q is negative when heat is rejected by the body or system.

First Law of Thermodynamics

The law of conservation of energy states that energy is neither created nor destroyed.
The first law of thermodynamics states that one form of energy may be converted into
another form.
O

Steady Flow Energy Equation

Characteristics of steady flow system.

1. There is neither accumulation nor diminution of mass within the system.
R

2. There is neither accumulation nor diminution of energy within the system.

3. The state of the working substance at any point in the system remains constant.

Fig. 4 Energy Diagram of a Steady Flow System

Energy Entering System = Energy Leaving System

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 7

P1 + K1 + Wf1 + U1 + Q = P2 + K2 + Wf2 + U2 + W
Q = ΔP + ΔK + ΔWf + ΔU + W
(Steady Flow Energy Equation)

Enthalpy (H, h)
Enthalpy is a composite property applicable to all fluids and is defined by

h = u + pv and H = mh = U + pV

The steady flow energy equation becomes

P1 + K1 + H1 + Q = P2 + K2 + H2 + W
Q = ΔP + ΔK + ΔH + W

For a steady-state closed system, the energy can increase only through the influx of heat
and/ or the performance of work on it, according to the equation:

U 3
Q =△E + W
Q =△U + W

D 2
E
V. The Ideal Gas

O 20
An ideal gas is ideal only in the sense that it conforms to the simple perfect gas laws.
R LA BE

C
Boyle’s Law
If the temperature of a given quantity of gas is held constant, the volume of the gas varies
inversely with the absolute pressure during a change of state.

R S V∞1 or V=C
T C A
P P
EP S
PV = C or P1V1 = P2V2
N W SU

Charles’s Law
If the pressure on a particular quantity of gas is held constant, then, with any change of
state, the volume will vary directly as the absolute temperature.
V ∞ T or V = CT
O IE L

V=C or V1 = V2
T T1 T2
D EV C

Gay-Lussac’s Law
If the volume of a particular quantity of gas is held constant, then, with any change of
state, the pressure will vary directly as the absolute temperature.
P∞T or P = CT

P=C or P1 = P2
T T 1 T2

Equation of State or Characteristics Equation of a Perfect Gas (Ideal Gas)

O

Combining Boyle’s Charles’s and Gay-Lussac’s laws,

P1V1 = P2V2 = C, a constant
T1 T2
R

PV = mR
T

PV = mRT Pv = RT

Actual Gasses
Pv = ZRT

where
R = specific gas constant or simply gas constant = Ř/M
Z = compressibility factor

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 8

Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas

Joule’s law states that “the change of internal energy of an ideal gas is a function of only
the temperature change.” Therefore, ΔU is given by the formula,
ΔU = mcv (T2-T1)
whether the volume remains constant or not.

Enthalpy of an Ideal Gas

The change of enthalpy of an ideal gas is given by the formula,
ΔH = mcp (T2-T1)
whether the pressure remains constant or not.

Relation Between cp and cv

Ratio of Specific Heats

k = cp/cv > 1

From h = u + pv and pv = RT

U 3
dh = du + RdT
cpdT = cvdT + RdT

D 2
E
cp = cv + R

O 20
R LA BE cv = R/k-1

C
cp = kR/k-1

R S
T C A
VI. Properties of Pure Substance
EP S
Saturation Temperature
Saturation temperature is the temperature at which liquids start to boil or the
N W SU

temperature at which vapor begin to condense. The saturation temperature of a given substance
depends upon its existing pressure. It is directly proportional to the pressure, i.e., it increases as
the pressure is increased and decreases as the pressure is decreased.
Examples:
a. Water boils at 100°C at atmospheric condition (101.325 kPa)
O IE L

b. Water boils at 179.88°C at a pressure of 1000 kPa.

D EV C

Subcooled Liquid
A sub-cooled liquid is one, which has a temperature lower than the saturation
temperature corresponding to the existing pressure.
Example:
Liquid water at 60°C and 101.325 is a sub cooled liquid. Why?
From the steam tables, the saturation temperature at 101.325 kPa is 100°C. Since
the actual temperature of liquid water of 60°C is less than 100°C, therefore, it is a sub cooled
liquid.
O

Compressed Liquid
A compressed liquid is one, which has a pressure higher than the saturation pressure
corresponding to the existing temperature.
R

Question:
Is the liquid water at 110 kPa and 100°C a compressed liquid?
From the steam tables, Past at 100°C = 101.325 kPa.
Comparing:
The actual liquid water pressure of 110 kPa is greater than Past at 100°C.
therefore, it is a compressed liquid.

Saturated Liquid
A saturated liquid is a liquid at the saturations (saturation temperature or
saturation pressure), which has temperature equal to the boiling point corresponding to the
existing pressure. It is a pure liquid, i.e., it has no vapor content.
Examples:
a. Liquid water at 100°C and 101.325 kPa.
b. Liquid water at 233.86°C and 3 Mpa.

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 9

From Steam Tables:

tsat at 101.325 kPa = 100°C
tsat at 3 Mpa = 233.86°C

Vapor
Vapor is the name given to any gaseous phase that is in contact withy the liquid
phase, or that is in the vicinity of a state where some of it might be condensed.

Saturated Vapor
A saturated vapor is a vapor at the saturation conditions (saturation temperature
and saturation pressure). It is 100% vapor, i.e., has no liquid or moisture content.
Examples:
a. Steam (water vapor) at 100°C and 101.325 kPa.

Superheated Vapor
A superheated vapor is a vapor having a temperature higher than the saturation
temperature corresponding to the existing pressure.

U 3
Example:
a. Steam at 200°C and 101.325 kPa.

D 2
200°C > (tsat at 101.325 kPa = 100°C)

E
O 20
Degree of Superheat, °SH
R LA BE The degree of superheat is the difference between the actual temperature of

C
superheated vapor and the saturation temperature for the existing pressure.
In equation form:
°SH = Actual superheated temperature - tsat at existing pressure
Example:

R S
T C A
Determine the degrees of superheat of superheated steam at 200°C and 101.325 kPa.
EP S
From the steam tables:
tsat at 101.325 kPa = 100 °C
°SH = 200 – 100 = 100 °C
N W SU

Degrees Sub cooled, °SB

The degrees sub cooled of a sub-cooled liquid is the difference between the
saturation temperature for the given pressure and the actual sub cooled liquid temperature.
°SB = tsat at given p – actual liquid temperature
O IE L

Example:
Determine the degrees sub cooled of liquid water at 90°C and 101.325 kPa.
D EV C

tsat at 101.325 kPa = 100°C

°SB = 100°C - 90°C = 10 C°
Wet Vapor
A wet vapor is a combination of saturated vapor and saturated liquid.

Quality, x
The quality of wet vapor or wet steam is the percent by weight that is saturated
vapor.
O

Percent Moisture, y
The percent moisture of wet vapor is the percent by weight that is saturated liquid.

Let m = mass of wet vapor

R

mg = mass of the saturated vapor content of wet vapor

mf = mass of the saturated liquid content of wet vapor
then, m = mg + mf
Following the definitions of quality (x) and percent moisture (y),
x = mg (100%)
m

y = mf (100%)
m
For saturated liquid:
y = 100%
x = 0%
For saturated vapor:
x = 100%

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 10

y = 0%
For wet vapor:
0 < x < 100
0 < y < 100
but x + y = 100 in percent form
x + y = 1 in decimal form

Latent Heat of Vaporization

The latent heat of vaporization of a pure substance is the amount of heat added
to/remove from the substance in order to convert it from saturated liquid/saturated vapor to
saturated vapor/saturated liquid with the temperature remaining constant. It is inversely
proportional to the temp of the substance.
Example:
Determine the latent heat of vaporization of water at100°C
From the steam tables:
a. hfg at 100°C = 2256.5 kJ/kg

U 3
Critical Point

D 2
The critical point represents the highest pressure and highest temperature at which liquid

E
and vapor can coexist in equilibrium. The state of water at critical conditions whether it is

O 20
saturated liquid or saturated vapor is known. Hence, the latent heat of vaporization of water at
R LA BE
this condition is either zero or undefined.

C
Sensible Heat
Heat that causes change in temperature without a change in phase.
Examples:

R S
T C A
a. Heat added in raising the temperature of steam from 100°C at 101.325 kPa to
EP S
150°C.
b. Heat removed in lowering the temperature of water from 90°C to 80°C.
N W SU

Latent Heat
Heat that causes changes in phase without change in temperature.
Examples:
Heat added in converting 1 kg of water at 100°C and 101.325 kPa to 1 kg of steam at
100°C and 101.325 kPa.
O IE L
D EV C

Entropy (S, s)
Entropy is that property of a substance that remains constant if no heat enters or leaves
the substance, while it does work or alters its volume, but which increases or diminishes should a
small amount of heat enter or leave.
Any process that can be made to go in the reverse direction by an infinitesimal change in
the conditions is called a reversible process.
Any process that is not reversible is irreversible.
Entropy changes for closed system
1. The entropy will decrease when heat is removed from the system, for all reversible
O

processes.
2. The entropy will remain constant when reversible adiabatic processes occur within the
system.
3. The entropy will increase when heat is added to the system, reversibly or irreversibly.
R

4. The entropy of an isolated system will increase when irreversible processes occur within it.
Entropy changes for open system
1. For Steady, one-dimensional, adiabatic flow, the entropy increases or remains constant, it
cannot decrease.

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 11

VII. The Carnot Cycle (Engine)

The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle conceivable.

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
Operation of the Carnot Engine
R LA BE

C
A cylinder C contains m mass of a substance. The cylinder head, the only place where heat
may enter or leave the substance (system) is placed in contact with the source of heat or hot body
which has a constant temperature T1. Heat flows from the hot body into the substance in the
cylinder isothermally, process 1-2 and the piston moves from 1’ to 2’. Next, the cylinder is removed

R S
from the hot body and the insulator I is placed over the head of the cylinder, so that no heat may
T C A
be transferred in or out. As a result, any further process is adiabatic. The isentropic change 2-3
EP S
now occurs and the piston moves from 2’ to 3’. When the piston reaches the end of the stroke 3’,
the insulator I is removed and the cylinder head is placed in contact with the receiver or sink, which
remain at a constant temperature T3. Heat then flows from the substance to the sink, and the
N W SU

isothermal compression 3-4 occurs while the piston moves from 3’ to 4’. Finally, the insulator I is
again placed over the head and the isentropic compression 4-1 returns the substance to its initial
condition, as the piston moves from 4’ to 1’.

Analysis of the Carnot Cycle

O IE L
D EV C
O

QA = T1(S2 – S1) = TH ΔS
R

QR = T3(S4 – S3) = -TL ΔS

W = QA - QR = (TH - TL) ΔS

𝑊 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐿
η=𝑄 = 𝑇𝐻
𝐴

The thermal efficiency e is defined as the fraction of the heat supplied to a thermodynamic
cycle that is converted into work.

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 12

VIII. Vapor Power Cycle (Rankine Cycle)

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C

The ideal Rankine cycle is composed of the following processes;

1-2: isentropic expansion in the engine, s = C
2-3: constant pressure rejection of heat in the condenser, p = C
3-4: adiabatic pumping, s = C
4-1: constant pressure addition of heat in the steam generator, p = C
O

NOTE:
a. In the ideal cycle, the state of the steam leaving the steam generator and entering the
engine are the same as well as the state of feed water leaving the pump entering the steam
generator. This means that there is no pressure drop and no heat leakage in the steam line and
feedwater line.
R

b. The quantity of the working substance within the system is constant. This implies that
there are no leakages in the system.

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 13

Cycle Analysis

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
Steam Rate, mr
Steam rate is the mass of steam used to perform a unit work or the mass flow rate of
steam consumed to produce a unit of power. For good design, a lower value of steam rate is

R S
desired. A lower value of steam rate means that a smaller quantity of steam is needed to develop
T C A
the desired power output.
EP S
Let P = power output, kW
Wnet = work done by a kg of steam, kJ/kg
N W SU

mr = steam rate, kg / kwh

By definition
Steam rate = mass flow rate / power output
= mass flow rate, kg/h / kw
O IE L

but Power = (mass flow rate, kg/h) (Wnet, kJ/kg)(1h/3600s)

= {(mass flow rate)(Wnet)} x (kw/3600)
D EV C

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔/ℎ

𝑚𝑟 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 ), 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊
3600

For the ideal Rankine Cycle

3600
𝑚𝑟 = 𝑊 , 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑊ℎ
𝑛𝑒𝑡
O

IX. Refrigeration
Branch of science that deals with the process of reducing or maintaining the temperature
R

of the surrounding.
Artificial cooling either by the application of ice and other cool body or by utilizing the
latent heat of vaporization.

Types of Refrigeration
1. Natural Refrigeration
2. Mechanical Refrigeration

Methods of Refrigeration
1. Ice Refrigeration
2. Vapor compression refrigeration
3. Ice cycle refrigeration
4. Steam jet refrigeration
5. Absorption refrigeration
6. Cryogenic or very low temperature refrigeration

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 14

Unit of Refrigerating Capacity

The standard unit of refrigeration is ton of refrigeration or simply ton denoted by the
symbol TR
One ton of refrigeration (TR) is the cooling rate required to freeze one ton of water at
32˚ F into ice at the same temperature in one day or 24 hours.
TR = 1 TON / day ( 2000 lbs/ TON) ( 144 BTU / lbs ) ( 1 day / 24 hrs )
TR = 12000 BTU / hr
TR = 12000 BTU / hr ( 1 hr / 60 min ) = 200 BTU / min (ENG)
Where: Latent heat of fusion
144 Btu / lb
355 KJ / kg
80 kCal / kg
And ,
1 Btu = 1. 055 KJ
TR = 211 KJ / min
= 211 KJ / min ( 1min/ 60 sec ) = 3.52 KW
= 200 Btu / min ( 0. 252 kCal / Btu ) = 50 .4 kCal / min

U 3
Note: Always used absolute temperature in computation of refrigeration loads.

D 2
E
Carnot Refrigeration (Reversed Carnot) Cycle

O 20
R LA BE
T-S DIAGRAM

C
T
3 2

R S
T C A
EP S
4 1
N W SU

PROCESSES WHICH CONSTITUTE THE CYCLE

1-2 Adiabatic compression
2-3 Isothermal rejection of heat
O IE L

3-4 Adiabatic expansion

4-1 Isothermal addition of heat
D EV C

COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE (COPR)

Index of performance

USEFUL REFRIGERATION
COPR = -----------------------------------------
NET WORK
T-S DIAGRAM
O

T
3 2
R

NET WORK
4 1
USEFUL REF’N

Useful refrigeration = T1 (S1 –S4)

Heat transferred in process 4-1 or the area beneath line 4-1

NET WORK = QR – QA

Where
Q R = T2 ( S 2 – S 3 )

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 15

Q A = T1 ( S 1 – S 4 )

Wnet = T2 (S2 – S3 ) – T1 ( S1 – S4 )

But
( S1 – S4 ) = (S2 – S3 )

Hence
S1 = S2 and S4 = S3

Then,
Wnet = T2 ( S1 – S4 ) – T1 ( S1 –S4 )

= ( T2 – T1 ) (S1 – S4 )

therefore

U 3
T1 (S1 – S4 ) T1
COPR = ------------------------------ = ----------

D 2
(T2 – T1 ) (S1 – S4 ) T 2 – T1

E
O 20
R LA BE
CARNOT HEAT PUMP

C
Delivers heat at a high level of temperature
Note:
The purpose of:

R S
Refrigeration cycle is to absorb heat at low temperature
T C A
Heat pump is to reject heat at high temperature
EP S
T-S DIAGRAM (OF CARNOT HEAT PUMP)
N W SU

3 2
NET WORK
O IE L

4 1 HEAT REJECTED
D EV C

PERFORMANCE FACTOR (PF)(COPH)

Performance of heat pump
HEAT REJECTED FROM THE CYCLE
PF = ---------------------------------------------------------
O

WORK NET
Where:
QR = T2 (S2 – S3)
Wnet = T2 – T1 (S2 – S3)
R

Then,
QR T2
PF = ------------- = -------------
Wnet T 2 – T1

Expressing power factors in terms of COPR

T2 T 2 – T1 T 2 – T 2 + T1
PF = ------------- - ---------------- + 1 = ----------------------------- + 1
T2 – T 1 T2 – T 1 T2 –T1

T1 T1
PF = ----------- + 1 ; ----------- = COPR
T2 –T1 T2 – T 1

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 16

Therefore
COPH = COPR + 1 and
COPR = COPH – 1

Standard Vapor Compression Cycle

The most widely used refrigeration cycle in the practice in this cycle vapor compressed,
then condensed to a liquid, followed by a pressure drop, so that the fluid can evaporate at a low
pressure.

FLOW DIAGRAM QR
3 2
CONDEN
SER
E.V.

U 3
COM

D 2
PRES
SOR

E
O 20
R LA BE 4 EVAPOR 1
QA

C
ATOR
PROCESSES CONSTITUTING THE STANDARD VAPOR COMPRESSION CYCLE
1-2 Reversible adiabatic compression of refrigerant from saturated vapor to condenser pressure

R S
1-3 Reversible isobaric rejection of heat, causing condensation of the refrigerant
T C A
3-4 Irreversible isenthalpic expansion from saturated liquid to evaporator pressure
EP S
4-1 Reversible addition of heat at constant pressure causing evaporation to saturated vapor.
N W SU

SYSTEM ANALYSIS

QA = QL = RE = TR = mR ( h1 – h4 )

QR = mR ( h2 – h3 )
O IE L

QwA = mw Cpw ( twout – twin )

D EV C

for the amount of water requierd in the condenser

QR = QwA

mR ( h2 – h3 ) = mw Cpw ( twf – twi ) then,

mR ( h2 –h3 )
mw = ------------------------
Cpw (twf –twi)
O

Wc = mR ( h2 – h1 ) + QLC

Wc = mR (h2 – h1 )
R

COPR
RE RE Qa
COP = -------------- = ------------------- = -------------------
Wnet Wc Wc

m R ( h1 – h4 ) h1 – h4
= ------------------------- = ----------------------
mR (h2 – h1 ) h2 – h1

HEAT EXCHANGERS
Two functions of heat exchange in the system
1. To ensure that no liquids enter the compressor

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 17

2. To sub cooled the liquid from the condenser to prevent bubbles of vapor from impending
the flow of refrigerant through the expansion valve
For refrigerating effect
RE = h6 – h5 = h1 – h3
= m ( h 6 – h5 ) = m ( h1 – h3 )

Compressor
Heart of the vapor compression refrigeration system

Types of Compressors
a) reciprocating – back and forth piston
b) screw – rotary motion – positive displacement
c) vane - rotary motion – positive displacement
d) centrifugal - rotary motion – positive displacement
- operates by virtue of centrifugal force

Reciprocating Compressor

U 3
Two of the important characteristics
1. refrigeration capacity

D 2
2. power required

E
O 20
Volumetric Efficiency
- Basis for predicting performance of reciprocating compressors
R LA BE

C
Two Methods
a) actual volumetric efficiency

R S
b) clearance volumetric
T C A

Actual Volumetric Efficiency

EP S
ηva = Volume Flow Rate Entering The Compressor (m3/s) x 100
Displacement Rate of Compressor (m3/s)
N W SU

= V1 ; V1 = mrv1
Vd

Displacement Rate; Vd ( Piston Displacement )

O IE L

- Displacement swept through by piston in their suction stroke per unit time

Vd = πD2LN/4 = ALN
D EV C

Where:
A = cross section area of cylinder
D = diameter of the bore of cylinder
L = length of stroke
N = no. of cycle compression per unit time
n = angular speed
For single acting
N = n (no. of cylinder)
O

For double acting

N = 2n (no. of cylinder)
Also
v1 = specific volume of refrigerant in the suction side (m3/kg)
R

mr = mass flow rate of refrigerant (kg/s)

Clearance Volumetric Efficiency

ηvc = Volume Gas Drawn In The Cylinder

vd

= 100% - C v1 - 1 x 100%
vc

If the isentropic expansion is assumed at vc and v1

v1 = vsuc

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 18

vc vdis
Where;
vsuc = specific volume of vapor entering
vdis = specific volume of vapor leaving

Adiabatic Compression

P 3 2 2’
Actual
Ideal

Work of Compression

Wc = h2 – h1 Isentropic (Ideal)
Wc’ = h2’ – h1 Actual

U 3
Adiabatic Compression Efficiency

D 2
ηc’ = Wc = h2 – h1

E
= Isentropic

O 20
R LA BE Wc’ h2’ – h1 Actual
where;

C
h1 = enthalpy of refrigerant entering
h2 = Isentropic enthalpy of refrigerant leaving
h2’ = actual heat content of refrigerant leaving the compressor

R S
T C A
EP S
IX. Psychrometry and Air-conditioning

Air Conditioning
N W SU

-The simultaneous control of temperature, humidity, air movement, and quality of air in
the space.
Air conditioning includes entire heating operation as well as the regulation of velocity,
thermal radiation and the gravity of air including removal of foreign particles and vapors
O IE L

TWO TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONING UNIT

1. Comfort air conditioning
D EV C

2. Industrial air conditioning

FOUR FUNCTIONS OF AIR CONDITIONING

1. Control of temperature
2. Control of humidity
3. Control or air circulation or movement
4. Maintain the desired condition of products

PSYCHROMETRY- is the study of the mixture of air and water vapor

O

PSYCHROMETRIC PROPERTIES – properties of moist air

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART – is the graphical representation of the thermodynamics properties of

R

moist air

BASIC PROCESSES IN AIR CONDITIONING

1. Sensible heating
2. Sensible cooling
3. Humidifying
4. Dehumidifying
5. Heating and Humidifying
6. Heating and Dehumidifying
7. Cooling and Humidifying
8. Cooling and Dehumidifying

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 19

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES

Moist air – is a binary mixtures dry air and cooler vapor

Dry air – none condensing component of the mixture, mainly the nitrogen and oxygen
Vapor – is the considerable component of mixture, the water vapor or stem which may exist in a
saturated or super heated state
Pt – total mixture pressure
Pa – partial pressure exerted by dry air
Ps – partial pressure exerted by vapor or steam

Pt = Pa + Ps

Saturated air – the vapor in the air is saturated

Unsaturated air – air containing superheated vapor
Latent heat – heat does not affect the temperature of the substance but damage its state
Sensible heat – is the heat absorbed or given by a substance that changes its temperature
Total heat – sum of latent heat and sensible heat

U 3
(Humidity ratio, Moisture Content, Mixing ratio)
or W - is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air

D 2
E
Mv Ps V / Rs T

O 20
W = --------------- = ------------------
R LA BE Ma Pa V / Ra T

C
Where:
Rs = 461. 5 J / kgK – gas constant of water vapor
Ra = 287 J/ kg K – gas constant of dry air
Then,

R S
T C A
Ps R a Ps 287 Ps
EP S
W = ---------- = -------------- = 0.622 ---------
Pa Rs Pa 461.5 Pa
N W SU

0.622 Ps kg of water vapor

W = ---------------- = -------------------------
Pt – Ps kg of dry air

RELATIVE HUMIDITY (Ф) – is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor in the air to
O IE L

the saturation pressure corresponding to the temperature of the air

D EV C

Ps
RH = ------------------ or Ps = RH Pd = Ф Pd
Pd
Where: Pd – saturation pressure corresponding to the dry bulb temperature (@ steam table)

USING CARRIERS EQUATION

Ps = Pw – [ Pb ( 6.66 x 10 –4
) ( tdb – twb )
where:
O

Pb – barometric pressure
tdb – dry bulb temperature
twb – wet bulb temperature
Pw – saturated pressure corresponding to wet bulb temperature
R

WET BULB DEPRESSION – is the difference between the reading of the dry bulb and wet bulb
temperature

DEW POINT TEMPERATURE – (tdb), is the saturation temperature corresponding to the actual
partial pressure of the stem in air or the temperature at which condensation of the moisture
begin when the air is cooled at constant pressure

DEGREE OF SATURATION (U) – is the ratio of the air humidity ratio (SH or W) to the humidity
ratio of saturated air ( SHs or Ws ) at the same temperature

0.622 (Ps / Pt – Ps) Ps ( Pt – Pd )

U = --------------------------------- = --------------------------
0.622 (Pd/ Pt – Pd) Pd (Pt – Ps)

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 20

But Ps/Pd = Ф

Then
Ф (Pt – Pd)
U = ----------------------
(Pt – Ps)

ENTHALPY (h) of a mixture of dry air and water vapor is the sum of the enthalpy of the dry air
and the enthalpy of the water vapor.
h = Cpt + Whg KJ/Kg
where:
Cp = specific heat of dry air at constant pressure
= 1.0062 KJ/kg K = 1 kJ / kg K
hg = enthalpy of saturated steam at temperature t ( steam table )
( by approximation )
hg = 2501 + 1. 863 tdb ; kJ / kg

U 3
D 2
SPECIFIC VOLUME OF AIR

E
Ra t Ra t

O 20
Va = --------- = ---------- ; m3 / kg
Pt – Ps
R LA BE Pa

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C
O
R

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 21

REVIEW QUESTIONS

Thermodynamics

1. What is the power in kW produced by a 100 HP engine?

a. 74.6 b. 80.5 c. 150 d. 125

2. Refers to the temperature at which molecular motion ceases, according to the kinetic theory
of heat.
a. critical point b. triple point c. absolute zero d. absolute temperature

3. In a two phase system, 30% moisture means

a. 70% liquid and 30% vapor b. 70% vapor and 30% liquid
c. 100% vapor and 30% liquid d. 100% liquid and 30% vapor

4. Kinetic energy is the energy of the body due to its

a. elevation b. temperature c. motion d. pressure

U 3
5. Power is work done per

D 2
a. 33,000 ft-lb b. 2450 kg c. unit time d. work times distance

E
O 20
6. To create the Kelvin and Rankine absolute temperature scales, two states were assigned
R LA BE
selected temperature. The two states were

C
a. ice point and steam point at atmospheric pressure
b. ice point and steam point at absolute zero pressure
c. saturated liquid point and saturated vapor point at atmospheric pressure

R S
d. Ice point and critical point at atmospheric pressure
T C A
EP S
7. Combustion occurs as the piston is at the top of cylinder thus the process is isometric, if the
temperature increases from 127oC to1327oC during the combustion process. Determine the
final pressure in kPaa if the initial pressure is 200 kPaa.
N W SU

a. 2000 b. 1600 c. 800 d. 1300

8. Water is flowing with a flow rate of 0.002 m3/s. What is the average velocity at an outlet where
the area is 4 cm2.
a. 50 m/s b. 20 m/s c. 10 m/s d. 5 m/s
O IE L

9. Area under T-s diagram is defined as

D EV C

a. work b. heat c. change in internal energy d. none of the above

10. An inventor proposed to operate an engine between two layers of the ocean. One at 90 oF and
the other at 40oF. The maximum possible efficiency of the engine is nearest to
a. 10.1% b. 9.1% c. 8.1% d. 7.!%

11. A closed stationary system consists of 2 kg mass. During a certain process, 20 kJ of work is
done on the system and the internal energy increased by 40 kJ/kg.
a. System will gain 120 kJ of heat from surrounding
O

b. System will not gain heat

c. System will absorb 60 kJ of heat from the surrounding
d. System will transfer 60 kJ of heat to the surrounding
R

12. Thermodynamics cycle used in vapor power plants

a. Erricson b. Brayton c. Rankine d. Carnot

13. The state of a pure substance is defined completely if we define

a. pressure and temperature b. two independent intensive properties
c. two intensive properties d. any two properties

14. An isentropic process is used to approximate an actual process. For such a process
a. the temperature change must not be large b. both work and heat transfer is zero
c. no work must occur d. the heat transfer is zero

15. The amount of transferred heat required to change the temperature of unit weight of substance
at one-degree unit of temperature.
a. Sensible heat b. Heat of fusion c. Latent heat d. Specific heat

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 22

16. A gas turbine works on the principle of

a. Carnot Cycle b. Bell-Coleman Cycle c. Rankine Cycle d. Brayton Cycle

17. What is the theoretical lift of a pump handling water at atmospheric pressure?
a. 33.9 ft b. 40 ft c. 24 ft d. 26.9 ft

18. The absolute zero temperature in Celsius scale.

a. 100 b. 0 c. -273 d. 273

19. Torque is a force that tend to produce

a. tension b. compression c. rotation d. bending

20. A mass of 5 kg of saturated vapor at 200 kPa is heated at constant pressure until the
temperature reaches 300oC. Calculate the work done by the steam during this process. At 200
kPa saturated vg= 0.8857 m3/kg, at 200 Kpa and 300oC v= 1316.2 L/kg
a. 430.5 kJ b. 540.3 kJ c. 504.3 kJ d. 403.5 kJ

U 3
21. The process that has no heat transfer

D 2
a. Isothermal b. Isometric c. Isentropic d. Adiabatic

E
O 20
22. The boiling point of water in an open container at sea level is 100 oC. If the pressure on the
R LA BE
open container is decreased such as going up to the top of a mountain, the boiling point will

C
be
a. increased b. decreased c. the same d. none of the above

R S
23. A rigid container is heated by the sun. There is no shaft work associated with the container.
T C A
From the first law of thermodynamics. You determine the heat added to be
EP S
a. equal to the work b. equal to the change in internal energy
c. equal to zero d. equal to unity
N W SU

24. A steam turbine exhausts at 6.9 kPa into a condenser. 10,000 kg/hr of steam is delivered on
inlet at 1.38 MPa and 220oC. The turbine delivers 746 kW. Neglecting heat loss, calculate the
quality of steam entering the condenser. Steam properties; at 1.38 MPa and 220 oC h=2058
kJ/kg; at 6.9 kPa saturated hf= 162.2 kJ/kg, hfg= 2410 kJ/kg
a. 67.5% b. 70.5% c. 80.6% d. 99.6%
O IE L

25. A device used to keep moisture from passing through the system
D EV C

a. humidifier b. trap c. evaporator d. dehydrator

26. A steam throttling calorimeter receives steam at 830 kPa and discharges it at 124 kPa. If its
thermometer reads 116oC, what is the moisture content of the entering steam. Steam
properties; at 0.83 MPa hf= 726.6 kJ/kg, hfg= 2041.6 kJ/kg; at 124 kPa and 116oC h= 2704.7
kJ/kg
a. 1.4% b. 3.1% c. 0.4% d. 2.5%

27. An idiabatic process is characterized by which of the following?

O

a. temperature change is zero b. heat transfer is zero

c. work is zero d. absolute zero temperature

28 As heat is removed from a substance it gets colder. When no more heat can be removed and
R

the temperature cannot be lowered any further, we have reached

a. perfect zero b. absolute zero c. double zero d. cold zero

29. A 100% efficient pump can draw a suction of.

a. 34 ft H2O b. 14.7 Psi c. 29.92 in Hg d. all (a-c)

30. If the temperature of the medium is 0oC, what will be the temperature if it is doubled?
a. 0oC b. 524oR c. 273oC d. 460oF

31. A closed system experiences a reversible process where heat rejection is the only energy
transferred. The entropy change must be
a. zero b. positive c. negative d. equal to heat transferred

32. If a centrifugal pump tends to vibrate, it might be caused by:

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 23

a. misalignment b. worn bearings c. clogged or damaged impeller

d. Any of the above

33. A manometer measures:

a. temperature b. pressure c. mass d. volume

34. A pump is used to increase the pressure of the water entering the boiler of steam power cycle.
Which statement is true concerning the pump?
a. The pump produces work b. The pump has no effect on the cycle
c. The enthalpy of water leaving the pump is lower than the enthalpy of water entering
d. The enthalpy of water leaving the pump is higher than the enthalpy of water entering

35. A pyrometer measures:

a. temperature b. pressure c. volume d. mass

36. The steam power cycle is modeled by ideal cycle known as the:
a. Otto Cycle b. Brayton Cycle c. Rankine Cycle d. Diesel Cycle

U 3
37. An open system first law should be utilized for all except:

D 2
a. turbine b. pump c. piston cylinder with no intake/exhaust valve d. boiler

E
O 20
38. An inventor claims to have built an engine which will revolutionize the automotive industry.
R LA BE
Which of the following should be the best test to determine if the inventors claim is true?

C
a. Conservation of mass b. First law of thermodynamics
c. Zeroth law of thermodynamics d. Second law of thermodynamics

R S
39. In an ideal cycle, liquid leaves the condenser and is expanded in such a manner that the
T C A
enthalpy of the liquid is equal to the enthalpy of the resulting saturated mixture. This type of
EP S
expansion is known as:
a. throttling process b. isothermal process c. adiabatic process d. isochoric
N W SU

40. A type of process where the pressure remains constant

a. Isothermal b. Isochoric c. Isobaric d. Adiabatic

41. A pump discharges into a 3-m per side cubical tank. The flow rate is 300 liters per minute
and the fluid has specific gravity of 1.2. what is the mass flow rate in kg/s?
O IE L

a. 4 b. 5 c. 6 d. 7
D EV C

42. A type of process where the temperature remains constant

a. Isothermal b. Isochoric c. Isobaric d. Adiabatic

43. A pump discharges into a 3-m per side cubical tank. The flow rate is 300 liters per minute
and the fluid has specific gravity of 1.2. how long will it takes to fill the tank?
a. 45 min b. 60 min c. 75 min d. 90 min

44. A Carnot engine produces 25 kW while operating between temperature limits of 1000 0K
and 3000K. What is the heat supplied?
O

a. 45.7 kW b. 10.7 kW c. 35.7 kW d. 55.7 kW

45. What is the heat rejected?

a. 45.7 kW b. 10.7 kW c. 35.7 kW d. 20.7 kW
R

46. A type of process where the volume remains constant

a. Isothermal b. Isochoric c. Isobaric d. Isometric

A closed rigid container has a Volume of 1 m3 and holds air at 344.8 kPa and 273 K. Heat is
added until the temperature is 6000K. (Rair = 0.287 kJ/kg K), (kair = 1.4)
47. What is the mass of air?
a. 4.4 kg b. 5.4 kg c. 3.3 kg d. 2.3 kg

48. What is the final pressure?

a. 745.8 kPa b. 757.8 kPa c. 775.8 kPa d. 547.8 kPa

49. What is the change in enthalpy?

a. 1947.7 kJ b. 1647.7 kJ c. 1445.6 kJ d. 1274.7 kJ

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 24

50. What is value of heat added on the system?

a. 1147.1 kJ b. 1032.6 kJ c. 1471.1 kJ d. 1005.1 kJ

A scuba tank contains 1.5 kg of air. The air in the tank is initially at 15oC. The tank is left near
an engine exhaust line, and the tank's pressure doubles.
51. What is the final temperature?
a. 303oC b. 303oK c. 303oR d. 303oF

52. What is the change in enthalpy?

a. 433.9 kJ b. 543.7 kJ c. 276.7 kJ d. 124.7 kJ

53. What is the change in internal energy?

a. 303.4 kJ b. 308 kJ c. 310 kJ d. 318 kJ

54. What is value of heat added on the system?

a. 303.4 kJ b. 308 kJ c. 310 kJ d. 318 kJ

U 3
D 2
Refrigeration

E
O 20
1. A vapor compression refrigeration system has a 30-kW motor drving compressor with inlet
enthalpy of 345 kJ/kg and discharges with an enthalpy of 398 kJ/kg. Saturated liquid enters
R LA BE

C
the expansion valve at 238.5 kJ/kg enthalpy. Determine the capacity of the unit in Tons of
refrigeration.
a. 14.7 b. 17.1 c. 11.7 d. 16.6

R S
2. R-12 enters the evaporator at 3oC (hg=352.76kJ/kg ; hf=202.78kJ/kg). Determine the amount
T C A
of flash vapor that may be formed in kg/s if the refrigeration load is 400 kW and condensing
EP S
temperature is 37oC (hf=235.503 kJ/kg).
a. 0.734 b. 0.744 c. 0.477 d. 0.374
N W SU

3. In an air-water vapor mixture, the temperature which is the measure of the total heat of the
mixture
a. dew point b. dry bulb c. sum of dry bulb and wet bulb d. wet bulb

4. In the refrigeration system the heat absorbed in the evaporator per pound of refrigerant
O IE L

passing through
a. equals the increase in enthalpy b. equals the increase in volume
D EV C

c. equals the change in temperature d. equals the change in entropy

5. A reversed carnot cycle uses R-12 as the working fluid. Refrigerant enters the condenser as
saturated vapor at 30oC and leaves as saturated liquid. The evaporator temperature is at
constant -10oC. Determine the COP
a. 6.75 b. 7.56 c. 6.57 d. 7.65

6. The refrigeration system has a refrigerating capacity of 220 kJ/kg. The heat required to remove
O

is 630 kJ/hr. Calculate the mass circulated per hr.

a. 3.18 kg/hr b. 10 kg/hr c. 8 kg/hr d. 2.8 kg/hr

7. If the wet bulb and dry bulb reading of air temperature are identical
R

a. the thermometers are in error b. the air is saturated

c. the relative humidity is zero d. the mixture is completely dry

8. Heat is supplied to 20 lbm of ice at 32oF at the rate of 160 BTU/s. If the heat of fusion is 144
BTU/lb, how long will it take to convert ice to water at 50oF (Cpw=1BTU/lboR).
a. 25.45s b. 20.25s c. 22.05s d. 25.20s

9. On a cold night the temperature was reported to be same in Fahrenheit and Celsius reading at
a. 33oC b. -40oC c. -33oC d. 40oC

10. Consider an air-water vapor mixture similar to the atmosphere. If the dry bulb temperature
equals the dew point temperature, the relative humidity is
a. 0% b. 25% c. 75% d. 100%

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 25

11. Sensible heat

a. can be measured with a thermometer b. Cannot be measured

c. increases with cold d. depends on the volume

12. What power is required to drive a refrigeration system with a COP of 5 to remove a heat
equivalent of 100 tons
a. 80 Hp b. 94.4 Hp c. 105.2 Hp d. 30 Hp

13. Atmospheric pressure air enters to a cooling unit at 27 oC (Psat=3.5kPa) and has a specific
humidity of 0.009 kg of vapor per kg of dry air. Determine the relative humidity.
a. 40.6% b. 43.1% c. 41.3% d. 46%

14. As heat is removed from a substance it gets colder. When no more heat can be removed and
the temperature cannot be lowered any further, we have reached
a. perfect zero b. absolute zero c. double zero d. cold zero

15. In an ideal refrigeration cycle, liquid leaves the condenser and is expanded in such a manner

U 3
that the enthalpy of the liquid is equal to the enthalpy of the resulting saturated mixture. This
type of expansion is known as:

D 2
a. throttling process b. isothermal process c. adiabatic process d. isochoric

E
O 20
16. The lower horizontal line of the refrigeration cycle plotted on the pressure enthalpy diagram
R LA BE
represents

C
a. compression of refrigerant vapor b. evaporation of liquid refrigerant

c. condensation of refrigerant vapor d. metering of liquid refrigerant

R S
17. 10 kg of ice at 0oC are added to 100 kg of liquid at 40oC with specific heat of 4 kJ/kg K.
T C A
Calculate the temperature of the liquid just as the ice melts. The heat of fusion of ice is320
EP S
kJ/kg
a. 26oC b. 28oC c. 30oC d. 32oC
N W SU

18. In which part of vapor compression system there is a change in pressure and temperature
a. Evaporator b. condenser c. compressor d. dryer

19. What refrigerant is most commonly used for air conditioning of passenger air craft
a. ammonia b. R-11 c. CO2 d. air
O IE L

20. The amount of heat required to change the temperature of one unit weight of substance into
D EV C

one degree unit of temperature

a. specific heat b. sensible heat c. latent heat d.

21. Air at a 4m by 4m by 4m room has a relative humidity of 80%. The pressure in the room is
120kPa and temperature of 35oC (Psat= 5.628kPa). What is the mass of vapor in air on the
room? (Rv=0.4615kJ/kg K)
a. 2.03kg b. 1.50kg c. 0.80kg d. 4.80kg

22. What is the heat transfer in the glass surface area of 0.7 m2 having an inside temperature of
O

25oC and 13oC outside temperature. The thickness of the glass is 0.007m and its thermal
conductivity is1.8 W/m K
a. 5.6kW b. 3.6kW c. 6.2kW d. 2.16kW
R

23. When air is saturated the wet bulb depression is

a. zero b. unity c. 50 d. 100

The power of a carnot refrigeration system in maintaining a low temperature region at 238.9
K is 1.1 kW per ton.

24. The coefficient of performance is

a. 3.0 b. 3.2 c. 4.2 d. 3.5 e. 4.5

25. The heat rejected is

a. 5.26kW b. 4.62kW c. 4.26kW d. 5.62kW e. 5.52kW

26. The temperature of heat rejection is

a. 314.6 K b. 312.6 K c. 331.6 K d. 313.6 K e. 300 K

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 26

27. The amount of heat absorbed by one ton of H2O as it changes from solid to liquid state at 32oF
is equivalent to
a. 288000BTU b. 120000BTU c. 388000BTU d. 488000BTU e. 188000BTU

28. How much heat in calorie is produced in 5 min by an electric iron which draws 5 amp from a
220 volts line. There are approximately 2.239 cal/joule
a. 738870 b. 738880 c. 739000 d. 739880

29. The boiling point of ammonia at atmospheric pressure is:

a. -28oC b. 28oC c. 28oF d. -28oF

30. Determine the time in seconds will it take to raise temp of 136 kg of water from 30 to 80 oC by
means of a 3 kW immersion heater when the heat losses are 10%.
a. 10500s b. 10000s c. 10447s d. 10578s e. 11000s

31. A refrigeration system has a volumetric flow rate of 7 L/s at the suction of compressor. If the
volumetric efficiency of the compressor efficiency is 0.8, estimate the volume displacement
rate in L/s

U 3
a. 5.6 b. 6.0 c. 6.5 d. 8.75

D 2
32. How much air in kg/s is needed to evaporate 100 kg of moisture in 6 hr if the drying air

E
temperature is 43oC and the ambient temperature is 30oC. Assume the latent heat of

O 20
vaporization of H2O is 2500kJ/kg and the specific heat of air is 1 kJ/kg.
R LA BE
a. 0.89 b. 1.28 c. 7.69 d. 192.3

C
33. Consider 1.0 cm wall made of polyethylene board (k=0.026W/mK) which is exposed to still air
(h=9.37W/m2K) on the inside and the other surface exposed to 24km/hr wind (h=34W/m2K).

R S
Determine the overall coefficient of heat transfer in W/m2K.
T C A
a. 0.0075 b. 0.052 c. 1.92 d. 5.73
EP S
34. The tank of an air compressor has a volume of 0.2 m3 and is filled with dry air (R=287J/kgK)
at a temperature of35oC. If the absolute pressure of the tank is 7.5 bars, what is the mass of
N W SU

air in the tank?

a. 1.0 kg b. 1.7 kg c. 1.5 kg d. 1.2 kg

35. The vertical line of refrigeration cycle plotted in the pressure enthalpy diagram represents
a. compression of refrigerant vapor b. evaporation of liquid refrigerant
O IE L

c. condensation of refrigerant vapor d. metering/expansion of liquid refrigerant

D EV C

36. A refrigeration system on the reversed carnot cycle has a minimum and maximum temperature
of -25oC and 72oC respectively. If the heat rejected in the condenser is 6000 kJ/min. Determine
the required power.
a. 16.868kJ/min b. 168.68kJ/min c. 1,686.8kJ/min d. 168,680kJ/min

37. A house hold refrigerator with COP of 1.8 removes heat from refrigerated space at a rate of
90kJ/min. Determine the power consumed by the refrigerator
a. 0.96 kW b. 0.83 kW c. 1.5 kW d. 0.56 kW
O

38. An air conditioner removes heat steadily from a house at a rate of 50 kJ/min, while drawing
electric power at a rate of 6 kW. Determine the rate of heat discharge to the outside air.
a. 410 kJ/min b. 220 kJ/min c. 510 kJ/min d. 120 kJ/min
R

39. A carnot refrigerator operates in a room with temperature of 25oC. The refrigerator consumes
500 W of power and had a COP of 4.5. Determine the temperature of the refrigerated space.
a. -29.2oC b. -39.2oC c. -19.2oC d. -9.2oC

40. A refrigerator receives 6000 kJ/min of heat when operating between temperature limits of
minus 15oC and 38oC. If the coefficient of performance is 60% of a carnot refrigerator operating
at the same temperature limits, find the required power input of the refrigerator.
a. 30.5 kW b. 34.2 kW c. 3.52 kW d. 35.2 kW

CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Thermodynamics

 1

AGRICULTURAL BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

ENGR. ELIZA E. CAMASO1

ENGR. JEANNIE-ROSE G. FABULA, Ph. D.2
1
Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
2
Crops and Resources Research and Development Center
College of Engineering, Central Luzon State University

I. INTRODUCTION

Farm buildings and structures are important parts of an integrated rural development. Knowledge
on the design and construction of farm buildings are needed to have an effective storage, especially
for the new high yielding grain varieties which are more susceptible to pests than the traditional
types.

Improved management and breeding programmes to increase animal production have created a

U 3
need for more appropriate animal housing. To improve the standards of living for the rural
population, it is necessary to provide durable, comfortable and healthy homes, with clean water,

D 2
sanitation facilities and community infrastructure.

E
O 20
II. TYPES OF FARM STRUCTURES
R LA BE

C
A. Farm Houses
B. Livestock Buildings
a. Barns (beef cattle, dairy, horse, etc.)

R S b. Hog houses
T C A
c. Poultry houses
EP S
C. Product Storage Buildings
a. Granaries
b. Silos
N W SU

c. Vegetable storages
d. Fruit storages
e. Bins
D. Crop Production buildings
a. Greenhouses
O IE L

E. Food and Crop Processing Buildings

a. Milk houses
D EV C

b. Slaughter houses
c. Grain driers
d. Pasteurizing and bottling plants
e. Fruit and vegetable washing, dehydration, and packing
F. Equipment and Supplies Building
a. Garages
b. Farm shops
c. Utility
G. Miscellaneous Structures
O

a. Fences
b. Manure pits

III. BASIC STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

R

1. Tension members - slender structural members subjected to tensile stress (e.g., tie rods,
hangers).

2. Beams - structural member subjected to loads perpendicular to the long axis of the
member. Normally in horizontal position (e.g., floor joists, girders) but sometimes found in
an inclined and vertical position (e.g., rafters in roof and studs).

3. Compression members - vertical members that resist axial compressive loads (e.g.,
columns).

4. Combined members- members subjected to combined effects of compression/tension and

bending (e.g., beam columns).

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 2

IV. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF STRESS ANALYSIS

STRESS - internal resistance to an external force.

U 3
𝑃
Basic Stress Formula; 𝜎 = where: σ - unit stress (Pa)
𝐴

D 2
P - external force (N)

E
A - cross sectional area (m2)

O 20
R LA BE
Assumptions:

C
● Stress is uniformly distributed over the area.
● Load is axial or perpendicular to the area

R S
Three Basic Kinds of Stress
T C A
EP S
1) Compression - results from a force that tends to compress or crush a member.
2) Tension - results from a force that tends to stretch or elongate a member.
3) Shear - results from the tendency of two equal and parallel forces, acting in opposite
N W SU

directions, to cause adjoining surfaces of a member to slide one on the other.

Types of Shear:
O IE L
D EV C

Note: Horizontal shear failure on wood beams is very common because the shearing resistance of
O

wood is much less parallel to the grain than that of the across the grain.

V. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
R

A. WOOD - one of the most common construction materials.

a. Qualities:
i. strong material
ii. durable
iii. ease of fastening
iv. light in weight
v. with artistic and natural beauty
b. Lumber Measurement - wood is normally priced in board foot (fbm). One board
foot of wood has a nominal size of one foot length by one foot width by one
inch thick

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 3

Board foot formula:

𝑳𝒙𝑾𝒙𝒕
𝒇𝒃𝒎 =
𝟏𝟐
where: fbm - board foot
L - length, feet
W - width, inches
T - thickness, inches

Note:
● thickness and width of commercially available lumber is in inches while
length is in feet of even length
● nominal sizes of 2"x 2" and lower are priced based on linear foot and not
by board foot

Recommended End-Uses of Philippine Timber

U 3
STRENGTH GROUP END USES

D 2
Heavy-duty construction where both strength and durability are
Class I

E
required such as bridges, girders, rafters, chords, purlins,

O 20
High Strength
balustrades, stairs, high-grade beams.
R LA BE

C
Medium-heavy construction such as heavy-duty furniture, cabinets,
CLASS II
door panels and frames, tool handles, plywood, beams, girders,
Moderately High Strength
rafters, chords, purlins.

R S
T C A
Medium construction such as general framing, paneling, medium-
CLASS III
EP S
grade furniture, cabinet, low-grade beams, girders, rafters, chords
Medium Strength
and purlins, drafting tables, dry measures.
N W SU

Production of pulp paper, wood carving and sculpture, toys, crates,

CLASS IV
pallets, conventional furniture, form wood, shingles and
Moderately Low Strength
matchwoods.

Light construction where strength, hardness and durability are not

O IE L

critical requirements
CLASS V
such as mouldings, ceiling and acoustic
Low Strength
D EV C

panels, pulp and paper making, wall boards, pencil slats,

matchsticks, popsicle sticks.

c. Plywood - made up of 3,5,7 or more veneer slices laid one upon the other with
grain of each at right angles to those of the sheets above and below it. Thickness
varies from 3.2 mm, 4.7 mm, 12 mm, 20 mm with a width of 1.20 m and length
of 1.80 m to 2.40 m.
O

Types of Plywood:

1. Softwood - most common for structural use.

2. Hardwood - used for paneling and finishing where usually only one face is
R

with hardwood finish.

3. Marine - for external use

B. CONCRETE - a solid, hard material produced by combining cement, fine aggregates,

coarse aggregates and water. Used commonly in farm buildings for footings, foundation
walls, floors and pavements, silos etc.

a. Qualities
i. Durability
ii. Hardness
iii. Strength in compression
iv. Ease of forming into various shapes

Paste - mixture and cement and water.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 4

Mortar - mixture of cement, water and sand

Functions of Mortar:
a. used to bond units together
b. seal the spaces between the units
c. tie steel reinforcement and anchor bolts into the wall
d. provide design of lines of color and shadows

Grout - specially formulated mortar.

CONCRETE PROPORTIONING:

FULLER'S FORMULA

Let
C = no. of bags of cement per cubic meter of concrete work
S = volume of sand (m3) per cubic meter of concrete work

U 3
G = volume of gravel (m3) per cubic meter of concrete work
c, s, g = cement-sand-gravel ratio (relative amounts of solids by volume

D 2
in a mixture)

E
O 20
55
Cement; 𝐶 =
(𝑐+𝑠+𝑔)
R LA BE

C
Sand; 𝑆 = 0.028 𝑥 𝐶 𝑥 𝑠

R S
Gravel; 𝐺 = 0.028 𝑥 𝐶 𝑥 𝑔
T C A
EP S
TYPE OF
CLASS PROPORTION APPLICATION
CONSTRUCTION
N W SU

Side Walk 4” thick used for beams, slab columns,

CLASS A Floor Slab 4” thick 1:2:4 and for all members which are
Reinforced Concrete subjected to bending stress

Wall used for all members not

O IE L

Footing 1:2.5:5 reinforced for bending stress

CLASS B
Post
D EV C

Foundations

Machinery Foundation 1:3:6 used for footing not under

CLASS C
water

C. MASONRY
O

a. Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB) - most widely used masonry material for all types
of construction walls, partitions, dividers, fences, etc.
R

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 5

Classification:

1. Bearing - thickness ranges from 15 cm to 20 cm and are used to carry

load aside from its own weight.
2. Non-bearing - thickness ranges from 7.5 cm to 10 cm and are intended
for walls, fences

Items to estimate for a concrete hollow block work:

● quantity of CHB (12.5 pcs/m2 of work)
● quantity of cement and sand for block laying
● quantity of cement, sand and gravel for filling cells
● quantity of cement and fine sand for plastering
● quantity of cement, sand, and gravel for CHB footings

D. ROOFING MATERIAL

a. Galvanized Iron (G.I.) Sheet - most common and widely used roofing material.

U 3
Qualities:

D 2
● Reasonable cost
● Availability

E
O 20
● Durability
● Ease of installation and repair
R LA BE

C
Standard commercial forms:
1. Plain

R S ● widely used for roofing, gutter, flashing, ridge etc.

● standard size of 90 cm wide by 2.4 m long
T C A
EP S
2. Corrugated
● widely used for roofing and siding material
● standard width of 80 cm with varying length of 1.5 m to 3.6 m at
N W SU

an interval of 30 cm
Thickness:
● measured in terms of gauge number ranging from no. 14 to no. 30 (higher
gauge no., the thinner the GI sheet)
O IE L

Lapping of roof sheet:

a. Side lapping
D EV C

● 1 ½ corrugations - has an effective width covering of 70 cm

● 2 ½ corrugations - has an effective width covering of 60 cm

b. End lapping - ranges from 20 cm to 30 cm depending on the degree of

slope and number of sheets in the longitudinal row
O
R

Steps in estimating corrugated G.I sheets:

1. Verify specifications for side lapping and end lapping
2. Minimize the end lapping joint of the sheet and always choose longer
length for economical reasons
3. Know the length of purlin
4. Compute the no. of sheets per row by dividing the purlin length with the
effective width covering per sheet
5. Know the length of the rafter/ top chord and choose the right combination
of sheets to satisfy the length
6. Solve for the total no. of sheets needed for roofing

VI. ESTIMATING STRUCTURAL LOADS

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 6

Classification of loads based on the area over which they are applied:

a. Concentrated load - load applied at a point or along a line.

b. Distributed load - load spread over a large area
c. Uniformly distributed load - load is equal to the overall portion of the contact area.

Two major types of loads in building design:

a. Vertical loads

1. Dead loads - include the weights of various structural members and materials
permanently attached to the structure (e.g., weight of roofing or floor covering,
columns, beams, girders, walls, windows, etc.).

The estimated dead load of wood beams (uniformly distributed):

10 ft span = 2% of total load

U 3
20 ft span = 10 % of total load
The estimated dead load of roof trusses (wood):

D 2
E
W = ½ SL (1+0.1L) (Merriman's formula)

O 20
R LA BE where: W - weight of one truss, Ibs

C
S - bay (distance between adjacent trusses), ft
L span of truss, ft

R S
2. Live loads - gravity loads which are not permanently applied to the structure.
T C A
a. Roof live loads - include loads imposed during building construction (e.g., roofing
EP S
process) and after construction (e.g., re-roofing operations, air conditioning and
mechanical equipment installation and servicing).
b. Floor live loads -based on the occupancy or use of the building (human occupants,
N W SU

furniture, stored materials, etc.).

c. Lateral loads - include wind loads and seismic loads

Wind Loads
O IE L

Wind loads occur when structures block the flow of wind converting wind's kinetic energy into
potential energy of pressure.
D EV C
O
R

The actual wind pressure to which a building is subjected depends upon its proportion with respect
to the wind direction. Both positive and negative pressures must be considered. The general
equation is as follows:

𝑃 = 𝐶𝑝𝐴

where: P - total pressure normal to surface, lb

C - force coefficient
p - psf/0.00256W2,
A - area of surface on which Cp acts, ft2

where: psf - velocity pressure on a surface perpendicular to the air

stream
W - air speed in mph

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 7

Table 1. Recommended force coefficient for design wind load for Gambrel, Gothic, and Gable roof
farm buildings.
Gambrel Roof Gothic Roof Gable Roof
Windward Leeward Windward Leeward Windward Leeward
Wall +0.8 -0.3 +0.8 -0.5 +0.8 -0.4
Lower +0.7 -0.4 +0.6 -0.6 +0.3 -0.5
Roof
Upper -0.7 -0.7 -0.8 -0.8 -0.5 -0.5
Roof
End +0.8 -0.6 +0.8 -0.6 +0.8 -0.6
Notes: + Impact, - Suction
Source: AE Handbook.

Table 2. Prevailing wind speed values in selected provinces in the Philippines.

U 3
Wind Velocity Wind Velocity
Provinces Direction Province
(kph) (kph)

D 2
1. Appari NE 11 5. General Santos (NE/N) 10

E
2. Palawan NE 18 6. Iloilo (NE) 16

O 20
3. Legaspi NE 11 7. Laoag (N) 10
R LA BE

C
4. Lucena NE 10 8. Manila (SE) 12

In designing for wind stresses, the following should be kept in mind.

R S
1. Velocity pressure is never less than 20 psf.
T C A
EP S
2. Wind may come from any direction; hence any surface member must be designed for the
maximum force coefficients, both positive and negative.
N W SU

3. Although a building may normally be closed, windows or doors are left open, resulting in
an increase of negative pressure on the leeward side.

4. On typhoon belts, consider the maximum velocity (e.g 185 kph or 140 kph).
O IE L

5. Live loads include: winds, rainfall or men on top of buildings.

D EV C

6. Dead loads include the weights of the materials themselves.

VII. STANDARDS FOR AGRICULTURAL BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES

1. PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING STANDARD PAES 401:2001

Agricultural Structures – Housing for Swine Production
O

A. Terminologies

boar - refers to a male breeding swine which is at least 8 months old

creep area- place for piglets inside the farrowing pen
R

culling rate - rate of removing undesirable or unproductive animals within the

herd
dry sows- unbred sows which have just been weaned; non-pregnant sows
farrowing - act of giving birth in swine
farrowing pen - area in which a sow is confined during farrowing and lactation
periods, but in which the sow can turn around
farrowing stall/farrowing crate - device in which a sow is confined during
farrowing and lactation periods and which prevents sow from turning around
fattener - swine raised for meat production usually starts at 15 kg
finisher - swine which are 66 kg and up

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 8

gilt - female swine that has not farrowed

grower - swine from 40 to 65 kg
litter - piglets born in one farrowing
litter index / farrowing index - average number of farrowings of one sow per
year
occupancy - number of days an animal stays in a pen
sow - any breeding female pig that has farrowed
weaner / weanling - piglet that has been recently separated from its mother

B. Location
The building shall be constructed in an east-west orientation and the structure for
marketable animals shall be located near the service road.

C. Swine housing system

U 3
One-unit system: In this system, the sows are removed when the piglets reach

D 2
weaning age. The pigs remain in the same building from farrowing until they reach

E
the desired weight for slaughtering.

O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
Two-unit system: The sows and piglets remain in the farrowing house until the
EP S
piglets are weaned. The weanlings are transferred to a growing-finishing house.
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C

Three-unit system: The sows and piglets remain in the farrowing house until
weaning. The weanlings are moved to a nursery house and finally to a growing-
finishing unit where they stay until they are ready for slaughter.
O
R

D. Space requirements

Minimum space requirement for swine is shown in the table below:

Space requirements per animal
Age and size of animal
(m2/animal)

Groups of growing swine

Up to 10 kg 0.11
11 - 20 kg 0.20
21 - 40 kg 0.35

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 9

41 - 60 kg 0.50
61 - 80 kg 0.70
81 - 100 kg 0.85

Gilts up to mating 1.00

Adult pigs in groups 2.50

Gestating sows 1.20

Boar pens 7.50

Lactating sows and litters

Individual pens 7.40
Multi-suckling groups 5.60

U 3
Dry sows 1.80

D 2
E. Structural Requirements

E
O 20
E.1. Roof
R LA BE At least one-meter roof overhang shall be provided to ensure shade and to protect

C
the swine from rain.

E.2. Ceiling (optional

R S Ceiling height shall be at least 2.4 m high.

T C A
EP S
E.3. Walls
Building sidewalls shall have a minimum height of 1 m and shall be made of
durable materials.
N W SU

E.4. Floors

E.4.1. Solid floors

Floor shall be skid-resistant with 2% - 4 % slope towards a gutter or
O IE L

drainage canal. The direction of the slope shall be away from the feeding
trough.
D EV C

E.4.2. Slotted floors

The recommended slat width and spacing between slats is given in table below:
Width of slat Slat spacing
Size and type of swine
mm mm

Farrowing sows and

18 – 25
O

8-9
piglets (up to 30 kg)

Weaners 18 - 25 10 - 14

60 – 100
R

Finishers 10 - 20

Sows, finishers and

80 – 125 10 - 25
boars (over 100 kg)

Concrete slats shall be used preferably for swine over 30 kg, including gestating
sows. The top finish shall be smooth wood float finish and slat top edges shall be
rounded.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 10

Recommended specification for concrete slat:

Slat dimensions
Span
Reinforcing bar
m Top width Depth
mm mm

1.20 102 102 No. 3 (10 mm)

152 102 No. 3
204 102 No. 3

1.80 102 102 No. 4 (12 mm)

152 102 No. 4
204 102 No. 4

2.40 102 127 No. 4

152 127 No. 4

U 3
204 127 No. 4

D 2
3.0 102 152 No. 5 (14 mm)
152 152 No. 5

E
O 20
R LA BE 204 152 No. 5

C
For swine under 20 kg, flattened expanded metal (20 mm, 9 –11 gauge) shall be
used. Supporting joists shall be spaced at 300 mm. Expanded metal shall be
treated to prevent corrosion. Sharp edges shall be avoided.

R S
T C A
Welded wire flooring shall be made of 5.3 mm (5 gauge) wire spaced at 12.5 mm,
EP S
15 mm or 18 mm. It shall be supported every 300 mm.

Plastic flooring shall be coated with rough surface. Fiberglass reinforced T-slats
N W SU

should be used for creep areas in farrowing pens/crates and nursery. Slats shall
be 38 mm wide and slots shall be 9 mm. It shall be supported every 600 mm.

F. Functional Requirements
O IE L

F.1. Pens
D EV C

Farrowing pens
In case rearing pen is used, guardrail should be provided on both sides of the pen.
It should be fixed 250 mm from the pen wall and 250 mm above the floor.

Dimension
Measurement
m

Length 1.80
O

Width of stall 0.60

Width of creep 0.50

R

Height of stall 1.00

Height of creep 0.40

Pens for weaners/nursery

Weaners should be either penned in a ground pen or in an elevated nursery cages.
These cages shall be provided with slatted floor with slot space clearance of 10
mm – 14 mm.

Growing pen
Separate pens for growers should be provided. The size of each pen shall be
designed to hold not more than 25 growers.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 11

Finishing pen
Separate pens for finishers should be provided. The size of each pen shall be
designed to hold not more than 25 finishers.

Gestating pen
Sows should be either housed individually (box/stall) or by group. For individual
pen, the dimension should be 0.66 m x 1.8 m.

Boar pens
Pen for boars should be located close to the dry sow accommodation. The pen
should be provided with a service crate.

Pen partition
Pen partitions should be either solid or slotted. The slot shall be within the range
of 160 mm – 210 mm.

U 3
The minimum height of pen partitions is shown in the table below:
Height of pen partition

D 2
Swine
m

E
O 20
Under 25 kg 0.70
R LA BE

C
25 kg – 100 kg 0.90

Sow 1.00

R S
T C A
Boar 1.20
EP S
Pen gate
N W SU

Pen gate should be made of at least 10 mm iron bars or at least 30 mm pipe

fastened securely to a G.I. pipe frame.

The dimension of the gate shall be 600 mm wide and 0.9 m – 1m high. For
weanling, a height of 750 mm shall be used.
O IE L

G. Aisles and Walkways

Primary and secondary walkways shall have a minimum width of 1.5 m and 1 m,
D EV C

respectively.

H. Equipment and facilities

H.1. Heaters
Heaters shall be installed in creep areas to provide newborn pigs its required
temperature of 27o C - 35o C until they are 3 days old.
O

Heat lamps shall be placed 762 mm above the floor or 152 mm above the sow.

H.2. Feeding facilities

A properly designed feeding trough shall be provided. The tJable below shows the
R

minimum recommended length of feeding trough per swine:

Swine weight Linear Length trough per swine

15 – 25 150

25 – 50 200

50 – 75 250

75 – 100 300

100 - 130 350

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 12

The feeding trough width shall be at least 300 mm and the depth shall be 250 mm

H.3. Watering facilities

For automatic watering cups or bowls, 1 cup/20 weaner, 1cup/12 gilts, and 1 cup/10
sows, shall be provided. The bottom rim of the bowl should be 120 mm and 300 mm
above the floor level for weaners and finishers, respectively. or automatic watering
cups or bowls, 1 cup/20 weaner, 1cup/12 gilts, and 1 cup/10 sows, shall be provided.
The bottom rim of the bowl should be 120 mm and 300 mm above the floor level for
weaners and finishers, respectively.

If nozzle type waterers are used it shall be adjustable and it shall be installed at a
height of 450 mm - 650 mm from the floor for sows and growing-finishing pigs and
305 mm for weanlings. Waterer spacing should be 300 mm apart for nursery pigs, 450
mm for growing pigs and 600 mm – 900 mm apart for finishing pigs and group housed
gestating sows.

U 3
For nursery, 1 nipple/10 pigs and 1 nipple/12-15 growing-finishing pigs should be
installed.

D 2
E
H.4. Lighting

O 20
R LA BE
Recommended lighting intensity for swine housing

C
Area Lighting intensity* lux (Lumen/m2)

Breeding, gestation and 150

R S farrowing
T C A
EP S
Nurseries 100

Growing and finishing 50

N W SU

Inspection areas 200

H.5. Ventilation
O IE L

Minimum mechanical ventilation rates under normal condition

D EV C

Stage Ventilation rate m3 /min

Farrowing unit (sow and litter) 0.28

Nursery pens 0.08

Growing-finishing pens 0.12

Breeding and gestating pens (gilts,

0.28
O

sows and boars)

H.6. Temperature
R

Maximum temperature for housed swine in still air

Class Temperature oC

Sows and boars 30

Piglets newborn 35
3 weeks 30

Weaners 30

Growers and Finishers 30

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 13

Water spray nozzles should be provided to provide cooling effect. Nozzles should be
placed approximately 1.8 m above the floor and pointing straight down to obtain the
best pattern and cover the width of the pen.

Formula for determining the number of pens:

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L

PAES 402:2001 Agricultural Structures – Housing for Broiler Production

D EV C

A. Definitions

brooder guard - materials that are placed around the brooder stoves to prevent the
chicks from straying too far away from the heat supply until they learn the source of
heat
brooding - process of supplying heat to the chicks after hatching up to the time that
their natural heat regulatory mechanisms become fully functional
litter - material used as bedding for animals
O

open-sided housing -long and narrow type of houses wherein at least one-half of the
front and the back of the house are open
enclosed housing - house wherein inside conditions are maintained as near as
R

possible to the bird’s optimum requirements with the use of mechanical ventilation and
artificial lighting

B. Space requirement

The table below shows the minimum floor space requirement for broilers:
Stages Floor space (m2/100 birds

4 weeks and below 6.25

Above 4 weeks old 12.50

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 14

C. Structural requirements

C.1. Ceiling (optional)

Ceiling height shall be at least 2.4 m high.

C.2. Door
Entrance doors shall be at least 900 mm wide by 2 m high and shall be made
to swing inward. It shall be covered with 25 mm mesh wire netting.

C.3. Floors
C.3.1. Slotted floor
The width of the slat shall be 25 mm - 50 mm and the space in between slats
shall be 25 mm – 38 mm. On top of the slats, plastic net or fish net with 25
mm holes shall be used.

U 3
If welded wire is used. It should have 625 mm2 mesh. The wire shall be

D 2
supported every 300 mm.

E
O 20
R LA BE The floor shall be elevated at least 900 mm from the ground and the posts
should have a diameter of at least 200 mm.

C
C.3.2. Litter-type floor
Litter material shall be at least 50 mm - 100 mm deep over the cemented

R S floor. Around the cemented floor, there should be solid wall with a height of
T C A
600 mm to retain the litter
EP S
D. Functional requirements
N W SU

D.1. Housing sizes

Width of the pen shall be about 10 m - 12 m

D.2. Brooding area

The area shall be surrounded with cardboard, metal sheeting or any hard board
O IE L

with a minimum height of 450 0m to protect the chicken from draught.

D EV C

D.3. Artificial light

During the first 48 hours, chicks shall receive a total of 23 hours of light at 35
watt/m2 of illumination. This amount should be supplied by approximately 3.5
watts of light bulb for each 0.37 m2 of floor space when the bulb is approximately
2.4 m above the floor and under a good clean reflector.

After the first 48 hours, the intensity of light shall be reduced. At floor level it
should be about 10 watt/m2. Provide approximately 1 watt of bulb, at 2.4 m above
the floor, and under a good and clean reflector for every 0.40 m2 of floor space.
O

The height of hover type brooder shall be adjustable. Hovers shall be maintained
at a minimum clearance of 120 mm above the back of the birds.
R

Age of chicks (days) Temperature (°C)

1–7 32 - 35

8 – 14 29 – 32

14 – 21 27 – 29

Beyond 21 days Provide heat only when

necessary

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 15

D.4. Aisles and Walkways

Aisles and walkways between doors walls shall be at least 1 m wide.

D.5. Equipment and Facilities

D.5.1. Feeders
Each feeding trough should have a guard or lip about 10 mm - 20 mm to prevent
the feed from being scratched out or beaked out onto the floor.

Feeder length requirement:

Feeder
Stages
Linear (m/100 Round (pcs/100
birds) birds)

4 weeks and below 4 4

U 3
Above 4 weeks old 7.5 5

D 2
E
O 20
D.5.2. Waterer
For every 100 chicks, two fount-type chick waterers shall be provided for the first
R LA BE

C
2 weeks. Waterers shall be placed outside the edge of the hover. After two days
the founts shall be placed on stands about 25 mm high. Each waterer shall hold
approximately 3.6 liters of water.

R S Waterer length requirement:

T C A
EP S
Feeder
Stages
Linear (m/100 Round (pcs/100
N W SU

birds) birds)

4 weeks and below 2.5 1

Above 4 weeks old 4 1

O IE L

D.6. Lighting
D EV C

Artificial lighting with an intensity of 200 lux shall always be available for use
during the night or darkened periods of the day.

Lighting Requirements:
O
R

PAES 403:2001 Agricultural Structures – Housing for Layer Production

A. Definitions

litter - material used as bedding for animals

litter type - type of flooring utilizing the most commonly available materials such as rice
hull and rice straw and wood shavings over the cemented floor
slotted type - type of flooring with openings to facilitate cleaning of the droppings

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 16

slot-litter type - combination of slotted and litter type flooring wherein slats cover 60%
of the total floor area and 40% is covered with litter.
community nest- large nesting boxes for 3 - 6 layers

B. Space requirement

Pen type

Floor space requirements for layers in pen type housing:

Stage Space requirements (m2/100 birds)

Growing (7 – 22 weeks)
Litter floor 14
Slotted floor 6

U 3
Slot-litter floor 7

D 2
Laying (beyond 22 weeks)
Litter floor 17

E
O 20
Slotted floor 9
Slot-litter floor 14
R LA BE

C
Cage type
The minimum space requirement for birds in cages shall be 5m2/100 birds.

R S
T C A
C. Structural requirement
EP S
C.1. Ceiling (optional)
Ceiling height shall be at least 2.4 m high.
N W SU

C.2. Doors
Entrance doors shall be at least 900 mm wide by 2 m high and shall be made to swing
inward. It shall be covered with 25 mm mesh wire netting.
O IE L

Doors between pens shall be hung in pairs and be made to swing in both direction so
that feed and litter carriers can be pushed through from either direction.
D EV C

C.3. Floors
C.3.1 Slotted floor
The width of the slat shall be 25 mm - 50 mm and the space in between slats
shall be 25 mm – 38 mm. On top of the slats, plastic net or fish net with 25
mm holes shall be used.

If welded wire is used. It should have 625 mm2 mesh. The wire shall be
O

supported every 300 mm.

Slats or wire floors shall be constructed in sections so that they may be

removed when it is necessary to clean the droppings from under them, or
R

when the house is cleaned.

The floor shall be elevated at least 900 mm from the ground and the posts
should have a diameter of at least 200 mm.

C.3.2 Litter-type floor

Litter material shall be at least 50 mm - 100 mm deep over the cemented floor.
Around the cemented floor, there should be solid wall with a height of 600
mm to retain the litter.

D. Functional requirement

D.1 Pen sizes

Width of the pen shall be about 10 m - 12 m.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 17

D.2 Laying Cage

The cage should be designed with wire floor and sidewall (Figure 1). The distance
spacing between the wires in front of the cage shall be 60 mm to allow feeding.

Floor shall be made of 12-gauge wire and should have a slope of 21% - 25%. The
dimension of the slot should be 25 mm – 40mm x 60 mm.

D.3 Nest (optional)

Individual nests: Individual nest shall be 310 mm wide, 310 mm high and 310 mm -
360 mm long. The nest should be constructed with wire mesh at the back or with
the back open for adequate air movement. The bottom of the nests shall be
removable for easy cleaning. There shall be one nest for each 5 to 6 layers.

Community nest: These are unpartitioned boxes about 600 mm wide and 2.4 mm
long, with 200 mm opening at each end through which the layers enter and leave.
Each shall have a sloping cover that is hinged so that it may be opened. The nest
should be constructed with wire mesh at the back or with the back open for adequate

U 3
air movement. The laying floor should be removable and should be made of 13 mm
galvanized wire mesh. The laying floor shall be sloping 7% towards the other side,

D 2
which is provided with foam rubber bumper pad. One nest box should be provided
for 20 – 25 layers.

E
O 20
R LA BE
D.4 Aisles and Walkways

C
Where carts are used for feeding and egg gathering, provide a clear passage of 800
mm between cage rows and to the longitudinal walls. At the end walls, 2.4 m clear
passage shall be provided.

R S
T C A
D.5 Equipment and Facilities
EP S
D.5.1 Feeders
The recommended space requirement for feeder shall be 65 mm/bird.
Each feeding trough should have a guard or lip about 10 mm - 20 mm to prevent
N W SU

the feed from being scratched out or beaked out onto the floor. It should be
provided with wire bars or grills to prevent scratching and billing.

D.5.2 Waterer
The recommended space requirement for waterers shall be 20 mm/bird.
O IE L

Waterers shall be spaced uniformly throughout the house; no bird shall have to go
over 3 m to get water.
D EV C

D.6 Lighting
Artificial lighting with an intensity of 200 lux (refer Annex B) shall always be available
for use during the night or darkened periods of the day. All electrical design and
installation shall conform to Philippine Electrical Code.

PAES 404:2001 Agricultural Structures – Housing for Goat and Sheep

O

A. Definitions

buck - mature male goat

R

doe - mature female goat that has kidded

dry doe - doe without milk
kid - young goat under six months old of either sex
ewe - mature female sheep that has already lambed
lamb - sheep under six months of age
ram - mature male sheep

B. Location
The building shall be constructed in an east-west orientation and the structure for
marketable animals shall be located near the service road.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 18

C. Space requirement

The minimum floor space requirement for goats and sheep in intensive production related
to live weight is given in the table.
Floor Space, sq m/animal
Weight
Animal
kg
Solid Floor Slotted Floor Open yard

Doe/Ewe 35 0.8 0.7 2

Doe/Ewe 50 1.1 0.9 2.5

Doe/Ewe 70 1.4 1.1 3

Kid/Lamb 0.4 - 0.5 0.3 - 0.4

Buck/Ram 3.0 2.5

U 3
D 2
Minimum floor space requirement for pregnant and lactating doe/ewe related to weight.

E
O 20
R LA BE Floor space m2/animal
Doe/Ewe

C
Pregnant Lactating

Small (50 kg – 70 kg) 1.3 2.0

R S
Large (over 70 kg) 1.6 2.3
T C A
EP S
A fenced loafing area of 150 m2 /50 head shall be provided adjacent to the animal housing.
N W SU

D. Structural requirement

D.1 Floor
For slatted floor, the slats should be 70 mm - 100 mm wide, 25 mm - 30 mm thick
and should be laid with slot space of 10 mm - 25 mm. For goats, staircase type and
O IE L

elevated type of slatted flooring should be constructed. The minimum step width shall
be 800 mm and the vertical distance between steps shall be 300 mm.
D EV C

If the slatted floor is made of galvanized welded mesh, the diameter of the wire shall
be 5 mm and the mesh spacing shall be 20 mm.

The slatted floor shall be at least 1 m above the ground. The floor underneath the
slatted floor should be either concrete or rammed earth floor that slopes towards the
drainage. The concrete floor shall have a minimum slope of 2% and the earth floor
shall have a minimum slope of 4%.
O

For concrete floor, it shall be skid resistant and well drained. The floor slope should
be 2% - 4%

D.2 Roof
R

For the shed type housing, the roof shall slope towards the back of the shed. The
height of the front eave shall be at least 2 m and the height of the rear eave shall be
at least 1.5 m.

For adequate ventilation, roof slope shall not be less than 25%. If roofing is made of
indigenous materials, the minimum roof slope shall be 58%.

D.3 Wall

A clearance of 150 mm – 300 mm between floor to wall and wall to beam should be
provided to create an adequate circulation of air and to lower draft.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 19

E. Functional requirement

E.1 Pens for pen barn type housing

The height of the pen wall and gate shall vary according to breed but shall not be less than
1.2 m.

The pen wall and gates should be made of cyclone wire, metal bars or wooden slats. For
metal bars and wooden slats, slot size should be 50 mm – 100 mm.

If the wall is galvanized welded or woven mesh, the maximum mesh dimension shall be
100 mm x 100 mm and the post shall be made up of galvanized steel (70 mm in diameter).

A brooder box shall be provided for newly born kids/lambs. One side shall be open and
box dimension should be 500 mm x 450 mm x 350 mm.

E.2 Pen facilities

U 3
E.2.1 Feeding trough and hay racks

D 2
E
Feeding troughs should be trapezoidal or semi-cylindrical. The feeding trough depth

O 20
should be 180 mm – 250 mm with a width of 300 mm and it shall be raised off the
R LA BE
ground at least 150 mm to keep the animals out.

C
Hay racks shall have diagonal or vertical slats with a minimum spacing of 130mm. Hay
racks shall be properly positioned and designed to avoid the risk of injury.

R S
T C A
Recommended linear feeding space is shown below:
EP S
Animal Weight Feeding Space
kg Linear mm/animal
N W SU

Doe/Ewe 35 350

Doe/Ewe 50 400

Doe/Ewe 70 450
O IE L

Kid/Lamb 250
D EV C

Buck/Ram 500

E.2.2 Watering facility

In an open tank drinking system, 300 mm of space is required for each 15 - 25 head.
In an automatic watering system, 1 bowl or nipple shall be provided for every 50 head
O

E.3 Breeding facilities (optional)

A separate kidding or lambing pen with a minimum dimension of 1 m x 1.5 m shall be

provided
R

For every ten does or ewe, one kidding or lambing pen shall be provided.

E.4 Lighting and Electrical installation

The housing shall be provided with lighting intensity of 200 lux

E.5 Field fencing

The height of the fence shall be at least 1.5 m.

Post shall be spaced not more than 4 m apart and shall be embedded at least 300 mm into
the ground.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 20

If woven wire is used as fencing material, the maximum spacing between horizontal lines
should be 150 mm. However, the spacing between the horizontal lines can be made wider
as the fence gets taller.

PAES 405:2001 Agricultural Structures – Cattle Feedlot

A. Definitions

feedlot - area with its physical facilities used for cattle fattening
bull - breeding male of any age
calf- young male or female under one year of age
cow - mature female that has already calved
heifer - female between two to three years of age which has not given birth

U 3
B. Location
The building shall be constructed in an east-west orientation and the structure for

D 2
marketable animals shall be located near the service road.

E
O 20
C. Space requirement
R LA BE

C
The recommended minimum floor space requirement for cattle is shown in the table below.
Area Floor Space, sq m/animal

R S
Shed area 4
T C A
EP S
Loafing area 5
N W SU

D. Structural requirement

D. 1 Floor
Concrete floors shall be skid resistant. The minimum floor thickness shall be 76 mm with
2 - 4% slope towards the drainage.
O IE L

If the floor is earth lot, it shall have a slope of 4 - 7%.

D EV C

D.2 Roof

The roof slope shall not be less than 25%. If roofing is made of indigenous materials, the
minimum roof slope shall be 58%

The minimum height of the top of the roof beam shall be 2.5 m from the floor.

D.3 Pen wall

O

Pen walling and post shall be preferably made of G.I. pipes schedule 40. The diameter of
the vertical and horizontal railing member of the pen wall shall be at least 50 mm and 75
mm for the post.
R

The maximum center to center spacing between vertical railing members shall be 1.5 m
and for horizontal railing members, spacing shall be 400 mm.

The maximum center to center spacing between post shall be 3 m and shall be embedded
in a concrete pedestal with a minimum depth of 400 mm

Each post shall be provided with 150 mm concrete protectors.

The pen shall be 1.2 m – 1.5 m high.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 21

E. Functional requirement

E.1 Pen Facilities

E.1.1 Feeding trough

The dimension of the feed trough should be 400 mm depth, 450 mm – 700 mm bottom
width and 700 mm – 900 mm top width

The bed of the trough should be 150 mm above the level of the apron to facilitate
natural feeding stance.

Feeding trough shall be provided with horizontal rail to restrain the animals from
stepping the trough. The height from the pen floor should be 1m - 1.2 m.

The minimum space requirement for feeding shall be 750 mm/animal.

U 3
E.1.2 Watering facility

D 2
The water troughs shall be provided with concrete or gravel packed aprons to improve

E
sanitation and keep the water clean, if the pen has an earth floor. Minimum length of

O 20
concrete aprons shall be 1.5 m.
R LA BE

C
For the open water tank, 250 linear mm shall be provided for 8-10 head.

If an automatic waterer is used, one automatic waterer should be provided for 15

R Sanimals and it should be placed at a height of 1m.

T C A
EP S
E.1.3 Lighting

The housing shall be provided with lighting intensity of 200 lux.

N W SU

E.2 Loading chute

Loading chutes should be provided and should be oriented so as to minimize the effect of
bright sunlight. The width shall be 660 mm – 760 mm.
O IE L

The chute should be provided with a loading ramp with a level-loading surface of about
D EV C

1.5 m wide to walk on or off the truck.

E.3 Loading ramp

Loading ramp floor shall have cross battens every 200 mm to prevent slipping

Ramp should have a slope of 30%.

Ramp height for different vehicles:

O
R

The slope of the permanently installed ramp shall not exceed 36%. For portable or
adjustable loading chutes, slope shall not exceed 47%.

If stair-stepped concrete ramps are provided, each step should have 90 mm – 100 mm
rise and 300 mm tread width. The step surface shall be roughened.

E.4 Passage (if necessary)

The central alley or the driveway should be elevated and shall have a minimum width of 3
m if vehicles are allowed to enter within the building and it shall have a solid base.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 22

E.5 Drainage

The gutter shall have a minimum width of 460 mm and a minimum depth of 200 mm.

PAES 406:2001 Agricultural Structures – Cattle Ranch

A. Definitions

corral- enclosure for confining and handling livestock

holding pen- pen for confining animals from the pasture
crowding pen- pen used to funnel cattle into the working chute
working chute- chute leading the cattle from the crowding pen to the holding
chute/squeeze

U 3
holding chute-squeeze use to restrain animals

D 2
loading chute- chute used to load cattle from working chute or crowding pen to a vehicle

E
O 20
B. Location
R LA BE

C
Land with a slope of not more than 58% shall be used. Steep areas and ravines should be
avoided or should be fenced out.

R S
C. Structural requirement
T C A
EP S
Corral fence boards should be 50 mm x 100 mm - 150 mm. The fence boards shall be
treated with preservatives that are not toxic to animals.
N W SU

Four 150 mm or five 100 mm rails should be attached to the inner part of the post with
slightly larger spacing at the top of the fence. The minimum space clearance between
horizontal rails of the corral fence shall be 150 mm.
O IE L
D EV C
O
R

Typical corral fence

The minimum fence height shall be 1.5 m. For Brahman cross and exotics breeds, the
fence height shall be 1.7 m –1.8 m.

Post should be 150 mm - 200 mm in diameter and should be set at least 750 mm into the
ground. The maximum spacing between posts shall be 2.5 m.

D. Functional requirement

D.1 Access alley

It shall be at least 3 m wide and shall be laid-out to provide a desired traffic flow.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 23

D.2 Holding pen

There shall be at least one holding pen with a size enough to hold the herd. If
necessary, a second pen for sorting should be provided. The minimum space
requirement for a holding pen is shown in the table below.

Minimum space requirement for holding pen:

D.3 Crowding pen

Crowding pens should be either circular shape (1/4 or ½ circle) or funnel shape.

U 3
Funnel shaped crowding pens shall be constructed with one straight side and the other
side should enter the working chute at an angle of 30 degrees. The funnel should be at

D 2
least 2 m wide

E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU

Funnel-type crowding pen

Circular shaped crowding pens shall have a radius of at least 3 m and equipped with a
solid crowding gate. The gate shall be provided with a pivot post constructed out of a 76
mm – 100 mm pipe embedded in concrete. It shall be opened in the direction in which the
O IE L

cattle are being driven and it shall be equipped with a self-locking gate latch.
D EV C

The minimum space requirement for the crowding pen is shown in the table below.
O

Crowding pens shall have solid walling and the post spacing shall be 1.2 m – 1.8 m. The
height of the solid wall shall be 1 m – 1.5 m.

D.4 Working chute

R

Working chute wall should be 1 m – 1.5 m high and the overall height including the top
rail should be 1.4 m – 1.8 m. The minimum length for a working chute shall be at least
long enough to hold three animals waiting to enter the crowding pen.

The post of the working chute should be 1.8 m and should be embedded 0.9 m into the
ground.

Working chute should be curved (C or S-shaped with maximum curve angle of 15°) or
offset (offset angle at 30° maximum)

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 24

Dimensions of working chute:

Dimension of the holding chute/squeeze:

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
D.5 Loading chute
R LA BE

C
Loading chutes should be provided and should be oriented so as to minimize the effect of
bright sunlight. The width shall be 0.66 m – 0.76 m.

R S
The chute should be provided with a loading ramp with a level-loading surface of about
T C A
1.5 m wide to walk on or off the truck. The height of the loading ramp for different types
EP S
of vehicles is shown in the table below.

Ramp height for different vehicles:

N W SU

Vehicle Height, m

Gooseneck trailer 0.4

O IE L

Pick-up truck 0.7

Van-type truck 1.0

D EV C

Tractor trailer 1.2

Double deck 2.5

D.6 Loading ramp

O

Loading ramp floor shall have cross battens every 0.2 m to prevent slipping.

Ramp should have a slope of 30%.

R

The slope of the permanently installed ramp shall not exceed 36%. For portable or
adjustable loading chutes, slope shall not exceed 47%.

If stair-stepped concrete ramps are provided, each step should have 90 mm – 100 mm
rise and 300 mm tread width. The step surface shall be roughened.

D.7 Facilities

D.7.1 Footbath

At least two footbaths should be provided with a dimension of 4.5 m long and 0.25m
– 0.3 m deep.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 25

D.7.2 Dipping vat (optional)

Dipping vat should be constructed if the herd is 200 animal units or more. The vat
should be built on one side of the corral system where water supply is abundant and
it should be near the center of the grazing.

D.8 Field fencing

D.8.1 Divisional fence

The top wire (i.e., barbed wire) shall be 1.4 m high. The wire spacing downward
should be 500-, 500- and 400-mm intervals.

Battens which are intended to grow should have their tops leveled with the top of the
posts and should have a clearance of 75 mm from the ground.

D.8.2 Perimeter fence

U 3
Perimeter fence shall be 1.5 m high. It shall be provided with four strands wire equally

D 2
spaced at 0.3 m.

E
O 20
R LA BE

C
PAES 407:2001 Agricultural Structures – Housing for Dairy Cattle

A. Definitions

R S
T C A
loose housing - animals are free to move between resting, feeding and watering
EP S
areas
calf - young male or female under one year of age
N W SU

cow - mature female that has already calved

yearling - one- to two-year-old cattle of either sex
heifer - female between two to three years of age which has not given birth
O IE L

parturition - act of giving birth

B. Location
D EV C

The building shall be constructed in an east-west orientation and the structure for
marketable animals shall be located near the service road.

C. Space requirement

The minimum floor space requirement is shown in the table below.

Class, Age, Size of Animal Shed or Barn Floor Area sq/animal

O

Calves (up to 3 months) 1

Calves (3 - 6 months) 2
R

Calves (7 months – one year) 3

Yearlings (1 – 2 years) 4

Heifer/Steer (2 – 3 years) 5

Milking and dry cows 6

Cows in maternity stall 10

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 26

D. Structural requirement

D.1 Floor
Concrete floors shall be skid resistant. The minimum floor thickness shall be 76 mm
with 2-4% slope towards the drainage.

If the floor is earth lot, it shall have a slope of 4-7%.

D.2 Roof
The roof slope shall not be less than 25%. If roofing is made of indigenous materials,
the minimum roof slope shall be 58%.

The minimum height of the top of the roof beam shall be 2.5 m from the floor.

E. Pen wall

Pen walling and post shall be preferably made of G.I. pipes schedule 40. The diameter

U 3
of vertical and horizontal railing member of the pen wall shall be at least 50 mm and
75 mm for the post

D 2
E
The maximum center to center spacing between vertical railing members shall be 1.5

O 20
m and for horizontal railing members, spacing shall be 0.4 m.
R LA BE

C
The maximum center to center spacing between posts shall be 3 m and shall be
embedded in a concrete pedestal with a minimum depth of 0.4 m.

R SEach post shall be provided with 0.15m concrete protectors.

T C A

The pen shall be 1.2 m – 1.5 m high.

EP S
F. Functional requirement
N W SU

F.1 Pens

F.1.1 Maternity pen/Calving pen

Maternity pen shall be provided for cows that are two months away from
O IE L

parturition.
D EV C

A pen shall be provided for every 20-25 mature cows.

F.1.2 Calf pen (up to 3 months)

Calves under 3 months should be placed in individual stalls for easier feeding and
for closer observation.

The minimum height of the pen shall be 1.2 m and it shall be elevated at least
0.3 m from the ground.
O

Pen wall and floor shall be made of metal pipes or bars. The slat space clearance
in the pen wall shall be 115 mm - 130 mm and the slat space clearance in the
pen floor shall be 25mm-30 mm.
R

F.2 Pen facilities

F.2.1 Feeding facility

Feeding trough shall be provided with horizontal rail to restrain the animals from
stepping the trough. For calves up to 6 months, the height of the horizontal rail
shall be 0.7m, while for 7 months calves, it shall be 0.9 m. For yearling, heifer,
dry, and milking cow, the height should be 1m - 1.2 m.

The bed of the trough should be 0.15 m above the level of the apron to facilitate
natural feeding stance.

For calves up to one year, the dimension of the feed trough shall be 0.25 m depth
0.4 m – 0.65 m bottom width and 0.65 m – 0.85 m top width.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 27

For older animals, the dimension of the feed trough shall be 0.4 m depth, 0.45 m
– 0.7 m bottom width and 0.7 m – 0.9 m top width.

The linear feeding space is shown in the table below.

Linear feeding space

Class, age, size of animal
mm/animal

Calves (3-6 months) 45

Calves (7 months – one year) 50

Yearling, heifer, milking and dry cows

70
Cows in maternity stall

If the feeding trough is separate from the shed or building, concrete or gravel

U 3
packed aprons along the feeder shall be constructed and shall be at least 1.5 m
wide. It shall have a slope of 2-4% towards the drainage

D 2
F.2.2 Watering facility

E
O 20
The water troughs shall be provided with concrete or gravel packed aprons with
R LA BE

C
a slope of 2-4% to improve sanitation and keep the water clean.

For the open water tank, 250 linear mm shall be provided for 8-10 head.

R S If automatic waterer is used, one automatic waterer shall be provided for 15

animals and it shall be placed at a height of 1 m.
T C A
EP S
F.2.3 Lighting
Adequate lighting shall be provided within the housing. For the feeding area, 200
N W SU

lux should be provided, 70 lux should be provided for the pens and 30 lux should
be provided for the feed storage area.

F.3 Passage
The central alley or the driveway should be elevated and shall have a minimum width of 3
O IE L

m if vehicles are allowed to enter within the building and it shall have a solid base.
D EV C

F.4 Drainage
The gutter shall have a minimum width of 0.46 m and a minimum depth of 0.2 m.

F.5 Feed storage

If silo is necessary, the walls should be smooth and air-tight. For a horizontal silo, the walls
should slope about 1:4.

PAES 408:2001 Agricultural Structures – Carabao Feedlot

O

A. Definitions

feedlot - area with its physical facilities used for carabao fattening
carabao - Philippine water buffalo or swamp buffalo
R

B. Location
The building shall be constructed in an east-west orientation and the structure for
marketable animals shall be located near the service road.

C. Space requirement
The minimum space requirement shall be 4 m2 /animal.

D. Structural requirement

D.1 Floor
Concrete floors shall be skid resistant. The minimum floor thickness shall be 76 mm with
2 - 4% slope towards the drainage.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 28

If the floor is earth lot, it shall have a slope of 4 - 7%.

D.2 Roof
The roof slope shall not be less than 25%. If roofing is made of indigenous materials, the
minimum roof slope shall be 58%.

The minimum height of the top of the roof beam shall be 2.5 m from the floor.

D.3 Pen walling

Pen walling and post shall be preferably made of G.I. pipes schedule 40. The diameter of
the vertical and horizontal railing member of the pen wall shall be at least 50 mm and 75
mm for the post.

The maximum center to center spacing between posts shall be 1.5 m and shall be
embedded in a concrete pedestal with a minimum depth of 0.4 m.
Each post shall be provided with 0.15m concrete protectors.

U 3
The pen shall be 1.2 m – 1.5 m high.

D 2
E. Functional requirement

E
O 20
E.1 Pen size
R LA BE
Pen width should be adequate to provide the required trough length for the number and

C
size of carabao being fed in the pen.

E.2 Pen Facilities

R S
T C A
E.2.1 Feeding trough
The dimension of the feed trough should be 0.4 m depth, 0.45 m – 0.7 m bottom width
EP S
and 0.7 m – 0.9 m top width.
N W SU

The bed of the trough should be 150 mm above the level of the apron to facilitate
natural feeding stance.

The minimum space requirement for feeding shall be 0.750 mm/animal.

O IE L

Restraining horizontal rail shall be provided to prevent the animals from stepping into
the trough. This rail shall be 1m - 1.2 m from the floor supported by the post spaced
D EV C

at 1 m.

E.2.2 Watering facility

The water troughs should be provided with concrete or gravel packed aprons to
improve sanitation and keep the water clean, if the pen has an earth floor. Minimum
length of concrete aprons shall be 1.5 m.

The open water tank space shall be at least 0.3 m for every 10 heads.
O

E.2.3 Cooling facilities

For a feedlot with more than five heads, a built-in sprinkler shall be provided.

E.2.4 Lighting
R

The housing shall be provided with lighting intensity of 200 lux.

E.3 Loading chute

Loading chutes should be provided and should be oriented so as to minimize the effect of
bright sunlight. The width shall be 0.66 m – 0.76 m.

The chute should be provided with a loading ramp with a level-loading surface of about
1.5 m wide to walk on or off the truck. The height of the loading ramp for different types
of vehicles is shown in the table below.

Ramp height for different vehicles:

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 29

E.4 Loading ramp

Loading ramp floor shall have cross battens every 0.2 m to prevent slipping.

Ramp should have a slope of 30%.

The slope of the permanently installed ramp shall not exceed 36%. For portable or
adjustable loading chutes, slope shall not exceed 47%.

If stair-stepped concrete ramps are provided, each step should have 90 mm – 100 mm

U 3
rise and 300 mm tread width. The step surface shall be roughened.

D 2
E.5 Passage (if necessary)

E
O 20
The central alley or the driveway should be elevated and shall have a minimum width of 3
m if vehicles are allowed to enter within the building and it shall have a solid base.
R LA BE

C
E.6 Drainage
The gutter shall have a minimum width of 0.46 m and a minimum depth of 0.2 m.

R S
T C A
PAES 409:2002 Agricultural Structures – Milking Parlor
EP S
A. Definitions
N W SU

milking parlor - building or a portion of building where milking occurs but where no
animals are housed
holding - area provided to accommodate animals before milking
O IE L

back-out stall - type of stall where animals must back up to exit the stall
walk-through - type of stalls that allows the animals to proceed directly forward after
D EV C

milking is completed

B. Location
The milking parlor shall be located close to the confinement to optimize animal flow. The
minimum distance of the milking parlor shall be 30 m away from the lactating barn and
the maximum distance shall not exceed to 180 m if the milking frequency is three times a
day and 275 m if it is two times a day.
O

For sanitation, it shall be at least 100 m away from manure piles or wastewater ponds.

C. Structural Requirements

C.1 Floor
R

The floor slope shall be 2% - 4 % towards the drain.

Intersection with the walls shall be rounded with 50 mm - 60 mm radius.

C.2 Roof
The roof structure shall be made of timber or steel with anti-rust paint.

C.3 Wall
All wall tops and ledges shall slope at 45o.

C.4 Ceilings
Ceilings shall be at least 2.4 m from the finished floor line.

C.5 Windows

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 30

All windows shall be properly installed with a 16-mesh screen.

Window ledges shall be sloped about 45o to prevent the accumulation of dirt, water, or
debris

Window sill shall be at least 1 m from the finish floor line.

C.6 Doors
Doors shall have a minimum width of 1.5 m.

D. Functional Requirements

D.1 Holding area or wash pen

Holding area and wash pen shall be provided. It shall have a minimum space requirement
of 2.23 m2 per animal.

Holding area shall be paved and rough finished and it shall slope 2% - 4% away from the

U 3
parlor.

D 2
D.2 Width of the Alley

E
The width of the alley shall be 0.7 m - 0.9 m to keep the animals from turning around.

O 20
The slope of the alley shall not exceed 5%. If specific circumstances require alley’s slopes
R LA BE

C
to be greater than 5%, install steps with 150 mm rise and 460 mm run. The treads may
be sloped no more than 1.5% to help achieve the required elevation change.

R S
D.3 Milking area
T C A
For a back-out stall, 0.9 m headroom shall be provided in front of the stall. For a walk-
EP S
through, a space of 1.8 m ahead of the stall shall be provided to enable the animals to exit
the stalls and turn into the next alley.
N W SU

Milking stall shall be 1 m – 1.1 m wide when a bucket milking machine is used or when
hand milking is practiced. If a pipeline-milking system is practiced, 0.7 m – 0.8 m shall be
provided.

The stall length shall be at least 1.5 m and the height shall be at least 1.2 m.
O IE L

Railings of the stall shall be made of at least 50 mm G.I. pipe and shall be spaced at 0.4
D EV C

m.

The space for the milker/operator and milking equipment shall be 0.6 m – 0.8 m wide.

The table below shows the number of stalls required for different sizes of milking herd.
No. of operator
No. of
No. of milking
Animals Milking Without
With milking machines (if used)
O

stalls milking
machine
machine

1-10 1 1 1 1
R

11-20 2 2 2 1

21-30 3 3 2 1

D.3.1 Milk and milking machine storage (optional)

A milk tank should be installed with a capacity that is equivalent to a minimum of 2.5 days
of milk production by the dairy animal herd during its peak production period.

E. Facilities

E.1 Milking machine (if present)

The minimum size of vacuum supply pipelines and vacuum pulsator line shall be 50 mm.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 31

E.2 Electrical installation

E.2.1 Lighting
The intensity of lighting in each station is shown in the table below

Minimum lighting intensity for milking center:

Lighting Intensity, lux
Area
(Lumen/sq m)

Holding area/wash area 100

Parlor room
General lighting 200
Milker/milking operator’s area 500

Convenience outlets shall be waterproof. It shall be installed 1 m - 1.5 m high

U 3
depending on the position and height of the milking machine.

D 2
E
O 20
PAES 410:2000 Agricultural Structures - Lairage for Swine, Small and Large Animals
R LA BE

C
A. Definitions

lairage - any premise or yard used for the confinement of animals awaiting to be

R S
slaughtered which include unloading ramp, pens and detention pens
T C A
small animals- refers to sheep, goat, and deer
EP S
large animals - refers to cattle and carabao
detention pen - separate compartment in the lairage used to confine sick or suspected
N W SU

animals
loose type- animals are free to move in a pen while awaiting to be slaughtered
tie-up type - pugnacious animals are tied within the pen while awaiting to be slaughtered
O IE L

slaughterhouse - any building or place used for killing of animals where the flesh is
intended for human consumption
D EV C

B. Location

Lairage shall be constructed at least 10 m away from the slaughterhouse.

It shall be positioned in the downwind and downhill of the slaughterhouse.

C. Space requirement
O

For large animals, the space requirement for loose type should be 2.23 m2 per animal and
3.30 m2 animal for tie-up type.

For swine, the space requirement should be 0.7 m2 per animal (if the weight is more than
R

100 kg) and 0.6 m2 per animal (if the weight is less than 100kg).

For small animals, 0.56 m2 per animal should be provided.

D. Functional Requirements

D.1 Livestock Unloading Area

The maneuvering area for vehicles shall be clear of “through traffic” roads and shall enable
livestock trucks to reverse straight back to the unloading ramp.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 32

D.2 Unloading Ramps

Unloading ramps shall have a level surface at the truck tray height (approximately 1.5 m),
with a distance of 2-3 m from the truck before sloping down the ground level.

If a permanent ramp is used, a catwalk should be provided. All catwalks that are 610 mm
off the ground shall be provided with 1.07 m high handrail.

If steps are used, the distance between steps should be approximately 600 mm with a rise
of not more than 150 mm for cattle while for swine, it should be approximately 300 mm
with a rise of not more than 90 mm.

The slope of the ramp shall not be greater than 25o from the horizontal.

D.3 Pens

Number of pens should be sufficient for at least the number of animals to be slaughtered

U 3
for one day. There should be separate pens for swine and large animals.

D 2
Number of pens should be sufficient for at least the number of animals to be slaughtered

E
for one day. There should be separate pens for swine and large animals.

O 20
R LA BED.3.1 Walling

C
For cattle pens, G.I. pipes (50 mm in diameter) should be used. It should be set 400
mm apart on a concrete or galvanized steel post. The diameter of the steel post shall

R S be within 100 – 115 mm. The minimum height of the pen shall be 1.5 m.
T C A
EP S
For hog pens, G.I. pipes (50 mm in diameter) should be used. The spacing between
pipes should be 150 mm apart and the height shall be at least 1 m.
N W SU

For small animals, the walling should be galvanized welded or woven mesh with a
maximum mesh dimension of 100 x 100 mm. The post should be made up of
galvanized steel (70 mm in diameter) with a height of 1.2 m.

D.3.2 Flooring
O IE L

For cattle pens, floor slope shall not be less than 3°, and for hog pens, it shall not be
D EV C

less than 2.4°.

Concrete floors for large animals and swine should preferably have a 30 cm maximum
diamond or square pattern with 50 mm V grooves using class A concrete mixture.
For small animals, flooring shall provide adequate space to allow the droppings to fall.
It should be made of galvanized welded mesh. The diameter of the wire should be 5
mm and the mesh spacing shall be 20 mm.

Flooring shall have side curbs of at least 305 mm in radius.

O

D.3.3 Watering and Feeding Facilities

Water trough for small animals shall be placed 250 mm from the floor to prevent
R

fouling. Feeding through shall be provided above the level of the small animal’s head.

D.3.4 Lighting

Illumination of 110 lux shall be provided within the lairage.

For all suspect pens, lighting intensity of not less than 540 lux shall be provided.

D.3.5 Drainage

Drainage line should be covered with iron bars (gratings). Spacing between iron bars
should be 95 mm.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 33

D.3.6 Fences, Gates and Dividers

Round pipe posts shall have a diameter larger than 76 mm.

The aisles shall be 1.5 m wide and a side corridor shall be used, if necessary.

E. Chute

E.1 Cattle

The final drive of the laneway shall be V-shaped with 800 mm wide at the top and
500 mm wide at the floor.

E.2 Swine

Sides of the chute shall be concrete. For the double lane, the inner side should be
made of tubular or “see through” partitions.

U 3
D 2
PAES 411:2000 Agricultural Structures - Slaughterhouse for Swine, Small and Large

E
Animals

O 20
R LA BE
A.1 Definitions

C
slaughterhouse - any building or place used for killing of animals where the flesh is
intended for human consumption, typical situation and floor plan of a slaughterhouse

R S
stunning pen - compartment which is suitable for confining only one animal at a time while
T C A
it is being stunned and which is so constructed as to confine, without discomfort, to prevent
EP S
any substantial movement of the animal forward, backward or sideway
stunning - renders an animal insensible before it is killed
N W SU

pithing - insertion of a rod or coiled wire through the hole in the skull of cattle made by the
captive blot to destroy the brain and spinal cord to prevent reflex muscular action and
possible injury to operatives
sticking- severance of the major blood vessels in the neck or immediately anterior to the
O IE L

heart by means of a knife and “stuck” shall be construed accordingly.

bleeding- remove as much blood from the carcass as possible before further handling
D EV C

scalding- lowering of animal into steam to prepare skin for dehairing

dehairing - removal of the hair of the carcass
gambrelling -suspending the carcass for particular operation
singeing- cleaning the carcass by burning the hair
evisceration- process of removing the internal organs in the abdominal and thoracic
cavities
O

dressing - preparation of carcass after evisceration, ready for storage or sale

splitting - dividing carcass into parts
R

carcass - all parts including viscera of slaughtered cattle, sheep, goats or swine that may
be used for human consumption
meat -edible part of the muscle of cattle, sheep, goats or swine
offal - part of internal organs of a slaughtered animal
green offal- digestive tract of ruminants such as the stomach, or the intestines which still
contain fecal matter
black offal - digestive tract of swine such as the stomach, or the intestines which still
contain fecal matter
detained meat -meat requiring further examination as declared by a veterinary inspector
after veterinary
condemned meat- meat which is unfit for human consumption as declared by a veterinary
inspector after veterinary examination

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 34

gut and tripe -black or green offal

B. Classification

B.1 “A” slaughterhouse

Slaughterhouse with required facilities and operational procedures to serve local markets in
the community.

B.2 “AA” slaughterhouse

Slaughterhouse with required facilities and operational procedures to serve local markets
within the country

B.3 “AAA” slaughterhouse

Slaughterhouse with required facilities and operational procedures to serve any market

C. Location
The site shall be located far from any building used for human habitation, and from any factory,

U 3
public road or public place (at least 200 meters) and should be free from dust, odor, smoke, and
other contaminants.

D 2
E
If located near a river, stream, or lake, the slaughterhouse shall be at least 10 meters away from

O 20
the bank.
R LA BE
D. Space requirements

C
The minimum area for slaughterhouse of the following types shall be as follows:
Animals Throughput Dimension (in meters)

R S (animals/day)
T C A
EP S
large animals or 2 8.6 x 5.8
(small animals) (10)
N W SU

30 12.5 x 6.4
(150)

60 23.3 x 15
(150-350)
O IE L

Swine 200 53 x 21.5

D EV C

30 8 x5

120 12 x5

400 19.4 x 8.4

E. Structural requirements
O

E.1 Foundation
The site shall be elevated to at least 600 mm above the adjacent ground. The fill material
shall be compacted thoroughly by rolling or pounding.
R

E.2 Floors
Base slab shall be made of concrete (150 mm thick) reinforced with 10 mm rods both ways
with spacing of 200 mm or it shall be reinforced with equivalent welded mesh.

It should be made of strong concrete topping (40 mm minimum thickness), or granolithic

concrete, or unglazed tiles (ceramic, quarry, cast iron or polymers).

E.3 Walls
Both exterior and internal wall shall be smoothly finished and impervious to liquids (up to 1.8
m), not readily subjected to chipping or flaking, and sealed at joints.

All wall tops and ledges shall slope at 45°.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 35

It shall be coved to the floor-wall and at wall-to-wall junctions with a minimum radius of 50
mm.

E.4 Roof
Roofing materials should be made of aluminum, galvanized steel and other forms of steel
sheeting with corrosion resistant coatings.

E.5 Ceilings
Ceilings shall be at least 3 m from the floor.

If an open joist ceiling is employed, the joist shall be treated to prevent rusting and corrosion,
and with a minimum center spacing of 900 mm.

E.6 Windows
If windows are necessary, it shall be screened and shall be at least 1.0 m above the floor.
Window sills shall be sloped at 45°.

U 3
E.7 Doors and Jambs
Doorways shall be at least 1.5 m wide.

D 2
E
E.8 Drainage

O 20
R LA BE
E.8.1 Inlet

C
One drain inlet shall be provided for each 40 m2 of floor space. If the area has high water
discharged, the number of drain inlets and their size shall be increased.

R S
Drain inlets shall be at least 300 x 300 mm. It shall be provided with drain covers with
T C A
apertures having a minimum size of 400 mm2.
EP S
E.8.2 Drainage line
Drainage pipes (cast iron or concrete) for ruminal contents shall be at least 20 cm in
N W SU

diameter. In the case of stomach contents in swine, the pipe diameter shall be at least
15 cm in diameter.

The drainage shall be valley type drains, if it is an integral part of the floor. Drains shall
also be made up of gutter and channel drains if constructed of precast metal, vitreous tile
O IE L

or the like, and covered with removable sectional grated covers. The sections of the covers
shall not be longer than 1.2 m.
D EV C

Drainage pipe shall be discharged into a sump from which the materials shall be
transferred to an elevated tank for dewatering. The capacity of the dewatering tank shall
be based on the maximum number of animals to be slaughtered daily at 0.014 m3 per
head.

Drains shall be provided with a deep seal trap (P, U, S-shape) and rodent screens (127
mm).
O

E.8.3 Grease catch basin

All catch basins, grease traps, interceptors and other means of separating organic matter
from the slaughterhouse shall be located in the inedible section of the establishment or
outside the building.
R

F. Functional requirements

F.1 Stunning area

The area in front of the stunning pen shall be at least 3 m in width to the opposing wall or
bleeding trough and be fitted with upright bars (50 mm in diameter) spaced at 400 mm in
intervals to a height of at least 1.2 m.

Illumination of 220 lux shall be provided.

F.2 Sticking and Bleeding area

The minimum diameter of the blood drain shall be 150 mm and shall be sloped not less than
170 mm per meter to the discharge point.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 36

The bleeding trough for large animals shall be at least 1.5 m wide and 1.1 – 1.2 m for small
animals and swine.

Minimum distance from the carcass suspension contact point to the floor:

F.3 Boiler room

A room shall be provided for supplying hot water with a temperature of 80o C.

F.4 Boiler room

A room shall be provided for supplying hot water with temperature of 80o C. It should be equipped
with heating facilities.

U 3
F.5 Dressing area

D 2
For a slaughterhouse with a slaughtering cattle rate of 25 or more per hour or 150 swine or more

E
per hour, shall be provided with a moving top evisceration table which shall: be provided with cold

O 20
water sprays to remove blood and extraneous material, have a properly vented sanitizing
R LA BE
compartment located at the ascending end of the conveyor.

C
The sanitizing compartment shall be equipped with a dial-type thermometer which is visible to the
inspection staff. Water in the sanitizing compartment shall be maintained at a minimum

R S
temperature of 82°C, be synchronized with the eviscerating rail, but it shall be possible to stop and
T C A
start the moving top table and the eviscerating rail separately.
EP S
The rail height shall conform to the table below:
N W SU

Minimum distance from the carcass suspension contact point to the floor:
Animals Distance (m)

Cattle 3.1
O IE L

Calves 2.4
D EV C

sheep and goats 2.0

Swine 3.1

F.6 Gut Room/Tripery

Illumination of 220 lux shall be provided.

A re-inspection station shall be provided with handwash facility, a sanitizer unit and a 540 lux
O

illumination.

F.7 Storage
For all storage rooms, an illumination of 110 lux shall be provided.
R

F.7.1 Cold storage

Refrigeration capacity shall be provided to maintain a temperature of 2°C or lower. In
holding coolers, a temperature of 4°C or less shall be maintained.

Offal shall be stored with an internal temperature of 1°C or less.

All blast freezers shall be capable of maintaining temperatures of –25°C or lower.

Holding freezers shall be capable of maintaining temperatures of –18°C or lower.

The rail spacing in coolers/freezers shall be 900 mm for beef, 700 mm for pork and 500
mm for lambs, chevon and venison. The minimum space between carcasses on rails
shall be 300 – 400 mm.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 37

Minimum distance from the carcass suspension contact point to the floor:
Animal Distance (m)

Cattle 3.1

Calves 2.4

Sheep and goats 2.0

Swine 2.4*
*When heads are not removed from dressed carcasses 2.7 m distance is required.

U 3
F.7.2 Dry storage room
Shelves shall be constructed approximately 250 mm from the wall and the bottom shall

D 2
be 600 mm above the floor.

E
O 20
F.8 Manure area
An exit door shall be provided outside the building with a width of 2.5 m.
R LA BE

C
F.9 Personnel area
Access from the meat handling area to the personnel area shall be through a hallway or

R S
vestibule. Illumination of 110 lux shall be provided.
T C A
F.9.1 Washrooms
EP S
The construction shall be smooth, hard impervious materials such as glazed tile or
smooth, trowelled cement plaster, with properly drained floors.
N W SU

Doors shall be self-closing.

Hand lavatories shall be sufficient numbers to meet the needs of the maximum number
of employees. Notices shall be posted in prominent places instructing employees to wash
O IE L

their hands immediately after using toilet facilities.

F.9.2 Dressing room

D EV C

Individual lockers shall be provided for employees. It shall have a 45 degrees slope and
have a floor clearance of not less than 350 mm.

Elevated, concrete and 150 mm high lockers, with lockers properly anchored and sealed
at the base-locker junction can also be used.

Clothes racks with overhead hat racks and suspended boot racks, with 350 – 400 mm
floor clearance, and shall be constructed from rust resistant metal.
O

F.9.3 Mess room

There shall be provision for a separate area for eating.
R

F.9.4 Inspector’s office

The minimum office space requirement shall be 11 m2 for one inspector and 1.4 m2 for
each additional inspector.

G. Management practices

G.1 Sanitation
Sterilizers shall be connected to a hot water in adequate amount at temperature of not
less than 80oC.

Sterilizers shall be connected to a hot water in adequate amount at temperature of not

less than 80oC.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 38

G.2 Noise Control

Sterilizers shall be connected to a hot water in adequate amount at temperature of not
less than 80oC.

Maximum allowable noise limits (based on background sound levels) for existing sources
or places, in dB(A)*:

G.3 Pest control

Expanded metal or wire with a mesh not exceeding 127 mm shall be embedded in the
walls and floor at their junctions.

All windows and other exterior openings that could admit insects, birds, bats, etc., shall

U 3
be equipped with screens. “Fly chaser” fans or other acceptable equivalent devices, shall
be provided over outside doorways where screening is not practicable.

D 2
E
O 20
PAES 412:2002 Agricultural Structures – Poultry Dressing Plant
R LA BE

C
A. Definitions

carcass - body of dressed birds

R S
T C A
dressing - process composed of bleeding, defeathering, eviscerating, and from which the
head, shanks, crop, oil gland and other inedible parts are removed
EP S
evisceration - process of removing the internal organs in the abdominal and thoracic
cavities
N W SU

shackling - process of restraining birds prior to slitting

trench drain - trough that collects the waste from a larger area and directs the flow to a
drain opening
O IE L

B. Location
D EV C

The size of the site shall allow for all buildings, parking lots, access roads, and waste
management.

C. Structural Requirements

C.1 Floors
The minimum floor slope shall be 2% - 4% and it shall slope uniformly from walls to the
drain to avoid puddles or depressions.
O

Intersection with the walls shall be rounded with 50 mm - 60 mm radius.

C.2 Walls
At least 2 m of the wall above the floor level shall be tiled or covered with other impervious
R

material. Joints between tiles shall be filled with solid mortar backing and cement

All wall tops and ledges shall slope at 45o.

It shall be coved to the floor-wall and at wall-to-wall junctions with a radius of 50 mm - 60

mm.

C.3 Roof
The roof structure shall be made of timber or steel with anti-rust paint. Roofing materials
shall be made of G.I. sheet and other durable roofing materials. Skylights (i.e. plastic
roofing sheets) at strategic locations for natural lighting are recommended.

C.4 Ceilings
Ceilings shall be at least 2.4 m from the floor.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 39

C.5 Windows
All windows shall be properly installed with a 16-mesh screen. Window ledges shall be
sloped about 45o to prevent the accumulation of dirt, water, or debris. Windowsill shall be
at least 1 m from the finish floor line.

C.6 Doors

C.6.1 External door

External doors shall be fitted with screens, air flaps or provided with air curtains. The
width shall be at least 1.8 m.

C.6.2 Internal door

Internal doors shall be fitted with self-closing and snug fitting double action doors with
a glass (reinforced) panel at eye level or provided with plastic flaps. It shall be at least
1.5 m wide.

C.7 Columns

U 3
Columns or other structural members located in areas where product contact may
occur shall be constructed from, or sheathed in, durable, non-porous, easily washable

D 2
material.

E
O 20
D. Functional Requirements
R LA BE

C
D.1 Holding area for live birds and shackling area
Holding area shall be provided for the unloading of live birds and storage of bird’s crates.
It shall be provided with proper ventilation and protection from adverse weather

R S
conditions.
T C A
EP S
D.2 Conditioning and slitting
An area for slitting and bleeding shall be provided with a slitting rack designed to lessen
stress to the birds and reduce the physical effort of the personnel. There shall be provision
N W SU

for the containment of the blood in this area.

D.3 Scalding and defeathering

The scalding tank shall be adequately vented, equipped with a thermometer and provided
with an overflow discharge into a drain. Defeathering machines shall be situated near the
O IE L

scalding tank.
D EV C

D.4 Evisceration area

The evisceration table shall be arranged to facilitate efficient sanitary operations. The table
shall be provided with plumbing for adequate supply of water. Separate table shall be
provided for processing of edible offals.

D.5 Refrigeration (Optional)

If all carcasses are not removed within six hours after dressing, adequate chilling and cold
storage facilities shall be provided. Cold storage facilities shall have adequate capacity to
O

maintain a temperature of 4oC or less.

D.6 Dry storage

The dry storage area shall be protected from vermins.
R

D.7 Holding area for dressed birds

A holding area shall be provided to load dressed birds and to accommodate crates. The
area shall be protected from the vermins.

D.8 Facilities and equipment

Equipment shall be easy to clean and shall be made of materials impervious to liquids,
non-toxic and corrosion-resistant such as stainless steel and galvanized metal. There shall
be sufficient number of water proof containers with tight fitting metal cover for holding
trimmings, refuse and inedible parts. There shall be sufficient working tables with a
tabletop made of stainless steel. Table height shall be 0.8 m. The table footing should be
designed to prevent the accumulation of dirt.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 40

Artificial lighting shall be provided at all places where natural light is unavailable or
insufficient

Lighting intensity in each station is shown in the table below.

Convenience outlet shall be waterproof and it shall be installed 1 m - 1.5 m high.

One 150 mm - 200 mm drainage inlet shall be provided for each 37 m2 of floor space. If
the area has high water discharge, the number of drains and their size shall be increased.
Each inlet shall be provided with a spherical or dome shape screen.

U 3
D.9 Ventilation

D 2
The ventilation system shall be designed to prevent airflow from holding pens, restrooms,

E
and other areas of possible contamination into the processing rooms

O 20
R LA BE

C
PAES 413:2001 Agricultural Structures - Biogas Plan

A. Definition

R S
T C A
biogas plant - plant used to process animal wastes or manure to produce biogas and
EP S
sludge consisting of an inlet/mixing tank, digester, gas chamber and outlet/sludge tank
integrated plant - biogas plant where the digester and gas chamber form one unit
N W SU

multi-digester plant- plant with series of digesters

floating type - plant consisting of digester and a moving, floating gasholder that either
float directly in the fermenting slurry or in a separate water jacket
O IE L

fixed type - closed digester with an immovable, rigid gas chamber and a displacement pit
balloon type - plant consisting of a heat-sealed plastic or rubber bag (balloon), combining
D EV C

digester and gasholder

collecting tank/holding tank- chamber where manure and water are collected, stored
and separated from heavy and nonbiodegradable materials before feeding them into the
digester
inlet pipe- serves as conveyor of the manure-water mixture or slurry from the mixing
tank to the digester
digester/ biodigester/ bio-reactor /anaerobic reactor - any water and air tight
O

container designed for the process of anaerobic microbiological degradation of organic

matter into which the slurry is introduced for digestion and methanization.
baffle board - division in the digester that prevent the slurry from premature exit into the
sludge/outlet tank
R

stirrer /mixer/ agitator -mechanical device inside the digester used to stir the slurry
gas chamber- space inside or outside the digester for the collection and storage of biogas
gasholder retainer- cantilever beam that holds the gasholder/movable cover in position
at the desired biogas pressure
outlet pipe- serves as conveyor where the effluent or the slurry is forced out
backfill -layer of compacted soil and gravel to support the digester wall
loading rate- amount of slurry fed per unit volume of digester capacity per day
substrate- organic material used to produce biogas
seeding- adding or introducing anaerobic bacteria to the digester

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 41

slurry- mixture of manure and water

freeboard- difference in height between the digester wall and the filling line
filling line- level of slurry when the digesters is at full load
retention time - average period that a given quantity of slurry is retained in the digester
for digestion
toxic materials -materials that inhibit the normal growth of pathogens in the digester
such as mineral ions, heavy metals and detergents
methanization - digestion various processes that take place among the methanogens,
non-methanogens and substrates fed into the digester as inputs
methanogens -anaerobic bacteria that act upon organic materials and in the process,
produce biogas
mesophilic temperature range - temperature range of 20oC – 40oC where mesophilic
bacteria operates

U 3
gas production rate- amount of biogas produced per day per cubic meter of slurry
biogas -mixture of gas (composed of 50 to 70 percent methane and 30 to 40 percent

D 2
carbon dioxide) produced by methanogenic bacteria

E
O 20
scum- layer of floating material (mainly fibrous) on the slurry
R LA BE

C
sludge- settled portion or precipitate of the slurry; a mud-like, semi-solid mass
effluent- residue that comes out at the outlet after the substrate is digested/processed
inside the digester

R S
T C A
B. Location
EP S
Biogas plants should be located at a site with good drainage. It should be located as near
as possible to the animal pen and should be lower than the elevation of the animal pen
canal. The utilization of biogas should be near. Soil foundation should be stable and away
N W SU

from tree roots intrusion.

C. Size of Biogas component

C.1 Collecting tank volume

O IE L

For a continuous-fed biogas plant, the size of the tank for collecting and separating manure
from heavy and non-biodegradable materials should not exceed the total slurry volume for
D EV C

10 days. Table 1 shows the estimated daily quantity of animal manure.

The slurry volume is the volume occupied by the manure and water at a ratio of 1:1 (1 kg
of manure: 1 L of water).

Estimated daily quantity of available manure:

O
R

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 42

For batch-fed, the slurry input rate shall be multiplied by the interval of slurry charging.

C.2 Inlet pipe

The minimum diameter of the inlet pipe shall be 0.2 m.

C.3 Digester volume

C.3.1 Slurry volume

The digester tank capacity is calculated from the daily slurry volume multiplied
by the retention time

C.3.2. Retention time

Retention time for animal manure for mesophilic temperature range:

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
C.3.3 Optimum cross-section of a digester plant
R LA BE

C
C.3.3.1 Floating type
Optimum height/length ratios of digesters and tanks (freeboard excluded) for volume
up to 70 m3 and wall thickness of up to 25 cm

R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C
O
R

If a baffle board is provided, it shall be located midway between the inlet and outlet
pipes and extends from wall to wall. The height should range from 25% - 50% of the
height of the filling line. The height of the filling line should be calculated by subtracting
the freeboard from the digester height. If there is no freeboard, the filling line is equal
to digester height.

C.3.3.2 Fixed type

The digester and gas chamber is integrated into one tank. The total height of the plant
depends on the sum of the digester and gas chamber volume. Eighty percent of the
total digester volume is occupied by the slurry.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 43

C.3.3.3 Balloon type

The digester volume is 80% of the total digester volume is occupied by the slurry.

C.4 Gas chamber volume

For floating type, the effective gas chamber volume should depend on the gas
production and gas consumption. It should be calculated by getting the product of the
accumulation rate of biogas and the longest duration when all non-continuous devices
are simultaneously idle. The product should be multiplied by 1.3 to account for the
30% fluctuation in biogas production. Biogas accumulation rate is the difference
between the biogas production potential less the biogas consumption of each device.

For fixed type and balloon type, about 20% of the total digester volume is occupied
by the gas generated.

For cost minimization, effective gas volume should also be calculated by getting the
daily biogas production less the daily biogas consumption.

U 3
C.5 Outlet pipe
The minimum diameter of the outlet pipe shall be 0.2 m.

D 2
E
C.6 Outlet tank volume

O 20
For fixed type, the volume of the outlet tank shall be 1/3 of digester volume occupied
R LA BE
by the slurry.

C
D. Functional requirement

R S
D.1 Collecting tank
T C A
Concrete channels shall be provided from the source of substrate to the collecting tank
EP S
with a minimum slope of 2%.

The tank should be concreted and a sluice gate should be provided to control or allow the
N W SU

proper mixture of water and manure.

The floor of the mixing tank should be inclined from 8.5% - 17.5% toward the inlet pipe
and it should be elevated at least 0.2 m from the filling line.
O IE L

D.2 Inlet pipe

Concrete pipe (prefabricated RC pipe) should be used and it should be inclined 58% with
D EV C

a digester wall.

Lower end of the inlet pipe should be positioned below the gasholder retainer for floating
type. If there is no retainer, the lower end should be located 100 mm from the floor of the
digester.

For balloon type, the inlet pipe shall be directly connected to the plastic skin of the balloon.
The pipe should be inserted to one half of its length in the interior of the plastic tube and
the plastic tube shall be folded around it and shall be secured around the pipe.
O

D.3 Digester

D.3.1 Fixed and Floating type

R

For reinforced digester, reinforcement shall be a minimum of 10 mm diameter RSB

spaced at 0.15 m (both the curved and the horizontal bars) and the curved bars shall
be anchored at the top beam. All reinforcement bars shall be secured and tied together
with GI wire.

More steel reinforcements shall be used for larger digester volume. The concrete walls
of the digester shall be reinforced with G.I. chicken wire mesh before plastering with
class A mortar mixed with sealing compound or water-proofing compound. Plaster shall
be applied in three layers (13 mm, 6 mm, and 6 mm thick). Each layer shall be applied
continuously and should be finished within one day. All corners of the digester shall be
curved.

Access to the digester should be through the manhole or through the outlet chamber.
If a manhole is used as the access inside the digester, it should be constructed in the

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 44

center of the dome and it should be tightly sealed. Manhole cover should be 0.65 m in
diameter and 0.125 m thick.

D.3.2 Balloon type

The floor shall have a slope of about 2.5% from the inlet to the outlet

Balloon should be made of red mud plastic, natural polyethylene plastic tube, heat
sealed plastic or rubber balloon where the upper portion serves as the gas storage. In
setting the balloon digester, it should be made of two layers of snugly fitted plastic.

The plastic tube shall be at least 200 microns.

D.4 Agitator/Stirrer
Natural agitation is recommended for small, low-cost and simple biogas plants.

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
Mixing substrate through inherent flow in fixed-dome plants

Other kinds of agitation occur as biogas is formed in the sludge layer at the bottom

R S layer, the gas forces the sludge particles to rise to the surface, where they are
released and the then particles will fall back to the sludge layer.
T C A
EP S
Natural agitation occurs when the sludge is heated. The hotter slurry will tend to rise
within the body of the cooler slurry.
N W SU

D.5 Gas chamber

D.5.1 Floating-drum plant

The gas drum should consist of 2.5 mm mild steel sheets for the sides and 2 mm
O IE L

sheets for the top. It should have a welded-in brace, which break up the surface
scum. The drum should be protected against corrosion with suitable coating (oil
D EV C

paints, synthetic paints and bitumen paint).

If the floating-drum is made of 20 mm wire mesh-reinforced concrete or fiber cement,

it shall have gas-tight internal coating. PVC drums should not be used.

The gas drum should have a sloping roof (16.5% slope) and it should be provided
with a guide frame.

The depth of the liquid jacket should be about 95% of the height of the gasholder
O

and it shall not be less than 300 mm.

D.5.2 Fixed dome plant

The concrete dome shall be reinforced with screen before plastering with class A
R

mortar mixed with sealing compound. Plaster shall be applied in three layers (13 mm,
6 mm, and 6 mm thick). It should be applied continuously and should be finished
within one day.

The gas chamber shall be capable of withstanding an internal pressure of 0.15 bar.

D.6 Gas Outlet pipe

Gas outlet pipe shall be provided and it shall be connected to outgoing biogas valve.
Ball valves or cock valves should be used. It should also be installed at all gas
appliances as shutoff devices. Sealed T-joints should be connected before and after
the main valve to test the digester and the piping system for their gas-tightness
separately. Gas escape valve prepared from three pieces of PVC pipes should be
provided, one arm of the T-joint is connected from the gas outlet and the other arm
links to the pipe which goes to the kitchen. The T-joint is inserted in the bottle and

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 45

water is added to a depth of 40mm - 50 mm above the lower point of the T. Sides of
the bottle should be punched with small holes with a height equal to the desired level
of pressure to be maintained.

Piping system connects the biogas plant to the gas appliances or to the gas reservoir.
Gas reservoir should be made of plastic or steel.

PVC should be laid at least 0.25 m deep underground. It should be placed in a sand
bed and be covered with sand or fine earth.

Pipe diameter for different pipe lengths and flow-rate (maximum pressure loss <5
mbar).

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
If there are turns and bends in the piping system and used indoors, heavy-duty hose

R S with ply should be used. The minimum diameter should be 13 mm and if used
T C A
outdoors, it should be protected from high sunlight exposure.
EP S
If depressions in the piping system cannot be avoided, water traps shall be installed
N W SU

at the lowest point of depressions with a minimum inclination of 1%.

D.7 Outlet pipe

Concrete pipe (prefabricated RC pipe) should be used with a minimum diameter of
200 mm and it should be inclined 58% with a digester wall.
O IE L

For the fixed type, the upper end of the outlet pipe should be level with the bottom
of the auxiliary chamber to allow the drawing back of slurry when the pressure
D EV C

decreases.

D.8 Outlet tank

Overflow should be provided with a height of at least 100 mm lower than the lower
surface of the gas chamber. It should flow into farmland of the plant owner or flow
into the lagoon for further treatment.

The height of the floor of the chamber from the filling line shall be at least equal to
O

the operating pressure for appliances using biogas or the height should be at least 0.2
m from the filling line plus 15% freeboard.

D.9 Groundwater drainage

R

In case groundwater is in great quantity, deep wells should be constructed 2 m away

from the excavated pit, with a depth 0.8 m – 0.1 m lower than the pit, then pump
water away from wells.

D.10 Facilities of a biogas plant

D.10.1 Heating systems

If the temperature of the substrate is below the proper process temperature, a heating
system is recommended. Heating should either be direct heating in the form of mixing
hot water to the slurry or indirect heating using a heat exchanger located either inside
or outside the digester.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 46

D.10.2 Pumps
If the amount of substrate requires fast movement, to mix the substrate and when the
gravity cannot be used for reasons of topography or substrate characteristics, use of
pumps is recommended. Centrifugal pumps for liquid substrate or rotary pumps for
substrate of less than 8% solid content or positive displacement pumps for substrate
with higher solid content may be used.

E. Safety considerations

E.1 Visual check

Cracks, gaps and tightness of duct in the digester inner wall should be carefully
checked using a wooden hammer. If vacant sound was heard in a certain area, there
is some warping in plastering. Leak trace for wall should be checked by spreading
some cement powder over the surface, the wet spot or wet line proves that there is a
leak hole or leak crack.

E.2 Water-holding mark

U 3
The digester should be filled with water up to the inlet and outlet pipes level. Allow it
to set for 3-5 hours until the walls are saturated with water and mark the water level.

D 2
Set it for overnight, if there is a significant drop in water level, it indicates that there

E
are leaks or cracks.

O 20
R LA BE
E.3 Air tight method

C
After the water tightness test, the gas test should be followed. Manhole and gas valves
should be closed and sealed. Add water through the inlet to increase the air pressure
inside the digester up to 0.4m of water column. Or air may be blown into the digester

R S
up to the same pressure. Leave it for 24 hours, if the pressure drop is about 10 mm -
T C A
20 mm, the digester is gas tight. But if the pressure drop is about 50 mm, the dome is
EP S
not gas tight.

F. Sludge management
N W SU

The digested slurry should be either spread on the fields before the beginning of the
vegetation period or further conditioned

PAES 414-1:2002 Agricultural Structures - Waste Management Structures

O IE L

Part 1: Agricultural Liquid Waste

D EV C

A. Definition

aerobic- requires free oxygen

agricultural liquid waste- consist of liquid waste and slurry resulting from the
production of livestock and poultry; and processing of crops, livestock and poultry
anaerobic- presence of free oxygen is not required
clean runoff - runoff not contaminated with manure such as runoff from roofs, grassed
O

areas, drives and other areas which are not animal alleys
disinfection -process of killing all pathogenic microorganisms
dissolved solids- part of total solids passing through the filter in a filtration procedure
R

facultative lagoons- lagoons that can function as aerobic or anaerobic depending on the
environment
fixed solids -part of total solids remaining after volatile gases driven off at 600o C
grit -non-biodegradable component of liquid waste composed of sand, gravel, cinders or
other heavy solid materials
holding pond- storage where liquid waste is stored before final disposal
influent- liquid that flows into a containing space
lagoon- pit in the ground where liquid waste is stored to produce a higher quality effluent
liners -system of clay layers and/or geosynthetic membranes used to contain leachate
and reduce or prevent contaminant flow to groundwater
lot runoff- rainfall containing animal manure
CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures
 47

manure- accumulated moist animal excrement that does not undergo decomposition or
drying; it includes feces and urine which may be mixed with bedding material, spilled feed
or soil
pathogenic microorganism- microorganism capable of causing diseases
primary treatment- treatment that causes substances in liquid waste to readily settle or
float
secondary treatment- treatment used to convert dissolved or suspended materials into
a form more readily separated from the liquid waste being treated
sludge- precipitate resulting from coagulation or sedimentation of liquid waste
slurry- watery mixture of insoluble solid
suspended solids- solids removed by filtration
total solids- residue remaining after water is removed from waste material by evaporation
volatile solids- part of total solids driven off as volatile gases when heated to 600oC

U 3
5-day Bio-Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) quantity of oxygen needed to satisfy
biochemical oxidation of organic matter in waste sample in 5 days at 20oC

D 2
E
O 20
B. Location
R LA BE
The location of liquid waste facility shall conform with the existing zoning, land use

C
standards, rules and regulations set by Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(AO 34 and 35) and other national policies such as Water Code (PD 1067) and
Environmental Code on Solid and Liquid Waste Disposal (PD 1152).

R S
T C A
It shall be constructed on soils with at least 15% clay content. If constructed in other soil
EP S
types, sealant shall be provided.

C. Functional requirements
N W SU

C.1 Waste collection

C.1.1 Alleys
Scrape alley shall be 2.5 m - 4 m wide for dairy and beef cattle and 1 m - 2.5 m wide for
O IE L

swine and poultry.

D EV C

Flush alley shall be 1 m - 3 m depending on animal type. The initial flow depth should be 75
mm for underslat alley and 100 mm – 150 mm for open alleys. The grade of the alley should
be 1.25% - 5%.

C.1.2 Gutters

C.1.2.1 Gravity drain gutter

The minimum depth shall be 760 mm and the width shall be 150 mm. The bottom slope shall
be 1% towards the drain.
O

C.1.2.2 Step-dam gutters

Step-dam gutter is recommended for collecting cattle manure. A 150 mm high dam should
be provided to hold back manure in a flat-bottomed channel. The gutter should be about
R

760 mm wide and should step down to a deeper cross channel below the dam.

C.1.2.3 Scrape gutters

Scrape gutter is recommended for confined stall barns. Scrape gutters shall be 0.4 m - 0.6
m wide; 0.3 m - 0.4 m deep and generally does not have a bottom slope. It should be
provided with paddles designed to move manure forward and down the gutter.

C.1.2.4 Flush gutters

Flush gutters shall have a minimum depth of 0.6 m on the shallow end. The depth should be
either constant or increases as the length of the gutter increases. The bottom slope should
be 0% - 5% depending on the storage requirements and clean out technique. It should be
provided with flushing tanks or high-volume pumps

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 48

C.2 Runoff collection

If an open channel will not become polluted, eave gutters can be omitted, and roof water
can fall to a surface channel with a minimum bottom slope of 0.5%.

C.3 Reception pits

Reception pit should be designed to hold all the waste for several days. Waste should be
removed from the pit either by gravity or pumps.

C.4 Screening

C.4.1 Coarse screening

The screening element should consist of parallel bars, rods or wires. Details of screening
devices are shown in the succeeding table.

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
The recommended specification for manually and mechanically cleaned bar racks is shown
in the table below.
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C

C.4.2 Fine screening

Details of fine screening devices are shown in the table below.

O
R

C.5 Size reduction

Size reduction should be provided to cut solids in the liquid waste passing through the
device to about 6 mm. It shall be installed after the screen.

Headloss through the comminutor should range from 0.3 m – 0.9 m.

C.6 Solid-liquid separation

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 49

C.6.1 Grit chambers

Grit chamber should be designed to remove particles equivalent to fine sand (0.25 mm –
3.2 mm diameter with a specific gravity of 2.65).

C.6.2 Types of grit chambers

C.6.2.1 Horizontal-flow grit chamber

Design data for horizontal-flow grit chamber is shown in the following table.

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
C.6.2.2 Aerated grit chambers
R LA BE

C
Design data for horizontal-flow grit chamber is shown in the table below.

R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU

C.6.2.3 Vortex-type grit chambers

O IE L

Design data for vortex-type grit chamber is shown in the table below.
D EV C
O

C.6.3 Sedimentation tanks

Tanks should either be rectangular or circular. Length to width ratio of rectangular tanks
R

should be 3:1 – 5:1.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 50

Table below shows the typical design information for rectangular and circular
sedimentation tanks used for primary and secondary treatment of wastewater.

Typical detention time and overflow rates for primary sedimentation tanks:

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
C.6.4 Settling channel
N W SU

Side slopes should be 3:1 or less and the bottom slopes should be 0.1% - 0.3% to maintain
low velocities and rapid settling. Side slopes should be 3:1 or less and the bottom slopes
should be 0.1 % - 0.3 % to maintain low velocities and rapid settling.

For the first 15 m – 30 m section, 0.6 m/s velocity should be designed to settle out relatively
large solids and debris. For the next 30 m – 91 m, the velocity should be as low as 0.15
O IE L

m/s to settle out smaller solids.

D EV C

C.7 Oil and grease interceptor

The volume for interceptor tank should be 1 – 3 times the average daily flow rate.

C.8 Storage

C.8.1 Storage gutters

Gutters should have a minimum depth of 760 mm and width of 150 mm with a bottom
slope of 1%.
O

C.8.2 Storage tanks

Tank depth should be the sum of the depth for computed storage capacity plus freeboard
above the lowest inlet opening and additional 0.2 m for the liquid always left in the tank.
R

Covers for tank opening should be non-floating and weigh at least 18 kg.

C.8.3 Storage pond

Account for a freeboard of 0.3 m.

Accommodate precipitation less evaporation during the most critical storage period. If the
pond does not have a watershed, the depth of the 25-year, 24-hour precipitation on the
pond surface shall be included. For a pond with micro watershed, waste storage ponds
shall be designed to include runoff from micro watersheds. The runoff volume shall be the
25-year, 24-hour storm.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 51

C.9 Treatment

C.9.1 Anaerobic lagoons

Minimum lagoon volume requirement shall be the sum of waste volume, minimum
treatment volume, and sludge volume for the treatment period.

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
C.9.1.1 Waste volume (WV)
Waste volume shall reflect the actual volume of manure, liquid waste, flush water that will
R LA BE

C
not be recycled, and clean dilution water added to the lagoon during the treatment period.

WV =VMT + VWWT +CW

R S
where: WV - Waste volume for treatment period, m3
T C A
VMT - Total volume of manure for treatment period, m3
EP S
VWWT - Total volume of wastewater for treatment period, m3
CW - Clean water added during treatment period, m3
N W SU

C.9.1.2 Minimum treatment volume (TVmin )

The minimum treatment volume shall be determined as follows:

O IE L
D EV C

where: TVmin - Minimum treatment volume, m3

VST - Total daily volatile solids loading (from all sources), kg/day
VSLR - Volatile solids loading rate, kg/1,000 m3 /day

Sludge volume (SV) shall be determined as follows

SV =365 x AU xTS x SAR x T

O

where: SV - Sludge volume (m3)

AU - Number of animal units
T - Sludge accumulation time (years)
TS - Total solids production per animal unit per day (kg/AU/day)
R

SAR - Sludge accumulation ratio (m3 /kg TS), refer to Table below

Sludge accumulation ratio (SAR)

Account for a freeboard of 0.3 m.

Accommodate precipitation less evaporation during the most critical storage period. If the
pond does not have a watershed, the depth of the 25-year, 24-hour precipitation on the
pond surface shall be included. For a pond with watershed, waste storage ponds shall be

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 52

designed to include outside runoff from watersheds. The runoff volume shall be the 25-
year, 24-hour storm.

NOTE: The minimum acceptable depth for anaerobic lagoons shall be 1.8 m.

C.9.2 Aerobic lagoons

Minimum lagoon volume requirement shall be the sum of waste volume and sludge volume
for the treatment period.

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
C.9.2.1 Sludge volume (SV)
The minimum treatment surface area shall be computed based from BOD5 of total daily

R S
production of waste and the selected BOD5 loading rate of lagoon. It is computed as
follows:
T C A
EP S
N W SU

where: TSAmin - Minimum treatment surface area

BODT - Total daily production of BOD5 of manure and wastewater
BODLR - Selected lagoon BOD5 loading rate
O IE L

The depth shall be computed from the minimum lagoon volume requirement and from the
D EV C

minimum treatment surface area. The minimum operating depth shall be 0.6 m and the
maximum level shall not exceed 1.5 m.

Account for a freeboard of 0.3 m.

Accommodate precipitation less evaporation during the most critical storage period. If the
pond does not have a watershed, the depth of the 25-year, 24-hour precipitation on the
pond surface shall be included. For a pond with watershed, waste storage ponds shall be
designed to include outside runoff from watersheds. The runoff volume shall be the 25-
O

year, 24-hour storm.

C.9.3 Mechanically aerated lagoons

Mechanically aerated lagoons combine the small surface area feature of anaerobic lagoons
R

with relative odor free operation of an aerobic lagoon. The depth of aerated lagoons shall
depend on the type of aerator used.

C.9.4 Construction of lagoons

C.9.4.1 Soil and foundation

Lagoons should be located on soil with at least 15% clay content. If the distance
between the bottom of the pond and the water table is less than 1m, seal shall be
used.

Soil should be properly compacted and the storage bottom should be at least 1 m
above the water table.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 53

C.9.4.2 Earth embankment

Top width should be at least 2.5 m to allow access for tractors and pumps. Inside
slopes should be between1:2 and 1:4 while outside slope should be 1:5 to allow easy
access with the pumping equipment and for maintenance. Embankment elevation
should be increased at least 5% during construction to allow for settling. The top of
the settled embankment should be at least 0.6 m above the maximum design surface
level.

C.9.4.3 Inlet and outlet

Pipes or open channels should be used with a minimum dimension of 200 mm. Outlet
devices should be installed in a manner that allows effluent to be taken at a level 150
mm – 450 mm below the surface.

C.9.4.4 Water supply

Adequate water should be available to establish and maintain the minimum operating
level of the lagoon at 60% of the design depth.

U 3
C.9.5 Wetlands and aquatic treatment system

D 2
C.9.5.1 Free-water-surface constructed wetlands
The emergent vegetation should be flooded to a depth of 100 mm – 450 mm. The

E
O 20
basin should have a slope of 0.4 % - 0.5 %.
R LA BE

C
Detention time should range from 2 days – 5 days.

C.9.5 2 Subsurface-flow constructed wetlands

R SThe gravel size for the bed should range from 3 mm – 32 mm. For the inlet zone,
gravel size should be 50 mm – 100 mm to minimize clogging.
T C A
EP S
If the soils are permeable (greater than 5 mm/h), a liner below the bed medium should
be provided. The depth of the bed should be 0.45 m – 1 m with a slope of 0 % - 0.5
N W SU

%.

The water level should be kept 75 mm – 150 mm below the top of the medium.

Detention time should range from 3 days – 4 days.

O IE L

C.9.5.3 Floating aquatic plant system

D EV C

C.9.5.3.1 Water hyacinth

Design criteria for water hyacinth wastewater system is shown in the table below.

Typical design criteria for water hyacinth wastewater treatment system:

O
R

Outlet structures should be designed to remove effluent of various depths. It should

remove effluent at a depth of 0.3 m below the shallowest operating depth.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 54

C.9.5.3.2 Duckweed
Design criteria for duckweed wastewater system is shown in the table below.

Typical design criteria for duckweed system:

C.10 Holding pond

Capacity of the holding pond should depend on the duration of storage period, and
volume of liquid waste during storage period. The bottom and sides of the pond should
be watertight to avoid possible ground-water contamination. The bank of the pond should
be not steeper than 2.5:1.

C.11 Effluent treatment

U 3
C.11.1 Filtration
The width-to-length ratios for filter bed should 1:1 – 1:4.

D 2
E
Filter medium such as sand should have an effective diameter of at least 0.45 mm and

O 20
shall have a minimum depth of 280 mm.
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L

Typical granular-medium filter: a) conventional monomedium downflow filter, and b)

D EV C

conventional dual-medium downflow filter

C.11.2 Disinfections
Disinfection shall be required if the treated wastewater will be irrigated for food crops
unless the crops are processed commercially prior to use, disinfected effluent is
acceptable.

C.12 Sludge treatment

O

C.12.3.1 Drying
The bed should consist of 300 mm fine sand underlaid by 200 mm – 460 mm of gravel.
The sand should have an effective size of 0.3 mm – 0.75 mm, free from fines and
should have a maximum uniformity coefficient of 3.5.
R

The gravel size should be 2.5 mm – 25 mm. Underdrains should be 100 mm in

diameter and should slope at 1%.

Beds should be divided every 3 m by 0.6 m partitions. The drying bed wall should be
concrete.

Sludge drying lagoon should have a sludge depth of 0.62 m – 1.25 m. Storage lagoon
should have a depth of 3 m – 5 m and should be provided with mechanical aerator.

C.13 Odor control

Odor control methods to treat foul air should either with the use of chemical scrubbers,
activated carbon and bulk medium biofilters.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 55

Design considerations for bulk medium biofilters:

U 3
PAES 414-2:2002 Agricultural Structures - Waste Management Structures Part 2:
Agricultural solid waste - Composting

D 2
A. Definition

E
O 20
agricultural solid waste -wastes resulting from the production and processing of
R LA BE

C
crops and animals or agricultural products, including manures with at least 20% solids,
pruning and crop residues wherever produced.
bulking agent -any item used to improve the compost structure and to increase

R Sporosity to allow internal air movement

T C A

C:N- ratio weight ratio of carbon to nitrogen

EP S
compost mix- mixture of an organic waste with amendment(s) or bulking agent(s)
in the proper proportions to promote aerobic microbial activity and growth and to
N W SU

achieve optimum temperatures

composting- controlled decomposition of organic matter by micro-organisms, mainly
bacteria and fungi, into a humus-like product
composting amendment- any item added to the compost mixture that alters the
O IE L

moisture content, C:N ratio, or pH

D EV C

curing- process where fungi digest the carbons not degraded during composting and
further stabilize the nutrients
disposal site - site where solid waste is finally discharged and deposited
hazardous waste- solid waste or combination of solid waste which because of its
quantity, concentration, or physical, chemical or infectious characteristics may: cause,
or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in serious
irreversible, or incapacitating reversible, illness
O

leachate- shall refer to the liquid produced when waste undergo decomposition, and
when water percolate through solid waste undergoing decomposition; contaminated
liquid that contains dissolved and suspended materials
storage- interim containment of solid waste after generation and prior to collection
R

for ultimate recovery or disposal

windrow composting- involves the arrangement of compost mix in long, narrow
piles or windrows that are periodically turned to maintain aerobic conditions

B. Location
It should be located in soils with at least 15% clay. If it is located in other soil types,
provision for soil sealant should be made.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 56

C. Functional requirements

C.1 Storage
Factors to consider in the design of storage facilities for solids shall include type, number
and size of animals, number of days storage desired, and the amount of biodegradable
waste generated in processing plants for animals, fruit and vegetables.

For solid manure storage, it should be located for year-round access so manure can be
spread when field, weather, and regulations permit.

Construction: Floor shall be concreted and shall have a slope of 2% to one or both sides
with openings on the low side to a gutter or surface drain. Floor drains shall be provided
with removable grills. Underground non-corrosive pipe with a diameter of 150 mm shall be
installed to carry the liquids away.

Entrance shall be provided with ramps so that surface water does not drain into the
storage. Ramp slope should be 20:1 – 10:1.

U 3
C.2 Composting

D 2
E
C.2.1 Feedstock quality

O 20
Feedstock shall be organic and biodegradable. It shall not contain contaminants or
R LA BE
foreign matter or hazardous waste.

C
C.2.2 Composting time
Composting time varies with C:N ratio, moisture content, climate, type of operation,

R Smanagement, and the types of wastes and amendments being composted.

T C A
EP S
Typical composting time
N W SU

C.2.3 C:N ratio

O IE L

The C:N ratio of the compost mix should be maintained for most compost operations
between 25:1 and 40:1. The C:N ratio for the compost mix is calculated from the C:N
D EV C

ratios of the waste, bulking agents, and amendments.

Typical Carbon to nitrogen ratios of common composting materials

Material C:N ratios
Cattle manure (with straw) 25–30
Cattle feedlot 13
Corn & sorghum stover 60–100
Cucumber 20
O

Dairy manure 10–18

Garden wastes 20–60
Grain rice 36
Grass clippings 12–25
R

Green leaves 30–60

Horse 19
Lamb 10
Pig manure 5–8
Potato tops 25
Poultry manure (fresh) 6–10
Poultry manure (henhouse 12–18
litter)
Residue of mushroom culture 40
Rice straw 48–115
Saw dust 300–723
Seaweed 19
Soybean residues 20–40
Straw 40–80

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 57

Sugar cane (trash) 50

Tomato leaves 13
Tomatoes 25–30
Veal 2
Watermelon 20
Water hyacinth 20-30
Weeds 19
Wood chips 100–441

C.2.4 pH
The pH varies throughout the compost mixture and during the various phases of the
composting process. The recommended pH in the compost mixture should be 5.5 –
8.0. Optimum pH control should be accomplished by adding alkaline or acidic materials
to the initial mixture

C.2.5 Aerobic conditions

The composting mass shall be provided with adequate ventilation. At least 5% oxygen

U 3
shall be provided.

D 2
C.2.6 Temperature control

E
f waste is composted inside a fully enclosed vessel, the waste shall be maintained at a

O 20
minimum temperature of 55oC on at least three different days.
R LA BE

C
If waste is composted in windrows or in a vessel that is not fully enclosed, the waste
shall be maintained at a minimum temperature of 55 oC on at least 15 different days.
The windrows shall be turned at least five times after the temperature first reaches

R S55oC and the temperature must reach at least 55oC after the fifth turning.
T C A
EP S
If waste is composted using the static pile method, the waste shall be maintained at a
minimum temperature of 55oC on at least 15 different days. The pile shall be covered
with an insulating material such as cured compost.
N W SU

C.2.7 Moisture
Moisture content should be maintained 50% - 60% to nourish the composting bacteria.

C.2.8 Particle size

O IE L

Particle size shall be 5 mm-50 mm. For very dense compost materials, a bulking agent
or amendment shall be incorporated and shall be mixed or ground to the required size
D EV C

before being added to the compost pile.

C.2.9 Construction

C.2.9.1 Windrow composting

Windrows should be 1 m – 2 m high and 2 m – 5 m wide at the base.

C.2.9.2 Aerated static pile

O

The compost mixture height generally ranges from 2.4 m – 4.5 m and the width
should be twice the depth.

Individual piles should be spaced about a half the distance of the height.
R

C.2.9.3 In-vessel system

In-vessel reactor should be enclosed in a building or a closed reactor to control
temperature, moisture and odor and may involve the addition of a controlled
amount of air over a specific detention time.

C.2.10 Curing

The pile shall be cured when turning no longer results in an increase in

temperature. The pile shall not be disturbed for 1 month – 2 months. After
curing, the compost should be screened, if necessary, to remove any non-
biodegradable compounds and should be analyzed to determine nutrient value.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 58

PAES 415:2001 Agricultural Structures - Greenhouses

A. Definitions

greenhouse -structure that provide a reliable enclosure within which an environment

favorable to plant growth can be attained.
ridge and furrow greenhouse- gutter connected method of greenhouse
construction where modular roof units are connected at the eave by a common gutter
cooling -removal of heat from the interior of the greenhouse
heating- addition of heat to the interior of the greenhouse from any energy source
including the sun
shading- prevents excess solar radiation in the greenhouse
ventilation- process of exchanging air inside the greenhouse with outside air to
control temperature, humidity, oxygen or carbon dioxide levels

U 3
mechanical ventilation- ventilation of greenhouse using fans
natural ventilation- ventilation of greenhouse which occurs through controlled

D 2
openings due to natural pressure variations inside and outside the greenhouse

E
O 20
B. Location
R LA BE

C
The greenhouse should be placed with the ridge in a north to south orientation to
reduce interior shading from the structure itself on the plants. Greenhouse that are
connected together should be constructed north to south to provide even light
coverage within the houses throughout the day.

R S
T C A
C. Floor area requirement
EP S
C.1 Benches
N W SU

C.1.1 Bench area requirement

Benches should be up to 1.8 m wide if they are to be access from both sides, and
should not exceed 0.90 m if they are accessible only from one side.
O IE L

An air circulation space of approximately 160 mm shall be allowed between the

sidewalls and the benches. For fixed benches the usable space should be 66% - 75 %
of the floor area while 90% for rolling benches.
D EV C

C.1.2 Plant requirement

C.1.2.1 Nursery

C.1.2.1.1 Bags

Table below shows the population density of plants per square meter of bench. The
O

population density will vary depending on the distance between bagged plants.

Population density per square meter of bench based on bag sizes

R

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 59

C.1.2.1.2 Pots

Table below shows the population density of plants per square meter of bench.
The population density will vary depending on the distance between potted
plants.

Population density per square meter of bench based on pot sizes.

U 3
D 2
E
C.1.2.2 Production

O 20
R LA BE

C
C.1.2.2.1 Vegetables

Population density at recommended plant spacing for vegetables

R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L

C.1.2.2.2 Ornamentals
D EV C

Population density at recommended plant spacing for ornamentals

O
R

C.2 Walkways
If the walkway will be used only as a place to stand while servicing the benches, a minimum
of 0.30 m aisle shall be used for determinate crops and a minimum of 0.80 m aisle for
indeterminate crops.

The width of the walks shall be adjusted if machinery will be used. Larger greenhouses
often have 0.60 m - 0.90 m secondary aisle and 1.2 m - 1.8 m primary aisle. If a worker
is in a wheelchair, 1.2 m wide aisle shall be used and ramps shall be provided for easy

C.3 Floor length and width

The length of the structure shall be determined by the number of the plants to be grown
and the actual dimension of the commercially available sizes of the materials shall be
considered. The measurement shall be rounded off so that no glass will need to be cut to
fill odd sash bar spacing. When figuring the length of a plastic structure, an extra 0.60 m

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 60

shall be allowed to fasten the plastic properly, for glass, allow for the width of the projecting
part of each sash bar plus a fraction of an inch clearance.

The length of the greenhouse should not exceed 50 m. For gutter connected greenhouses
the total width should not exceed 50 m for well distribution of air.

The control sensors should be fully shaded from direct solar radiation. The shade should
be made of a material having a low thermal conductivity and high reflectivity such as white
painted wood. Wood should have a minimum thickness of 13 mm.

D.1 Building Height

The eave height for a gable roof greenhouse shall be at least 1.70 m with a minimum gable
height of 2.4 m

The eave height and the roof pitch will determine the height of the structure at the center.
The height of the structure shall be equal to the eave height plus one-fourth the width

U 3
D.2 Working height
The height of a greenhouse should be sufficient for the operation of machinery and the

D 2
comfort of the workers. Gutter heights of 2.8 m - 3.0m are recommended for multi span

E
houses to allow machines to move freely.

O 20
R LA BE
The height of the house in the walk areas shall not be less than 2.0 m

C
For tall crops 2.0 m shall be the minimum height at the eaves and 2.10 m as minimum
desirable height.

R S
T C A
E. Functional and structural requirement
EP S
E.1 Foundation
The foundation and footings shall be able to resist uplift, overturning and downward acting
N W SU

loads. For permanent greenhouses, all foundations shall be of durable material and shall
extend to a minimum depth of 0.45 m.

E.2 Walls
Height of side posts and columns should be 0.30 m - 3 m.
O IE L

E.3 Roof
D EV C

E.3.1 Frames
Framing shall adequately support the covering and any equipment and/or hanging baskets
suspended from the framing. It shall be able to carry trellising loads up to 25 kg/m2.

Framing shall be able to withstand maximum wind gusts of 250 km/hr.

E.3.2 Framing materials

O

E.3.2.1 Steel
Commonly used but shall be painted or galvanized to resist high moisture condition,
needs more maintenance than aluminum and is heavier, requiring additional support.
If galvanizing is done, it shall preferably be done after all cutting and welding has been
R

performed. Those areas where bare metal is exposed by cutting or welding shall be
painted.

E.3.2.2 Wood
Rafters should be placed 0.6 m – 1.2 m from center to center, depending on the
strength requirements. Depending on the width of the structure, truss or curved arch
type rafters are used. Greenhouses over 15.25 m wide shall require a reinforced truss
construction.

Purlins should be connected by a cross tie. One to 2.5 m spacing should be used
depending on the size of the greenhouse.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 61

E.3.2.3 Aluminum
Most economical material for constructing the greenhouse frames, it can be shaped to
form various structural components and needs no maintenance after installation.
Aluminum has the longest life span and allows for light reflectance.

E.3.3 Coverings
It should be durable as well as economical and should withstand heavy loads like wind
gusts of 150kph.

E.3.4 Covering materials

E.3.4.1 Glass
Glass can best transmit light.

E.3.4.2 Plastic

U 3
E.3.4.2.1 Polyethylene
Polyethylene sheet roofing provides good protection from rain and has low

D 2
investment and need less structural components. It shall have a minimum

E
thickness of 130 µm.

O 20
R LA BE E.3.4.2.2 Fiberglass

C
It is very durable, rigid and available in various light transmission levels.

E.3.4.2.3 Corrugated plastic sheets

R S Provide good protection from rain and provide better light transmission. They have
T C A
high material, installation labor and maintenance costs.
EP S
E.3.4.3 Screen
Usually used for shading purposes and protection from falling branches and the
N W SU

like but they do not provide protection from the rain. Low material, installation
labor and maintenance costs. This includes fishnets and mesh wire.

E.3.5 Roof pitch

Roof pitch for a glass greenhouse should be 51% to prevent inside condensation from
O IE L

dripping on plants.
D EV C

Plastic covered greenhouses require a steeper pitch of 58% - 70% to prevent drip.

E.3.6 Fasteners
Bolted fasteners, galvanized iron and weatherproof wood fasteners shall be used.

E.3.7 Gutter
For gutter connected greenhouses a 2% slope shall be provided for drainage.

F.4 Access
O

Large doors in the end of the greenhouse should be provided. If walking tractors are to be
used, 1.2 m wide standard doors shall be provided. A minimum of 0.8 m wide side doors shall
be used.
R

F.5 Floor and walkways

A concrete, gravel or stone walkway 0.60 m – 0.9 m wide should be built for easy access to
the plants. The rest of the floor should be covered by several inches of gravel for drainage of
excess water.

F.6 Facilities

F.6.1 Benches

F.6.1.1 Bench size

Benches should be of height and width suitable to an average size worker, benches
shall not exceed 0.90 m high when against a wall.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 62

If tall flowering plants are grown, lower bench beds should be used. For temporary
benches for growing and bedding plants, benches as wide as 1.50 m - 1.80 m and only
0.45 m - 0.60 m high should be used. When shade plants are to grow under the
benches, bench heights as high as 1.20 m should be used.

F.6.1.2 Bench arrangement

The arrangement of benches within the greenhouse should depend on dimensions of
the house, walkway location, heating and air circulation patterns, and material
handling into and out of the greenhouse.

The peninsular type bench arrangement gives the greatest amount of bench area per
unit of aisle space and permits convenient access to all areas.

F.6.1.3 Bench design

The commercial and peninsular bench arrangements should be either flat or stepped.
With stepped and flat benches, either a solid or open bottom should be provided. Open
benches should have sides to keep plants from being brushed off the benches. If solid-

U 3
bottom benches will be used it should be strongly constructed in order to carry the
weight of the sand and gravel placed on it.

D 2
E
F.6.2 Artificial lighting

O 20
Artificial lighting should be provided for the production of photo-period sensitive plants and
R LA BE
for the workers, 200 lux should be provided. High-pressure sodium lamps are usually used

C
to artificially light greenhouses. Incandescent lamps should not be used because the red
light emitted from these lamps causes the plants to stretch. Fluorescent lamps should be
used in growth chambers, these lamps are rich in blue light.

R S
T C A
F.6.3 Irrigation and drainage
EP S
The recommended drainage rate is 30% - 50% of the water dose given to the plant. The
drained water should be contained in a storage tank.
N W SU

Soil beds and benches are leveled with a slight slope of 0.8% - 1.0 % to drain the water
dripping from the media containers.

F.6.4 Work and storage areas

A work area for potting and maintaining plants should be made, and should be located
O IE L

inside or outside the greenhouse. The north wall may be a good location for a work area
inside the greenhouse. It may include a sink. Storage areas for soil and containers should
D EV C

be located outside the greenhouse but should be protected from the weather and not be
an eyesore.

F. Ventilating and cooling greenhouses

F.1 Natural ventilating system

Large vent openings provide the most ventilation, the total vent area should be 15%- 25%
of the floor area.
O

Top hinged ridge vents should form a 60o angle with roof when fully opened.

F.2 Mechanical ventilating systems

Relatively low-speed fans capable of moving a large volume of air slowly should be used.
R

A maximum ventilation rate of ¾-1 air change per minute is recommended for most
greenhouses

Ventilation fans should deliver the required ventilation capacity at 0.03 kPa static pressure
when all guards and louvers are in place unless specific design requirements require air
delivery at higher static pressures.

Fans should be spaced not more than 7.5 m apart for uniform ventilation.

Fans should be located on the downwind side or end of the greenhouse. If the fans must
be located on the windward side, increase the design ventilation capacity at least 10%

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 63

A clearance between the fan discharge and any obstruction of at least 1.5 times the fan
diameter should be maintained. Fans may be mounted in the roof if obstructions interfere
with other mountings.

Intake louver area should be at least 1.25 times the area of the fans.

Fans should be provided with fan guards to prevent accidents. Manufactured guards should
be used or install a woven wire mesh screen of at least 1.5 mm (gage 16) wire and 13 mm
openings, for placement within 100 mm of moving parts. Guards more than 100 mm from
moving parts may be made with woven wire mesh of 2.7 mm (gage 12) wire, and 50 mm
openings.

F.3 Evaporative cooling

F.3.1 Pad and Fan Cooling

The pad to fan distance should be 30 m - 50 m. For very long houses, installing fans
in the roof at the midpoint and pads at both ends will help to reduce air velocities

U 3
across the plants.

D 2
The pad is normally run continuously along the side or end of the house opposite the

E
ventilation fans. Vertical pad height should not exceed 2.5 m nor less than be 0.5 m

O 20
for uniform water flow.
R LA BE

C
Pads should be located on the prevailing wind side of the greenhouse. Pad location is
not as important when the greenhouse is sheltered from prevailing winds by another
building or greenhouse located within 7.5 m.

R S
T C A
Keep fans from exhausting directly into pads on an adjacent greenhouse, unless they
EP S
are separated by at least 15 m.

F.3.2 Misting and fogging system

N W SU

A sprinkler may be provided to increase humidity and reduce internal temperatures.

Caution should be observed not to soak the plants.

G. Shading
Overhangs should be sized to fit the particular design requirements of the space. The
O IE L

length of the overhang should be 1 /3 to ½ of the glazing height, and the height of
separation between window and overhang should be ¼ of the window height.
D EV C

H. Instrumentation and Controls

The control sensors should be fully shaded from direct solar radiation. The shade should
be made of a material having a low thermal conductivity and high reflectivity such as white
painted wood. Wood should have a minimum thickness of 13 mm.

PAES 416:2002 Agricultural Structures – Plant Tissue Culture Laboratory

O

A. Definition

tissue culture- growth of protoplasts, cells, tissues, shoot tips, roots, anthers, embryos,
flowers and meristems in a laboratory medium
R

culture medium- any nutrient material prepared for the growth and cultivation plant
tissue
sterilization- process of making any material entirely free from living microorganism
asepsis- condition that describes the freedom of plant materials, culture medium, confines
of the culture vessel from contaminating microorganisms
incubation subjecting of cultures to conditions favorable to the growth of the plant tissue
laminar flow- flow air currents in which air currents do not intermingle

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 64

B. Location
The building should be located away from sources of contamination such as a gravel
driveway or parking lot, soil mixing area, pesticide storage, or dust and chemicals from
fields.

C. Structural Requirements

C.1 Roof
Roofing materials should be G.I. sheet and other steel sheeting with corrosion resistant
coatings.

C.2 Ceilings
Ceilings shall be at least 2.4 m from the finished floor line.

C.3 Wall
All wall tops and ledges shall slope at 45 Deg

U 3
It should be coved to the floor-wall and at wall-to-wall junctions with a radius of 50 mm -
60 mm.

D 2
E
C.4 Windows

O 20
Windowsill shall be at least 1 m from the finish floor line.
R LA BE

C
C.5 Doors
Main doorways shall be at least 1.5 m wide to allow easier movement of large equipment
and facilities (e.g., laminar flow cabinets, photo-thermal cabinets, and shelves). Door for

R S
staff, storage and chemical rooms should be at least 0.8 m.
T C A
EP S
C.6 Floor
The floor slope should be 2% - 4% towards the drain.
N W SU

D. Functional Requirements

D.1 Laboratory

D.1.1 Glassware washing and storage area

O IE L

The glassware area shall be equipped with at least two sinks. The top of the working
space should be tiled or smooth-finished. Sink shall be stainless steel which is acid
D EV C

and alkali resistant.

D.1.2 Media preparation and sterilization area

The area shall be provided with working tables. Tables should be up to 1.2 m wide if
it is to be access from both sides, and should not exceed 600 mm if it is accessible
only from one side and the height should be 850 mm – 900 mm. Tabletop shall be
covered with materials which are easily cleaned and which will stand disinfectant
solution.
O

D.2 Transfer room

Transfer room shall be provided for isolation of explants, initial culture and transfer
culture. Laminar flow hoods or still-air boxes shall be provided to be used for all
aseptic work.
R

D.3 Growth room

Ceilings shall be insulated with a minimum R-value of 2.64 (R-15).

Artificial lighting should be provided for the production of photo-period sensitive plants.
For the workers, 200 lux should be provided.

The width of the shelves should be 405 mm if accessible only from one side and should
be 1 m if accessible from both sides. The distance between each layer of the shelves
shall be 455 mm

Aisles and passage shall be at least 1 m.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 65

D.4 Facilities and equipment

D.4.1 Lighting

Table below shows the recommended lighting intensity for tissue culture laboratory.

D.4.2 Ventilation, Temperature and RH

Thermostat shall be provided to prevent temperature variations in the room from
exceeding the favorable culture environment. Humidifiers or dehumidifier shall be
provided to control relative humidity (RH) inside growing vessels.

U 3
D.4.3 Water supply and drainage

D 2
Both hot and cold water should be available with water distillation and/or deionization

E
devices. The pipes leading from the sink shall be PVC which resists damage from acids

O 20
and alkalis
R LA BE

C
D.4.4 Hand-washing facilities
Adequate and convenient hand-washing and, if necessary, hand-sanitizing facilities
should be provided anywhere in the laboratory where the nature of employees jobs

R Srequires that they wash, sanitize and dry their hands.

T C A
EP S
PAES 417:2002 Agricultural Structures – Fruit and Vegetable Storage
N W SU

A. Definition

controlled atmosphere storage -storage in an artificial atmosphere in which the

proportion of carbon dioxide and/or oxygen is precisely controlled
bulk storage- produce is piled in room-sized bins, which exerts forces that must be
O IE L

resisted by the building walls

D EV C

pallet bin storage- produce is placed in boxes or pallet bins which in turn are stacked
in storage room
pallet -low portable platform made of wood or metal or plastic or in combination to
facilitate handling, storage, or transport of materials as a unit load using a forklift
drip cooler- storage structure with continuously wetted walls
burlap- coarse cloth made of jute, flax or hemp
air cooled -storage provided with good ventilation
O

vapor barrier materials used to prevent migration of moisture into a storage area
cell pack- individual divisions in a carton formed by fiberboard dividers, each cell to
contain one fruit
R

telescopic cartons- cartons in which the cover is separate and fits snugly over the
bottom part

B. Location
The area immediately surrounding the building shall be concreted, covered with asphalt or
with similar material. The access road, walkways and parking areas shall be similarly
treated.

C. Space requirement
Produce Average bulk density kg/m3 Maximum pile depth m
Potatoes 670 4.2 - 6
Pumpkins and squash 600 0.6 - 1
Onions 650 3 - 3.6

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 66

For bulk storage, floor area shall be determined by knowing the weight of the produce and
by dividing by the bulk density and pile depth

D. Structural requirements

D.1 Roof
Roofing materials shall be made of G.I. sheet and other steel sheeting with corrosion
resistant coatings.

D.2 Ceilings
Ceilings shall be at least 2.4 m from the finished floor line for manual handling and 6m for
mechanical handling.

D.3 Wall
It should be coved to the floor-wall and at wall-to-wall junctions with a radius of 50 mm -
60 mm

U 3
D.4 Doors and access

D 2
D.4.1 Door

E
Door shall be fitted with screens, air flaps or provided with air curtain. The width shall

O 20
R LA BEbe at least 2.5 m.

C
D.4.2 Access
Access door shall be provided for checking the commodity without opening the main
door. It shall be constructed with a glass (reinforced) panel at eye level. The width

R S shall be 600 mm750 mm.

T C A
EP S
D.5 Floor
Intersection with the wall shall be coved with 50 mm - 60 mm radius. The floor slope
should be 2% - 4% towards the drain.
N W SU

E. Functional Requirements

E.1 Storage area

O IE L

E.1.1 Drip cooling

The wall for the drip cooling should be made of burlap or porous materials and should
D EV C

be held in place by wire netting. Water pipe with nozzles on the top of the wall or
sprinkling hose shall be provided to trickle water down the walls.

E.1.2 Air-cooled

E.1.2.1 Natural convection

Air inlets shall be located near the floor level and outlets shall be near the roof.

E.1.2.2 Forced ventilation

O

Recommended ventilation for selected vegetables

R

E.1.3 Refrigerated
Ceiling, wall and floor shall be provided with vapor barriers and shall be insulated with
minimum R-values as shown in Table below.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 67

An 80 mm air plenum should be provided between the floor and stack.

E.2 Piling system

Stack should be about 80 mm away from outer walls and 100 mm – 120 mm away from
the wall that is exposed to the sun. Space between the ceiling and the stack shall be 300
mm.

Within a stack, a minimum of 10 mm vertical air path shall be provided between each box.
Space between stack and sides and floor shall be 150 mm – 200 mm. Stacking height shall
be up to 12 units for the cell pack and 8 units high for telescopic tray pack cartons

E.3 Facilities and equipment

U 3
E.3.1 Lighting

D 2
Table below shows the recommended lighting intensity for fruit and vegetable storage.

E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
PAES 418:2002 Agricultural Structures – Primary Processing Plant for Fresh Fruit and
Vegetable
N W SU

A. Definition

primary processing -product handling which include steps to make a harvested

commodity more suitable for manufacturers or consumers
O IE L

grading- process of classifying into groups according to a set of recognized criteria of

quality and size, each group bearing an accepted name and size grouping
D EV C

sizing- process of classifying into sizes according to criteria that may or may not be
recognized or accepted by the industry
sorting- Process of classifying into groups designated by the person classifying the
produce either according to a set of criteria or whatever criteria he may set
air change ratio- ratio of the volume of air that enters a room to the volume of air of the
empty room
O

inspection -process of determining whether the grade standards have been interpreted
or enforced properly by inspecting random samples usually of predetermined amount large
enough to give an indication of the correctness of the grading procedure
packaging- process to ensure adequate protection and safe delivery of a product from
R

the producer to the ultimate consumer

B. Location
The location of the processing plant in relation to raw material supplies shall be near as
possible

C. Space requirements
Capacity of the processing plant shall be calculated based on the volume of commodity
being processed. An area of 20 square meter per ton of commodity shall be provided

The storage area of a processing plant shall have a capacity for temporary storage of raw
materials for 2-5 processing days.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 68

D. Structural Requirements

D.1 Roof
Roofing materials should be G.I. sheet and other steel sheeting with corrosion resistant
coatings. Provisions of skylights (i.e. plastic roofing sheets) at media preparation and
sterilization area for natural lighting are recommended

D.2 Ceilings
Ceilings shall be at least 2.4 m from the finished floor line

D.3 Wall
All wall tops and ledges shall slope at 45 deg. It shall be coved to the floor-wall and at
wall-to-wall junctions with a minimum radius of 50 mm - 60 mm

D.4 Windows
All windows shall be properly installed with 16-mesh screen. Window ledges shall be sloped
about 45o to prevent the accumulation of dirt, water, or debris. Windowsill shall be at least

U 3
1 m from the finish floor line

D 2
D.5 Doors and jambs

E
Doors shall have a minimum width of 1.5 m.

O 20
R LA BE
D.6 Floor

C
Intersection with the wall shall be coved with 50 mm - 60 mm radius. The floor shall slope
2% - 4% towards the drainage.

R S
E. Functional Requirements
T C A
EP S
E.1 Receiving area
The plant shall be provided with an area for the reception and temporary storage of raw
materials until it is used in the process.
N W SU

E.2 Processing area

It shall be physically divided into areas where different functions are performed. The dirty
area shall not extend to the section of the plant or of the processing room where the
cleanest operations are carried out. Separation of one area from the other shall be achieved
O IE L

through the use of light partitions and painted wood panels.

D EV C

Unloading area: There shall be provision for unloading the fruit and vegetable with
minimum damage.

Washing area: There shall be provision for washing the commodity either by immersion,
by spray/ showers or by combination of these two processes. Washing stand, tables and
drying racks should be provided.

Sorting and grading area: There shall be provision for sorting and/or screening and grading
O

of raw materials. The height of sorting and grading surface shall be about 100 mm - 150
mm below the bottom of the elbow in the normal working position (sitting or standing).
Edges of the sorting table should be lined with thin layer of foam to protect the commodity
from bruising during sorting, and should slope from the center toward the sorter by 10
degrees.
R

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 69

Recommended dimension of fruit and vegetable container

E.3 Storeroom for finished products

The area shall be clean, the temperature and humidity levels shall be appropriate (less

U 3
than 25 C° and 60% of relative humidity), and it shall be protected from foreign matter.

D 2
E.4 Equipment and facilities

E
O 20
E.4.1 Lighting facilities
R LA BE

C
Recommended lighting intensity for fruit and vegetable processing plant

R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU

PAES 419:2000 Agricultural Structures – Warehouse for Bagged Storage of Grains

A. Definition
O IE L

warehouse -building used for storing paddy or rice and other grains in bags
D EV C

bag storage- storing of paddy or corn kernels in bags usually made of jute (gunny) or
polyethylene and normally accommodates 44-50 kilos
bag storage -storing of paddy or corn kernels in bags usually made of jute (gunny) or
polyethylene and normally accommodates 44-50 kilos
palay/ paddy/ rough rice- unhulled grain of Oryza sativa L., that is grain with the
hull/husk enclosing the grain
fumigation- process of using chemicals to control insects in grains in a form of fumes
O

moisture content- amount of moisture in the grain expressed as percentage of the total
weight of the sample, wet basis.
Dunnage/ pallet /“tarima”- wooden frames used on concrete floors for stacking bags
to prevent direct contact between the grains and the floor
R

Aeration- moving of air through stored grains at low airflow rates (generally between
0.07 – 0.28 cubic meter per minute per ton) for purposes other than drying, to maintain
or improve its quality

B. Location
Warehouses should preferably be protected by trees or other surroundings from steady
direct sunlight. The long axes of the warehouses should be oriented East-West or sited
across the prevailing wind. The building should be situated where it will not be exposed to
afternoon sunlight.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 70

C. Functional requirements

C.1 Floor area requirement

C.1.1 Pallet dimension

The standard pallet size should be 152 cm x 61 cm.

C.1.2 System of piling

C.1.2.1 Small scale storage

Bags of grain in each lot should be stacked in basic patterns of cluster formation
so that bags can be easily counted, and quality maintained.

U 3
D 2
System of piling for small scale

E
O 20
C.1.2.2 Large scale storage
R LA BE

C
Block stacking
In this type, six blocks are formed to make standard stack of 9.14m x 6m size.

R S Each block is of the size 6m x 1.5m. In the block, one layer is put lengthwise and
other breath-wise.
T C A
EP S
Chinese method
Bagged grains with 14% moisture content or lower could be piled in Chinese
N W SU

method. Sacks are piled side by side and one on top of the other over malathion
sprayed wooden pallets

Japanese method
Bagged grains with moisture content of more than 14% are piled in this method.
O IE L

This system of stacking provides ventilation space between bags and allows
circulation of convective air currents that provide a medium for heat dissipation
D EV C

Criss-cross stacking
In this type bags are laid in complete length-wise or breath-wise tiers in alternate
layers systematically. The first layer will have 11 bags in 9.14m direction with 11
such rows. The second layer of bags would be laid width-wise with 16 bags in
9.14m direction of stack with 7 such rows.

C.1.3. Stack height

Sacks made of woven polypropylene have a tendency to slide on each other, and
O

therefore shall not be stacked more than 3 meters high. Jute sacks bind together
better, and maybe stacked up to 6 meters above the floor

Optimum recommended stack heights

R

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 71

C.1.4 Pathways
A central aisle ranges from 3-3.65 m wide or not less than 1m wider than the width of
the widest vehicle loaded should be designed when two or more forklift trucks are
being used simultaneously during warehouse operation, If there is only one forklift to
be used, the central aisle should be designed with a width of not less than 0.6m wider
than the width of the widest vehicle loaded.

C.1.5 Side spacing

Space between piles shall be 0.6 meter wide. A minimum of 0.5meter space between
the edge of the pile and the wall shall be provided

C.1.6 Physical dimensions of structure

Recommended dimensions of warehouse based on capacity

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
Given the recommended dimensions of the warehouse and its corresponding capacity
above, the number of buildings are doubled, tripled or quadrupled based on the desired
R LA BE

C
capacity of the warehouse. For example, a 200,000 cavans warehouse is required, two
buildings (duplex) with dimensions of 25m x 78m each is recommended.

R S
C.2 Height of structure
The height of the interior between the beam and floor is 6.0 meters (minimum) for normal
T C A
temperature warehouse.
EP S
C.3 Building structure requirements
N W SU

Provisions for drying facilities that may be necessary in conjunction with the storage
facilities to assure that food grains are in the range of 12 to 14 percent moisture content
prior to storing.

C.4 Illuminations
O IE L

The minimum requirement for illumination is 3 watts per square meter.

D EV C

PAES 420:2002 Agricultural Structures – Farm workshop and Machinery Shed

A. Definitions

workshop -building for fabrication, repair and maintenance of tools, implements,

equipment and parts of structures and provides a place where tools, supplies and spare
parts are stored
machinery shed- area to protect machinery from weather, theft, vandalism and to allow
O

easy maintenance and adjustment of machines

hazardous material -substances on farms that are highly flammable or poisonous
R

B. Location
The building shall be situated at least 45 m from other buildings to reduce fire hazard, to
allow for future expansion, and maneuvering and parking of machinery.

C. Space Requirements
The minimum area for farm workshop shall be calculated as the sum of the area occupied
by the largest machinery plus service space, and workbench and equipment area.

The minimum storage area for machinery shed shall be calculated by multiplying the width
plus 0.6 m by length plus 0.6 m for each machine. The area calculated for each machine
shall be added to get the total required area.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 72

D. Structural Requirements

D.1 Floor
For the approach aprons, the slope shall be 3 % - 5 % away from the building.

D.2 Walls
The building shall be enclosed with solid walls or wire netting,

D.3 Roof
When the roof span is 3 m or less, a beam shall be used. For larger spans or very heavy
loads a truss shall be required. The minimum clear height from floor to truss shall be at
least 3 m. For machines higher than 3 m, the height shall be the sum of the machine height
plus 0.3 m.

D.4 Door/Gate
Minimum dimension of a doorway shall be 3 m high and 3.7 m wide. For bigger equipment,

U 3
a clearance of 0.6 m on both sides shall be added. The door height shall be provided with
a clearance of at least 0.3 m above the tallest machinery.

D 2
E
E. Functional Requirements

O 20
R LA BE
E.1 Workshop

C
Workbenches shall be at least 1m high. The bench width shall be 0.8 m and at least 3 m
long. Benches shall be equipped with a large vice and anchored securely.

R S
For a welding area, a welding hood with a fan that will move air about 28 m3 /min - 57 m3
T C A
/min shall be provided.
EP S
E.2 Electricity and Lighting
A 120-volt or 240-volt outlet shall preferably be installed every 1.2 m along workbenches
N W SU

and every 3 m along walls. If power tools are located away from walls, outlets shall be
provided on the floor or suspend from the ceiling.

Recommended Lighting Levels

Area Lighting intensity lux (Lumen/m2)
O IE L

General 200
Bench 500
D EV C

Outside the shop and Active 100

storage area
Machine shed 50

VI. REFERENCES
O

Saludes, RB. 2013. Farm Structures. PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review
Materials.
R

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 73

AGRICULTURAL BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES QUESTIONS

1. An artificial stone as a result of mixing cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates and water.
A. Concrete B. Plain concrete

C. Reinforced concrete D. All of the above

2. A concrete with reinforcement property embedded in such a manner that the two materials act
together in resisting forces.
A. Concrete B. Plain concrete

C. Reinforced concrete D. All of the above

3. Crushed stone, crushed gravel or natural gravel with particles retained on a 5 mm sieve.
A. Aggregates B. Coarse aggregate
C. Fine aggregate D. All of the above

U 3
4. Crushed stone, crushed gravel, sand or natural sand with particles passing on a 5 mm sieve.
A. Aggregates B. Coarse aggregate

D 2
C. Fine aggregate D. All of the above

E
O 20
5. Class AA concrete has a mixing proportion of _____.
R LA BE
A. 1:2:4 B. 1:2.5:5

C
C. 1:3:6 D. None of the above
6. A mixture of cement and water only, mixed to the consistency of very thick cream used for

R S
coating surfaces of concrete to improve their appearance.
T C A
A. Mortar B. Grout
EP S
C. Plaster D. Cement
N W SU

7. A classification of CHB whose thickness ranges from 15 to 20 centimeters and are used to carry
load aside from its own weight.
A. Building blocks B. Load bearing blocks
C. Non-bearing blocks D. All of the above
O IE L

8. A classification of CHB intended for walls, partitions, fences, dividers and the like carrying its
own weight whose thickness ranges from 7 to 10 centimeters.
D EV C

A. Building blocks B. Load bearing blocks

C. Non-bearing blocks D. All of the above
9. Although it is a non-homogenous natural product requiring judgment and critical appraisal, it
continues to be the primary structural material for farm building.
A. Wood B. Concrete
C. Steel D. All of the above
O

10. Refers to that fibrous substance which composes the trunk and the branches of a tree that lies
between the pith and the bark.
A. Wood B. Lumber
C. Rough Lumber D. All of the above
R

11. A wood that has been sawed or sliced into boards, planks, timber, etc.
A. Wood B. Lumber
C. Rough Lumber D. All of the above
12. A lumber that is unplaned or with rough surfaces.
A. Rough Lumber B. Dressed Lumber
C. Undressed Lumber D. None of the above
13. The term applied to planed lumber having at least one smooth side.
A. Rough Lumber B. Dressed Lumber
C. Undressed Lumber D. None of the above
14. The unit of measure used in computing the volume of lumber.

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 74

A. Cubic foot B. Board foot

C. Board meter D. None of the above
15. What will be the cost per board foot if the selling price per piece of 2”x3”x8’ lumber is 250
pesos?
A. 6.25 B. 62.50
C. 62.25 D. 60.50
16. How many pieces of plywood are needed for the ceiling of a 6 meter by 8-meter room?
A. 15 B. 16
C. 17 D. 18
17. Part of a truss that extends vertically from a crossbeam to the apex of a triangular truss. It
connects the apex of the truss with its base, holding up the tie beam (in tension) at the base
of the truss.
A. King post B. Top chord

U 3
C. Bottom chord D. None of the Above

D 2
18. An inclined or horizontal member that establishes the upper edge of a truss. This member is

E
subjected to compressive and bending stresses.

O 20
A. King post
R LA BE B. Top chord

C
C. Bottom chord D. None of the Above
19. The horizontal (and inclined, ie. Scissor trusses) member defining the lower edge of a truss,
carrying ceiling loads where applicable. This member is subject to tensile and bending stresses.

R S
A. King post B. Top chord
T C A

C. Bottom chord D. None of the Above

EP S
20. Members that join the top and bottom chords to form the triangular patterns that give truss
N W SU

action. The members are subject only to axial compression or tension forces (no bending).
A. Webs B. Span
C. Chords E. None of the Above
21. Type of load that is permanent from the weight of the materials carried by the roof, such as
O IE L

tiles, ceiling lining, battens, and the truss itself.

A. Dead load B. Live load
D EV C

C. Wind load D. All of the above

22. Type of load that refers to the weight of workers walking on the roof, and materials being lifted
on or off.
A. Dead load B. Live load
C. Wind load D. None of the above
23. Type of load that refers to the force applied by the wind, including the uplift effect that wind
O

has.
A. Dead load B. Live load
C. Wind load D. None of the above
R

24. A pre-built structural member capable of supporting a load over a given span. It consists of
one or more triangles in its construction.
A. Truss B. Beam
C. Column D. All of the above
25. Structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to
other structural elements below.
A. Truss B. Beam
C. Column D. None of the above
26. A structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting bending. The
load force (external loads, own weight, span and external reactions) is called a bending
moment.
A. Truss B. Beam

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 75

C. Column D. None of the above

27. A load which tends to shorten or crush a structural member.
A. Compression B. Tension
C. Shear D. Bending
28. A load which tends to stretch a member. It is the opposite of compression.
A. Compression B. Tension
C. Shear D. Bending
29. A load that causes one part of a structural member to slip sideways over another part produces
shear stresses. This can occur in places where a defect might weaken the wood fibers and
cause them to split along the grain.
A. Compression B. Tension
C. Shear D. Bending
30. A load that causes the beam to bend that is supported at both ends when a load is applied to

U 3
the middle.
A. Compression B. Tension

D 2
E
C. Shear D. Bending

O 20
31. A farm structure used to store and protect the animal fodder so that it is preserved in an ideal
R LA BE

C
condition for the farm animals.
A. Warehouse B. Silo
C. Storage room D. Stock room

R S
T C A
32. A building used for storing paddy or rice and other grains in bags.
EP S
A. Warehouse B. Stackhouse
C. Farm shed D. None of the above
N W SU

33. Wooden frames used on concrete floors for stacking bags to prevent direct contact between
the grains and the floor.
A. Dunnage B. Pallet
C. Tarima D. All of the above
O IE L

34. The standard pallet size is:

A. 162 cm x 51 cm B. 62” x 24”
D EV C

C. 162 cm x 61 cm D. None of the above

35. The recommended stack heights for paddy and rice storage is:
A. 4.57 meters B. 4.47 meters
C. 4.27 meters D. None of the above
36. For grain storage, what is the recommended minimum space between the edge of the pile and
the wall?
O

A. 0.6 meters B. 1.0 meter

C. 0.5 meter D. None of the above
37. What should be the recommended warehouse for 300,000 cavans?
R

A. One building 75m x 142m B. Three buildings 20m x 48m

C. Two buildings 25m x 78m D. None of the above
38. For normal temperature warehouse, the minimum height of the interior between the beam and
floor is:
A. 3 meters B. 4 meters
C. 6 meters D. None of the above
39. The minimum illumination requirement for warehouse is:
A. 3 watts per square meter B. 4 watts per square meter
C. 6 watts per square meter D. None of the above
40. Area in which a sow is confined during farrowing and lactation periods, but in which the sow

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 76

can turn around.

A. Farrowing pen B. Farrowing stall
C. Creeping area D. All of the above
41. The minimum space requirement for finisher is:
A. 0.50 m2/animal B. 0.85 m2/animal
C. 0.70 m2/animal D. None of the above
42. How many growers shall a growing pen with a dimension of 2.0 m x 4.0 m can accommodate?
A. 22 B. 23
C. 16 D. None of the above
43. In broiler production, the type of housing that is long and narrow wherein at least one-half
of the front and the back of the house are open.
A. Open housing B. Half-open housing
C. Open-sided housing D. None of the above

U 3
44. The minimum floor space requirement for broilers four weeks and below.

D 2
A. 6.25 m2/bird B. 12.5 m2/bird

E
O 20
C. 1.25 m2/bird
R LA BE D. None of the above
45. The brooding area shall be surrounded with cardboard, metal sheeting or any hard board to

C
protect the chicken from draught and it should have a minimum height of:
A. 400 mm B. 450 mm

R S
C. 5000 mm D. None of the above
T C A
46. Access roads that connect major road arteries to the agricultural production areas where farm
EP S
produce are being mobilized and transported to the market by the farmers and fishermen.
A. Farm to market road B. Access road
N W SU

C. Barangay road D. All of the above

47. The recommended minimum road shoulder for concrete road.
A. 1.0 meter B. 2 meters
C. 1.5 meter D. None of the above
O IE L

48. In the network diagram, arrow represents:

D EV C

A. Activity B. Event
C. a & b D. None of the above
49. In the PERT/CPM network, the critical path is?
A. The longest path B. The shortest path
C. The average path D. None of the above
50. What is the minimum space requirement for 100 cattle?
O

A. 2,000 m2 B. 400 m2
C. 500 m2 D. None of the above
R

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures

 77

AGRICULTURAL BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES ANSWER KEY

1. B 11. B 21. A 31. B 41. C

2. C 12. A 22. B 32. A 42. A
3. B 13. B 23. C 33. D 43. C
4. C 14. B 24. A 34. D 44. D
5. D 15. B 25. C 35. C 45. B
6. B 16. C 26. B 36. C 46. A
7. B 17. A 27. A 37. D 47. A
8. C 18. B 28. B 38. C 48. A
9. A 19. C 29. C 39. A 49. A
10. 10 20. A 30. D 40. A 50. D

U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE

C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C
O
R

CLSU ABE Review Class 2023 Agricultural Buildings and Structures