REVIEWER FOR EMBEDDED SYSTEMS (LECTURE)

I. Introduction to Embedded - either microprocessor-based or

Systems microcontroller-based -- both are
integrated circuits that give the system
Embedded system-is a combination of
compute power
computer hardware and software
designed for a specific function or - often used for sensing and real-time
functions within a larger system. The computing in internet of things (IoT)
systems can be programmable or with devices -- devices that are
fixed functionality. Industrial machines, internet connected and do not require a
consumer electronics, agricultural and user to operate
process industry devices, automobiles,
- vary in complexity and in function,
medical equipment, cameras, household
which affects the type of software,
appliances, airplanes, vending machines
firmware and hardware they use
and toys, as well as mobile devices, are
possible locations for an embedded - often required to perform their function
system. under a time constraint to keep the larger
system functioning properly.
Characteristics of embedded systems
Embedded systems vary in complexity, but
The main characteristic of embedded generally consist of three main elements:
systems is that they are task specific.
They perform a single task within a larger 1. Hardware- The hardware of
system. For example, a mobile phone is embedded systems is based around
not an embedded system, it is a microprocessors and
combination of embedded systems that microcontrollers. Microprocessors
together allow it to perform a variety of are very similar to microcontrollers,
general-purpose tasks. The embedded and generally refer to a CPU that is
systems within it perform specialized integrated with other basic computing
functions. For example, the GUI components such as memory chips
performs the singular function of and digital signal processors (DSP).
allowing the user to interface with the Microcontrollers have those
device. In short, they are programmable components built into one chip.
computers, but designed for specific 2. Software- Software for embedded
purposes, not general ones. systems can vary in complexity.
However, industrial-grade
Additionally, embedded systems can
microcontrollers and embedded IoT
include the following characteristics:
systems generally run very simple
- comprised of hardware, software and software that requires little memory.
firmware 3. Firmware-Embedded firmware is
- embedded in a larger system to perform usually used in more complex
a specific function as they are built for embedded systems to connect the
specialized tasks within the system, not software to the hardware. Firmware is
various tasks the software that interfaces directly
with the hardware. A simpler system
 REVIEWER FOR EMBEDDED SYSTEMS (LECTURE)

may just have software directly in the II. Instruction Set

chip, but more complicated systems
Python is a wonderful and powerful
need firmware under more complex
programming language that's easy to use
software applications and operating
(easy to read and write) and, with Raspberry
systems.
Pi, lets you connect your project to the real
Applications of Embedded Systems world. Python syntax is very clean, with an
emphasis on readability, and uses standard
1. Automobiles -Modern cars commonly English keywords.
consist of many computers
(sometimes as many as 100), or Thonny -the easiest introduction to Python is
embedded systems, designed to through Thonny, a Python3 development
perform different tasks within the environment. Thonny gives you a REPL
vehicle. Some of these systems (Read-Evaluate-Print-Loop), which is a
perform basic utility function and prompt you can enter Python commands into.
others provide entertainment or user- Because it's a REPL, you even get the output
facing functions. Some embedded of commands printed to the screen without
systems in consumer vehicles include using ‘print’. In the Thonny application, this
cruise control, backup sensors, is called the Shell window.
suspension control, navigation
systems and airbag systems.
2. Mobile phones -These consist of
many embedded systems, including
GUI software and hardware,
operating systems, cameras,
microphones and USB I/O modules.
Indentation -Some languages use curly
3. Industrial machines. -They can
braces ‘{‘ and ‘}’ to wrap around lines of
contain embedded systems, like
code which belong together, and leave it to
sensors, and can be embedded
the writer to indent these lines to appear
systems themselves. Industrial
visually nested. However, Python does not
machines often have embedded
use curly braces but instead requires
automation systems that perform
indentation for nesting. For example a ‘for’
specific monitoring and control
loop in Python
functions.
4. Medical equipment -These may
contain embedded systems like
sensors and control mechanisms.
Medical equipment, such as industrial
machines, also must be very user-
Variables -To save a value to a variable.
friendly, so that human health isn't
jeopardized by preventable machine
mistakes. This means they'll often
include a more complex OS and GUI
designed for an appropriate UI.
 REVIEWER FOR EMBEDDED SYSTEMS (LECTURE)

compilation (compiling C/C++ or similar

code) in order to install them, which can be a
time-consuming task, particlarly on the
single-core Raspberry Pi 1 or Pi Zero.
LED -To control an LED connected to
Comments -are ignored in the program but GPIO17, you can use this code.
there for you to leave notes, and are denoted
by the hash ‘#’ symbol. Multiline
comments use triple quotes.
Lists - Python also has lists (called arrays in
some languages) which are collections of
data of any type. Lists are denoted by the use
of square brackets [ ] and each item is
separated by a comma.
Iteration -Some data types are iterable, which
means you can loop over the values they
contain.
Range -The integer data type is not iterable
and trying to iterate over it will produce an
error. Button -To read the state of a button
connected to GPIO2, you can use this code:
Length - You can use functions like ‘len’ to
find the length of a string or a list
IPython - is an interactive Python shell with
syntax highlighting, autocompletion, pretty
printing, built-in documentation, and more.
IPython is not installed by default.
Apt-Some Python packages can be found in
the Raspberry Pi OS archives, and can be
installed using apt.
Pip-Not all Python packages are available in
the Raspberry Pi OS archives, and those that
are can sometimes be out of date. If you can't
find a suitable version in the Raspberry Pi OS
archives, you can install packages from the
Python Package Index (known as PyPI).
Piwheels-The official Python Package Index
(PyPI) hosts files uploaded by package
maintainers. Some packages require
 REVIEWER FOR EMBEDDED SYSTEMS (LECTURE)

III. Computing Platforms for 5. Arduino MEGA2560

Embedded Systems -The Arduino MEGA 2560 is
designed for projects that require
Platforms
more I/O lines, more sketch memory
1. Basic Stamp 2 Microcontroller and more RAM. With 54 digital I/O
Module pins, 16 analog inputs and a larger
-The BASIC Stamp 2 serves as the space for your sketch it is the
brains inside of electronics projects recommended board for 3D printers
and applications that require a and robotics projects. This gives your
programmable microcontroller. projects plenty of room and
2. Basic Stamp 2SX Microcontroller opportunities maintaining the
Module simplicity and effectiveness of the
-The BASIC Stamp 2sx serves as the Arduino platform.
brains inside of electronics projects
Microprocessor Platforms
and applications that require a
programmable microcontroller. It is 1. Raspberry Pi 3 Model B -The
able to control and monitor timers, Raspberry Pi is a low cost, credit-card
keypads, motors, sensors, switches, sized computer that plugs into a
relays, lights, and more. computer monitor or TV, and uses a
Programming is performed in an standard keyboard and mouse. It is a
easy-to learn language called capable little device that enables
PBASIC. people of all ages to explore
3. Basic Stamp 2P40 Microcontroller computing, and to learn how to
Module program in languages like Scratch
-The BASIC Stamp 2p40 serves as and Python.
the brains inside of electronics 2. Intel Compute Stick Intel® -Compute
projects and applications that require Stick is a device the size of a pack of
a programmable microcontroller. It is gum that turns any HDMI* display
able to control and monitor timers, into a fully functional computer: same
keypads, motors, sensors, switches, operating system, same high quality
relays, lights, and more. graphics, and same wireless
Programming is performed in an connectivity. All this in a PC on a
easy-to-learn language called stick that measures 4.5 inches from
PBASIC. end to end, and is ready to compute
4. Arduino Uno Rev3 right out of the box.
-The Arduino UNO is the best board 3. Intel Compute Stick Intel® -Compute
to get started with electronics and Stick is a device the size of a pack of
coding. If this is your first experience gum that turns any HDMI* display
tinkering with the platform, the UNO into a fully functional computer: same
is the most robust board you can start operating system, same high quality
playing with. The UNO is the most graphics, and same wireless
used and documented board of the connectivity. All this in a PC on a
whole Arduino family. stick that measures 4.5 inches from
 REVIEWER FOR EMBEDDED SYSTEMS (LECTURE)

end to end, and is ready to compute 1. Convert the binary byte into BCD.
right out of the box.
2. DO
4. gizDuino X -is the latest addition to
our growing family of Arduino a.) Copy contents of HUNDREDS into W
compatible controllers. It is based on and convert to 7-seg.
an ATMEGA1281 MCU, a family
member of the ATMEGA1280 used b.) Copy 7-segment code to Port B.
in Arduino Mega board. This kit c.) Pulse RA2.
offers 54 I/Os, 1 hardware SPI, 2-
hardware UART, not to mention its 3. DO
large memory capacities: 128K a.) Copy contents of TENS into W and
FLASH, 8K SRAM, and 4K convert to 7-seg.
EEPROM.
5. Gizduino IOT-644 -Our new b.) Copy 7-segment code to Port B.
gizDuino Internet-Of-Things (IOT)- c.) Pulse RA1.
644 an Arduino Compatible platform
with on-board 100MBps Ethernet for 4. DO
your IOT project. Double memory a.) Copy contents of UNITS into W and
capacity ATMEGA644 + Wiznet convert to 7-seg.
W5500 + uSD Card Reader +
Standard Shield Socket. b.) Copy 7-segment code to Port B. c.) Pulse
IV. Parallel Input and Output RA0.
V. Serial Processing
1. Bring RA1 low.
2. COUNT = 8.
3. WHILE COUNT > 0 DO:
(a) Shift DATA_OUT right into Carry.
(b) Copy Carry to RA0.
(c) Pulse RA1.
(d) Decrement COUNT.
The 4x3 Keypad
The actual subroutine implements the task
list: 1. Set KEY_COUNT to one.
2. For i = 0 to 2. Activate column i. For j = 0
to 3. Check row j. IF zero THEN BREAK to
step 4. ELSE advance KEY_COUNT by 3.
Reset KEY_COUNT back to j+1.
 REVIEWER FOR EMBEDDED SYSTEMS (LECTURE)

3. Set KEY_COUNT to −1 if no key found. -Systems With the rising demand for
connected devices, embedded systems need
4. Return KEY_COUNT.
to work with heterogeneous devices and
VI. Relevant Tools, Standards, and/or adapt to different networking architectures to
Engineering Constraints cope-up with new functionalities and
performances in the real-time environment.
Role of Embedded Systems in IoT
The Internet of Things (IoT) is defined as a 2. The Security Crisis in Embedded
process in which objects are equipped with System -Design All the IoT hardware
sensors, actuators, and processors that products need to perform securely in
involve hardware board design and the real-time embedded environment.
development, software systems, web APIs, Since all the embedded components
and protocols, which together create a operate in a highly resource-
connected environment of embedded constrained and in physically
systems. This connected environment allows insecure situations, engineers often
technologies to get connected across multiple face problems in ensuring the security
devices, platforms, and networks, creating a of these embedded components.
web of communication that is revolutionizing 3. High Power Dissipation of Embedded
the way we interact digitally with the world. -System Design Another increasingly
These connected embedded systems are aggravating limitation is power dissipation of
changing interactions and behavior with our microprocessor hardware design for getting
environment, communities, and homes, and the best performance out of real-time
even with our own bodies. There are applications and devices. The persistent
embedded systems around us in the form of challenge is how to deploy an embedded
commercial systems like vending machines, system with an increasing number of
smart kiosks, AC controller, connected cars, transistors and with an acceptable power
hotel bill printers, etc., which are capable of consumption ratio.
performing a unique variety of operations. 4. Problems of Testing an Embedded
Hence, when it comes to designing of these System Design
embedded IoT systems, they need to be -For ensuring a reliable product design,
designed for specific functions, possessing conducting in-depth testing, verification, and
qualities of a good product design like low validation is another challenge.
power consumption, secured architecture, 5. Inadequate Functional Safety of
reliable processor, etc. However, designing Safety-Critical Embedded Systems
an embedded IoT hardware system is not - Functional safety is considered a part of a
easy. product’s overall safety. Embedded systems
are considered as generalized control
Challenges of Designing an Embedded IoT systems, which perform various control
Hardware System functions that require autonomy,
1. Lack of Necessary Flexibility for reconfiguration, safety, fault-tolerance and
Running Applications Over need to eliminate all the unacceptable risks to
Embedded meet functional safety requirements.
 REVIEWER FOR EMBEDDED SYSTEMS (LECTURE)

6. Increased Cost and Time-to-Market Apart •Embedded systems are built to achieve
-from flexibility and security, embedded certain efficiency levels. They are small
systems are tightly constrained by cost. In sized, can work with less power and are not
embedded hardware design, the need too expensive.
originates to derive better approaches from
•Embedded systems cannot be changed or
development to deployment cycle in order to
upgraded by the users. Hence, they must rank
handle the cost modeling or cost optimality
high on reliability and stability. They are
with digital electronic components and
expected to function for long durations
production quantity.
without the user experiencing any
difficulties.
•Microcontroller or microprocessors are used
to design embedded systems.
•Embedded systems need connected
peripherals to attach input & output devices.
•The hardware of an embedded-system is
used for security and performance. The
Software is used for features.
Types of Embedded System
Embedded systems can be classified based
on:
•Performance and Functional requirements
•Performance of the Microcontroller

VII. Characteristics of Embedded

Systems
•All Embedded Systems are task specific.
They do the same task repeatedly
/continuously over their lifetime. An mp3
player will function only as an mp3 player.
•Embedded systems are created to perform Performance and Functional Requirement
the task within a certain time frame. It must Based Embedded Systems
therefore perform fast enough. A car’s brake
Embedded Systems can be classified into
system, if exceeds the time limit, may cause
four types based on the performance and
accidents.
functional requirement.
 REVIEWER FOR EMBEDDED SYSTEMS (LECTURE)

1. Real Time Embedded System 6. Small Scale Embedded System is

provides output within a defined normally designed and created using
specific time. That is, real time an 8-bit microcontroller. This
embedded systems are designed and microcontroller can be battery
created to perform some specific activated.
work in pre-specified time. 7. Medium Scale Embedded System uses
There are two types of Real Time a single 16-bit or 32-bit
Embedded System. They are: microcontroller or multiple
• Soft Real Time Embedded Systems microcontrollers linked together.
• Hard Real Time Embedded Systems These systems have a lot of hardware
2. Stand-Alone Embedded Systems are as well as software complexities,
those that can work by themselves i.e. hence are not preferred by many.
they are self-sufficient and do not 8. Sophisticated Embedded System
depend on a host system. Stand-alone often function on multiple algorithms
embedded systems are made in a way that results in complexities in both
such that an input is received, hardware and software. They often
processed and thereafter the desired need a processor that is configurable
output is produces. Input can be and logic array that can be
received via sensors, keyword or push programmed.
button.
Some real-life applications of Embedded
3. Networked Embedded Systems
Systems are as follows:
depend on connected network to
perform its assigned tasks. These • Consumer electronics – Televisions
systems consist of components like and digital cameras; computer printers;
sensors, controllers etc. which are video game consoles and home
interconnected. Many of these entertainment systems like PS4.
systems are built on general purpose
processors. • Household appliances – Refrigerators;
4. Mobile Embedded Systems Mobile washing machines, microwave ovens, air
Embedded Systems are those that are conditioners.
small sized and can be used in smaller • Medical equipment – Scanners like
devices. They are used in mobile those for MRI, CT; ECG machines;
phones and digital cameras because devices to monitor blood pressure and
of the small size. They often have heartbeat
memory constraints and lacks good
user interface. • Automobiles – Fuel injection systems,
5. Microcontroller Performance Based anti-lock braking systems, music and
Embedded System are classified in entertainment systems, controls for air-
three types based on its conditioner
microcontroller performance. • Industrial applications – Assembly
• Small Scale Embedded Systems lines, systems for feedback, systems for
• Medium Scale Embedded Systems data collection
• Sophisticated Embedded Systems
 REVIEWER FOR EMBEDDED SYSTEMS (LECTURE)

• Aerospace – Systems for navigation and VIII. Asynchronous and Synchronous

guidance, GPS Serial Communication
• Communications – Routers, satellite
phones Synchronous Transmission, data flows in a
full duplex mode in the form of blocks or
The advantages of Embedded Systems
frames. Synchronization between the sender
are:
and receiver is necessary so that the sender
•They are convenient for mass knows where the new byte starts (since there
production. This results in low price per is no gap between the data).
piece.
In Asynchronous Transmission data flows in
•These systems are highly stable and a half-duplex mode, 1 byte or a character at a
reliable. time. It transmits the data in a continuous
stream of bytes. In general, the size of a
•Embedded systems are made for specific character sent is 8 bits to which a parity bit is
tasks. added, i.e. a start and a stop bit that gives the
•The embedded systems are very small in total of 10 bits.
size, hence can be carried and loaded Key Differences Between Synchronous and
anywhere. Asynchronous Transmission
•These systems are fast. They also use 1. In Synchronous Transmission, data is
less power. transferred in the form of frames. On
•The embedded systems optimize the use the other hand, in Asynchronous
or resources available. Transmission data is transmitted 1
byte at a time.
•They improve the product quality.
2. Synchronous Transmission requires a
The disadvantages of Embedded Systems clock signal between the sender and
are as follows: receiver so as to inform the receiver
about the new byte. In contrast, in
•Once configured, these systems cannot Asynchronous Transmission sender
be changed. Hence, no improvement or and receiver does not require a clock
upgradation on the ones designed and signal as the data sent here has a
created can be made. parity bit attached to it which
•They are hard to maintain. It is also indicates the start of the new byte.
difficult to take a back-up of embedded 3. Data transfer rate of Asynchronous
files. Transmission is slower than that of
Synchronous Transmission.
•Troubleshooting is difficult for
embedded systems. Transferring data
4. Asynchronous Transmission is
simple and economical, whereas
from one system to another is also quite
Synchronous Transmission is
problematic.
complicated and expensive.
•Because these systems are made for
specific tasks, hardware is limited.
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5. Synchronous Transmission is Sensor – detecting instrument: a device

efficient and has lower overhead as capable of detecting and responding to
compared to the Asynchronous physical stimuli such as movement, light, or
Transmission. heat.
6. In asynchronous data transfer, the Transducer – device that converts energy: a
line is kept at a stable value (logic 1) device that transforms one type of energy into
if no data is transmitted through the another, e.g. a microphone, a photoelectric
line. As against, in synchronous cell, or an automobile horn.
transfer, the end of the data is
indicated by the sync character(s). Light sensors -can be used for navigation and
Further than the sync characters, the tracking. Some robots use an infrared light
line can be either high or low. source and detector to navigate around
obstacles and avoid crashing into walls.
Infrared (IR) sensors -detect low-frequency
[900-nanometer (nm) and longer] light. They
deserve special consideration because they
are widely used in robotics for tracking,
collision avoidance, and communication
Ultrasonics -are often use for range finding
and collision detection. Many robotists have
written on the Polaroid Company’s modules.
These modules are used in Polaroid cameras
to quickly measure the subjects distance from
the camera and focus the lens to produce
sharp pictures.
Touch sensors -are commonly used to detect
bumps in the robot’s path and to allow the
robot to avoid collisions.
IX. Periodic, interrupts, control, X. Mobile and networked embedded
sensors, and actuators systems
Delay functions cause something to happen Network: In a network, a group of computers
after a period of time has elapsed. The and peripheral devices are connected. The
diagram shows “A” resetting a timer to 0 and smallest possible network is the one in which
starting a delay of three ticks before “B” two computers are connected. Networking:
happens. Networking is nothing but implementing
Detailed Description of a Simple, Periodic tools and tasks for linking computers so that
Timer The SysTick timer is an option they can share resources over the network.
included with some ARM processors used as Different Types of Communication Networks
the core of many 32-bit microcontrollers.
Here is a diagram of the SysTick timer.
 REVIEWER FOR EMBEDDED SYSTEMS (LECTURE)

1. A telephone network is a •Provides resource sharing (sharing of

communication network used for files, applications or hardware, an
transmission and reception of voice Internet connection, etc.)
signals. Different types of telephone
•Provides Communication support
networks include a fixed-line network
(email, live discussions, etc.)
and wireless network. In a fixed-line
network, the telephones must be •Processes Communication
directly connected through a wire to a (communication between industrial
single telephone exchange. computers)
2. wireless network is involved in
telephones or mobile •Provides access to information:
communications. This network can be Guarantees full access to information for
used or moved around anywhere a specified group of people through
within the coverage area. The networked databases
wireless network is used to control •Supports Multiplayer video games
different types of embedded
applications, such as railway level Different types of networks generally
crossing gates, fraud alert systems, have the following points in common:
flash flood information and billing •Servers: These are computers that
information systems, etc. provide the main information.
3. computer network is a group of
computers linked together with •Clients: These are computers or other
physical lines exchanging devices that get access to shared
information as digital data (binary resources.
values, i.e., values encoded as a signal •Connection medium: Connection
– which may represent either 0 or 1). medium defines the interlinking of
The links (connections) between different devices. •Shared data: It refers
nodes are established using either a to the information that is transmitted in a
cable media or wireless media. The network and received by the clients.
best example of a computer network
is the internet. •Printers and other shared peripherals:
Peripherals (devices) that are connected
Why networks are important? to the client machines for processing and
A computer is a machine used to obtaining the information.
manipulate and process data. Linking of
computers is essential for exchanging
information in communication. So, this
explains our query about what is a
network in terms of computers.
A computer network can serve several
different purposes like the ones given
below: