Analysis ~ ~ Gm and Synthesis: Ce “i Sec ll NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL SeCopyright © 2006, 2002, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers First Edition : 2002 Second Edition : 2006 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated ixto any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the copyright owner. ISBN :81-224-1753-1 Rs. 350.00 C-05-08-355, ‘Typeset at Innovative, New Delhi-2 Printed in India at Pack Printers, Delhi. PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS (formerly Wily Eastern Limited) 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002 Visit us at www.newagepublishers.comContents Preface to the Second Edition vii Preface to the First Edition ix 1, Basic Circuit Elements 1 L.1_Introduetion 1 12 Circuit Elements 2 1.2.1 _Single-Phase Circuit 9 1.2.2 The 3-phase Circuit 13 1.2.3 Complox Power 14 1.3__Network Classification 15 1.3.1__Linearity 15 1B 1.3.3 Lumped 16 1.3.4 Bilateral 16 = eee 13.6 Reciprocity 16 1.4 The Transformer WZ 14.1 The Perfect Transformer 18 1.5 ‘The Gyrator 20 1.6 The Negative Converter 22 1.7_Independent Sources 23 1.7.1 Ideal Voltage Source 23 1.7.2 Ideal Current Source 24 1.8 The Dependent or Controlled Sources 25 19 Source Transformation 25 1.10 Dot Convention for Coupled Circuits 28 Problems 5 2. Network Equations 37 es a7 2.2 Kirchhoff’s Laws az 2.3 Star Delta Transformation 40 2.4 Loop Analysis 43 2.5 Nodal Analysis 47xii Network Anelysis and Synthesis 2.6 Duality 59 261 & Giana 4 2.7 The Concept of Super Mesh (Loop) and Super Nodes 62 Problems. 64 Network Theorems 2.1__Introduetion 70 3.2 Superposition Theorem 70 3.3 Reciprocity Theorem 76 3.8 Tellegen’s Theorem 90 3.9 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem J ____93 3.10 Compensation Theorem 97 Problems. 104 4. Graph Theory and Network Equations 110 4.1 Introduction 110 42 Definitions 110 43 Incidence Matrix 113 44 ae 116 462. Rafatiod bokween floor aide Misti 125 4.7.1__Mesh Equations 128 4.7.2 Node Equations 129 4.7.3 Cut-set Equations 133 48 Network with Mutual Inductance 9 BR Problems iA 5. Differential Equations 152 lL Antiduntion __182 5.2 Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations 153 5.3 Non-homogeneous Equations 156 5.4 Initial Conditions in Circuits 157 5.4.1 Initial Conditions for the Resistor 158 158 5.4.3 Initial Condition for a Capacitor 158 5.5 First Order Circuits 161 5.1 First Order Cirmit with de Excitati 52 _AC Si Switched i RL Series Circui 67 5.6 Second Order Circuits 169 5.7_Analysis of Transformer 176 Problems 182Contents xiii 6. Fourier Seri ak ‘Transft 8 6.1 Introduction 184 6.2 Fourier Theorem 185 6.3 Even and Odd Functions tw 6.4_ Half Wave Symmetry 194 6.5 Exponential Fourier Series 200 6.6 Change of Interval 201 6.7 RMS or Effective Value of a Function 203 6.8 Fourier Transform 2 69 ition ‘Th 69.1 Shift Theroem 01 6.10 ‘Transform of an Impulse Function 6 (T) 217 6.11 Fourier Transform of a Train of Impulses 218 6.12 Differentiation and Integration in Time Domain 220 6.12.1 Time and Frequency Scaling 220 6.13 Duality 224 6.14 Fourier Transform of a Sinusoid 226 6.15 Causal Functions 201 Problems 233 7. Laplace Transform 237 7.1 Introduction 237 7.2 Properties of Laplace Transform 238 7.3 Laplace Transform of Some Typical Functions 241 7.4 Gate Function 247 7.5 The Concept of Complex Frequency 255 7.6 Partial Fraction Expansion 256 7.7__Operational Representation (Laplace Transform) of Circuit Elements 260 7.7.1 Initial and Final Value Theorem 265 7.8 Application of Laplace Transform to Electric Networks 266 7.9 Convolution Integral 274 Problems 293 8. Network Functions 291.0911 8 8.1__Intreduction 300 8.2 Driving Point and Transfer Functions 300 8.2.1 Driving Point Function 302 8.2.2 Transfer Functions 303 82 The Caleulation of Network Functions 9... OB 8.4 ‘Two Port Networks 314 ‘ Slaet: Chia 5 aL 8.4.2 Open Circuit Impedances 316 8.4.3 Hybrid Parameters 318xiv Network Analysis and Synthesis 865 _P: J-Series C i 346 8.6.6 Permissibility of Interconnection 348. 8.7 _Two-port symmetry 364 8.8 Poles and Zeros of Network Function ————SSSSS—B 8.81 Physical Significance of Poles and Zeros 366 8.8.2 Necessary Conditions for Driving Point Impedance 369 8.83 Necessary Conditions for Transfer Function 369 8.84 Response of the System vis-a-vis Location of Poles and Zeros 369 Problems 380 9. Resonance 387 9.1 Introduction 387 9.2 Series Resonance 388 9.2.1 Quality Factor Q 392 9.8 Parallel Resonance 298 9.3.1 Q of Parallel RLC Circuit 403 9.4 Pole-Zero Configuration of RLC Series Circuit 406 9.5 Parallel Resonance Circuit Pole—Zero Configuration 408 9.6 Multiple Resonance in High—Q Circuits 418 Problems tg 10. Passive Network Synthesis 426 10.1_Introduction 426 10.2 Positiv Function (PI 10.2.1 Properties of Positive Real (p.r.) Functions 435 10.3 Basic Synthesis Procedure 439 10.4 _L-C Immittance Functions 446 10.4.1 Foster Form I 448 10.42 Foster Form Jog 10.43 First Cauer Form 453 10.44 Il Caner Form 455 10.5 RC Impedance Function 458 10.5.1 Cauer Forms of RC Networks 463 10.6 RL Impedance or RC Admittance Functions 467 10.6.1 Cauer Forms of RL Impedance and RC Admittance 470 Problems 487 13. State Variable Analysis 11.1__Introduction 11.2 The Concept of State 11.3 State Equations 11.3.1 Equivalent Source Method SSeEkContents xv 11.8.2 Network Topological Method 500 11.4 State Model or State Space Description 508 11.5 Solution of State Equations 510 11.5.1 Properties of State Transition Matrix 511 11.6 Evaluation of Matrix Exponential e* 514 11.6.1 Laplace Transform Method 515 11.6.2 Leverrier Algorithm 515 11.6.3 Use of Sylvester's Interpolations Method 518 11.6.4 Use of Diagonal or Jordan Form 520 11.6.5 Series Evaluation of e* 523 11.7. Solution of Differential Equation Using State Variables 524 Problems 530 12 4 Classical Fil 585 12.1__Introduction 9.11 BB 12.2 Image and Characteristic Impedances 536 12.2.1 Propagation Function 539 12.2.2 Balanced and Unbalanced Networks 540 12.3. Lattice Attenuation 540 12.3.1 Bisection Theorem 543 12.3.2 T-type Attenuator 543 12.3.3 _ p-type Attenuator 545 12.3.4 Bridged T-type Attenuator 546 12.3.5 L-type Attenuator 547 12.3.6 Asymmetrical T-type Attenuator 551 12.3.7 Ladder Type Attenuator 553 12.3.8 n-type Asymmetrical Attenuator 553 12.4 Insertion Loss 554 12.4.1 Transmission Loss 556 12.5 Matched System 556 12.6 Classical Filters: Introduction (91 BO 12.1__Classification of Filters 9.922 CB Characteristic Impedance 12.8 562 12.10 High Pass, Constant-k Filter 569 12.11 Band Pass Constant-k Type Filter 571 12.12 Band Stop or Band Elimination Constant-k Type Filter 515 12.13 m-Derived Filters 581 12.13.1 m-Derived n-section LPF 583 12.14 m-Derived High Pass Filter T-section 586 12.15 m-Derived Band Pass Filter 588 12.16 Composite Filters 593 Problems 596 13. Modern Filter Theory and Active RC Filters 598 13.1 Introduction 598 13.2 Filter Specifications 599 13.3 Butterworth Approximation 602xvi Network Analysis and Synthesis 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 13.9 13.10 Chebychev Approximations 607 Comparison between Butterworth and Chebychev Approx 613 Some Special Filters 614 Active Elements and Circuits 615 13.7.1 Voltage to Current Transducer (VCT) 615 2 Voltage to Voltage Transducer (VVT) 615 3 Current to Current, Transducer CCT 616 7.4 Current to Voltage Transducer CVT 616 5 Operational Amplifier 616 .6 Nullator and Norators 620 Filter Design by Co-Efficient Matching 625 13.8.1 Second Order Low Pass Filter 625 13.8.2 Second Order High Pass Filter 628 13.8.3 Second Order Band-Pass Filters 630 Sensitivity Considerations 633, 13.9.1_Multi-parameter Variation 635 Sensitivity Considerations for RC Active Filters 638 13.10.1 Sensitivities of Some Particular Cases of Sallen-key Filter 640 13.10.2 Negative Gain Low Pass Filter 643 12103 Infinite Gain Low-Pase Fi 6 Problems 647 14, Analogous Systems 650 14.1 Introduction 650 14.2 Linear Mechanical Systems 651 14.2.1 Translational System 651 14.2.2 Rotational System 653 14.3 D’Alembert’s Principle 654 14.4 Force-Voltage Analogy 655 145 Force-Current Analogy 656 146 Mechanical Coupling Devices 658 14.6.1 Friction Wheel 658 1462 Lever 14.7. Electromechanical System 663 Problems Appendix A 668 A.1__Introduction 658 A.2__ Definitions 668 2 Determi fa Matri 7 A4 Rank of Matrix 673 A.5 Basic Operations 673 A6__ Adjoint Matrix 674 AZ Matrix Inversion 675 Appendix B 679 B1 Introduction 679 RS _Daftniiion ‘of 2 é aB& Some z-transform Pairs 1, The Constant Sequence 681 2. The Unit Impulse 682 3, The Exponential Sequence 682 684 4, Sinusoidal Sequence B4 Inversion of z-transform B 4.1 Partial Fraction Expansion 689 B 4.2 The Method of Long Division 691 B5__ Solution of Difference Equations 695 Appendix C 697 C1__Introduction 697 C2 Circuit Description 697 2.1 Blement Values 0.22 Nodes 698 C23 Circuit Elements 699 ; re ie 700 2.5 Format of Output Files 700 C3 Dependent Sources TOL C4 AC Circuit Analysis 705 C.4.1 Magnetic Elements 707 _ C4.2 Transient Analysis 708 C5 Modeling of Transient Sources 709 1, Exponential Source 708 2. Pulse Source 710 Sinusoidal Source References m1 Multiple Choice Questions 712 Answers to Multiple Choice Questions 812 Answer to Problems 815 Chapter I 815 Chapter II BIS Chapter IIT B16 Chapter IV B17 Chapter V 817 Chapter VI 818 Chapter VII B20 Chapter VIIT B23 Chapter IX Baa Chapter X BIB Chapter XI B26 Chapter XII B29 Chapter XIT B30 Chapter XIV BST Bibliography 832 Index 833 Copyright1 Basic Circuit Elements 1.1 INTRODUCTION The rapid progress made in Electrical Engineering during the past few decades has been possible due to the fact that an Electrical Engineer is able to assess, analyse and predict with greater accuracy the performance of various systems with the help of a simple but powerful tool known as circuit theory. In fact circuit theory has revolutionised the process of analysis in all branches of engineering be it Civil, Mechanical, Electronices or Computer engineering. It has been possible to represent an electrical analog of a real physical system in terms of electric circuit elements and analysis made accurately. Circuit theory is a simplified approxi- mation of a more exact field theory. Electromagnetic field theory deals directly with electrie and magnetic field vectors E and H which are due to the electric charge and current whereas circuit theory deals with voltages and currents that are integrated effects of electric and magnetic fields. Of course an electrical engineer is more interested in voltage and current from which charge, power energy fields ete. can be obtained if required. The following approximations are made while writing cireuit equations: () The distributed capacitance effects or displacement currents from one conductor to another have been ignored. (ii) The inductance is assumed to be independent of frequency. (ii) The radiation effects are ignored. These approximations are quite excellent at power frequencies. The two basic quantities to define the functions of circuits are charge and energy. Charge and Energy The concept of charge is based on atomic theory. An atom has positive charges (protons) in its nucleus and an equal number of electrons (negative charges) surround the nucleus making the atom neutral. Removal of an electron leaves the atom positive charged and addition of an electron makes the atom negatively charged. The basic unit of charge is the charge on an electron. The mks unit of charge is coulomb. An electron has a charge of 1.062 x 10°C. When a charge is transferred from one point in the cireuit to another point it consti- tutes what is known as electric current. An electric current is defined as the time rate of2 Network Analysis and Syuhesis flow of charge through a certain section. Its unit is ampere. A current is said to be of one ampere when a charge of 1 coulomb flows through a section per second. Mathematically, rele iG s(LD) If charge q is expressed in coulomb and time in second, 1 amp flow of current through a section is equivalent to approx. flow of 6.24 x 10 electrons per second through the section. Law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. However, its form can be converted ie. energy can be converted from one form of energy to another e.g. Electro-mechanical energy conversion, Electro-chemical energy conversion, MHD energy conversion, photoelectric energy conversion ete, In all these cases the function of each of these sources of electric energy is the same in terms of energy and charge i.e. the energy is spent as work for transporting charge from one point to another in a circuit. The movement of charges contribute to current and the amount of work done per unit charge is the potential difference between the two points. The electronic charges flow from a lower potential to a higher potential and these contribute to electronic current, whereas the conventional current is considered to flow from higher potential to lower potential. If a differential charge dq is given a differential energy dw, the rise in potential of the charge dw dq If potential is multiplied by the current a gail Ue uxt GE GTeP 1.3) which gives rate of change of energy with time and is equal to power. Thus, power p =v xi a dw Sine p =e In general du = pdt we foiae (4) 1.2 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS Basically there are three circuit elements in clectric circuits. These are resistance, induc- tance and capacitance. We shall study these elements in terms of the physical phenomenon, occurring in these elements, the field phenomenon associated with them and finally its relevance in circuit theory. Resistance When electrons flow through a material, they collide with other electrons and atomic par- ticles. These collisions being inelastic, these electrons lose energy. This loss of energy perBasic Circuit Elements 3 unit charge is considered as a drop in potential across the material. The time rate of flow of electrons through the section of the material constitutes the current. From field theory point of view, the change of energy per unit distance per unit charge is the force per unit charge which is the electric field intensity H. It has been observed experimentally that if J is the current density in A/m? o is the conductivity of the material then J=0k wAl1.5), Consider a wire of length J and cross-section A, the total current through the wire l=JA (1.6) and voltage drop across the wire veEl (1.7), Therefore, (1.8) The quantity on the right hand side is constant for a fixed geometry of the conductor and is termed as resistance and is denoted by R. The unit is ohm after the name of the discoverer who derived this relation experimentally. Inductance ‘A current carrying conductor produces a field surrounding this conductor. The field was founc to be magnetic in nature by Oersted when he brought compass needle in its vicinity which experienced force and got deflected. In terms of Field Theory this could be considered as force per unit magnetic pale which is termed as magnetic field density denoted by the letter B. The directjon of force is found to be experimentally perpendicular to the current carrying conductor. Field lines are found to be as shown in Fig. 1.1 in the form of closed circular loops. Fig. 1.1. Magnetic field lines surrounding a current carrying conductor. The direction of the magnetic field density with respect to the direction of current in the conductor is given by right hand rule, With the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the fingers of the right hand encircling the wire, point in the direction of the magnetic field. It is to be noted that these field lines are conceptual and these should not be considered as actually being present. A magnetic compass could be used to measure approximate direction of these lines. Magnetic flux surrounding a general geometry conductor is given by 4 = [B-ds 1.9) If all the N conductors are surrounded by these flux lines, the total flux linkages would be4. Network Analysis and Synthesis WY =No +=(1.10) Faraday observed that when two electrically conducting circuits are placed close to each other, change in flux in one circuit induced voltage in the other circuit. The flux could be changed by either changing (i) the relative position between the two circuits continuously or by changing the (i) current in the circuit. According to Faraday’s law av ako LAD If ¥ is in wb-turns, time in second and v in volts then & is unity. Therefore, ¥= fod wo(.12) Also q= fi dt — in electrostatic field. (1.18) Therefore, we see that ' is to voltage as charge is to current. Since flux linkages are related to the magnetic field B which in turn depends on current i, we can write ¥ = No =[v{(JaB)as]i (14) where the quantity in the bracket is defined as inductance of the circuit. If Y and i refer to the same circuit i.e. i produces ¥ flux linkages in the same circuit, it is defined as self inductance and is denoted by L and expressed as ‘= L i, However, if ¢ produces flux linkages ¥, in another circuit, the parameter is termed as mutual inductance, denoted by M and is expressed as Yop = My i AL15) We know that vad Wat (1.16) "and WeLi (1.17) Therefore, d Yide = 1 ¢ 18) if L is constant. Sometimes when the coil is wound on a core whose B-H curve is not linear and gets saturated after certain current (H) the inductance decreases and is not constant. In fact, the inductance variation is shown as in Fig. 1.2. La Mog HO Fig. 1.2. Variation of inductance as a function of current Now taking equation (1.16) Ya¥y+ Jode (L117) 0 In a system consisting of an inductance connected to a source of voltage uit) when the source is switched in, at ¢ = 0 when v is finite the flux linkage is ‘¥) as the integral does not contribute any flux linkages at f = 0, which means that the flux linkages can’t beBasic Circuit Elements & changed instantaneously in a given system which again means that in a fixed inductance circuit the current can’t be changed instantaneously. The differential equations describing the circuit in Fig. 1.3 when the switch is closed is di LG v =2ae or di L ite) = rt +K At 0 i) =0 and hence K = 0 and i=pt (1.18) L ESCO CN $§$§ ae |t v Fig. 1.3 An inductor switched into a d.c. source. Even though under steady state condition the current through the inductor is theoreti- cally infinite but at ¢ = 0* the current is zero and the increase in current is gradual with time. Capacitance If a charge q is placed in space, this gives rise to an electric field. Again this field is not visible but its presence can be felt by bringing another charge in the vicinity of this charge. It is found that the charge experiences a force of attraction if it is of opposite polarity to that of g and vice versa. Also, if there are two metallic parallel plates separated by some distance d as shown in Fig. 1.4 and if one of the plates is charged with q* charges, the other plate is charged with q~ charges by induction and an electric field is set up between the plates and the two plates experience a force between each other. The force per unit charge is defined as the electric field strength. Now D where D is the field flux density and A is the area of plates. Also D = « E where E is the electric field intensity. a toot | tt Fig. 1.4 Electric field across plates of parallel capacitor. v. d Therefore E = the plate is g. ae where ~’ is the voltage across the plates when the charge on %-028A Therefore Vv c d (1.19)6 Network Analysis and Synthesis Here C is known as capacitance between the parallel plates separated by a distance d. So, capacitance depends upen the geometry of the conductars and. If q is measured in coulombs and V in volts, C is measured in Farads. If gq is the initial charge on the plates of the capacitor and while charging if the charge increases linearly with time, the charge at any instant is given as gq = 9+ Kt Hone, index 4 or 9=90 + fide (1.20) Also we know that q =C V 8 Assuming C to be constant, it is seen that, an instantaneous change in g would mean an instantaneous change in voltage V. But from the integral equation for charge q, it is found that for finite value of i, the charge can't change at ¢ = 0* and it remains qo. Therefore, the voltage across a capacitor can't change instantaneously. Let us take up a few examples to illustrate the application of some of the relations obtained in the previous discussions. Example 1.1: The current wave form in a series circuit of 500 @ resistance and a 500 mH inductor is given in Fig. E1.1 (a), Determine the voltage wave form in the resistor, in the inductor and the total voltage. 20mA> 40203 Time in m sec tov |-------1 > 23 , oy nV i i413 ' tov: : i 1 2 3Basic Circuit Elements 7 Solution: Since the voltage drop across resistance = iR, the shape of the voltage is exactly same as that of the current and the magnitute = 2 x 10 x 500 = 10 volt. The voltage across the inductor . From 0 to 2 m ses, the change in current di is zero hence = 0, Hence the voltage across inductor from 0-2 m sec is zero volt. From 2 to 3 m sec over 1 m sec, the change in current is 20 mA . 20x10 ie. = oe 20 Alsee di 3 Hence voltage LS, = 500 x 10° x 20 =10 volt. From 3 m sec onwards since the change in current is zero. Hence voltage across inductor is zero. Therefore, the total voltage is the sum of two voltages up + vy, Example 1.2: Suppose if the voltage across an inductor is given, it is required to find out the current wave form through the inductor. Fig. E.1.2 (a) shows voltage wave form across an induetor of 0.1 H. Determine the current wave form: BV 100 mA Fig. E1.2 (a) Voltage wave form, (b) Current wave form. Solution: In an inductor current i is given 1 fodt From 0 to 2 m sec v = 0. Therefore i = 0 From 2 to 4 m sec A fs a= 10 5c = “al J5.a1=10[5ef, = 100 ma8 Network Analysis and Synthesis From 4 to 6 m sec, v = 0 since there is no change in the current it continues to be same ie. 100 mA From 6 to 10 m sec. 1” i= |(-5)dt=-200 ma slg It decreases linearly between 6 to 10 m sec. Hence the current at 10 m sec. is -200 + 100 =-100 mA From 10 to 12 m sec. since voltage is zero there is no change in current and it is -100 mA, from 12 to 13 m see, the voltage is 10 volts. Hence current increases linearly by an amount = fioat aa =100 mA Beyond 13 m sec the current is zero. Let us next consider application of non-sinuoidal voltages and currents in a capacitive circuit. Example 1.3: Consider the application of a voltage wave form shown in Fig. E1.3 (a) to a 0.2 UF capacitor. Determine the current wave form. tov * r 2mAb~-~--—-. i ‘ ‘ > 0 2 3 tinm sec. o 2 3 tinmsec. {@) Voltage. (b) Current wave form. Fig. E.1.3 Solution: Since current in a capacitor is given by dv =co2 at From 0 to 2m sec dv = 0 hence”. = 0 Hence the current in this period is zero. From 2 to 3 m sec the voltage incteases linearly from 0 to 10 volts in 1 m sec. Hence v att, k = 9, = 10 x 10° wee or 10 Vim sec is # = 02 x1 xk =02 x 10x 10 x 10° =2mABasic Circuit Elements 9 Beyond 3 m sec since v is constant a 0 Hence i=0 The variation of current is shown in Fig. E1.3(b) 1.2.1 SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUIT Let us consider an inductive circuit and let the instantaneous voltage be vo =V,, sin of w(L21) ‘Then the current will be i= J,, sin (wt — 4) where ¢ is the angle by which the current lags the voltage (Fig. 1.5) The instantaneous power is given by p=vi= V,, sn ot. I, sin (ot — >) =Vyly sin at sin (ot - >) Vol, 2 The value ‘p’ is positive when both v and i are either positive or negative and repre- sents the rate at which the energy is being consumed by the load. In this case the current flows in the direction of voltage drop. On the other hand power is negative when the current flows in the direction of voltage rise which means that the energy is being traneferred from the load into the network to which it is connected. If the circuit is purely reactive the voltage and current will be 90° out of phase and hence the power will have equal positive and negative half cycles and the average value will be zero. From equation (1.22) the power pulsates around the average power at double the supply frequency. Equation (1.22) can be rewritten as p= VI cos 6 (1 ~cos 2 aot)~ VI sin 6 sin 2 at (1.28) [cos @ — cos (2 ox ~ 6)] (1.22) Fig. 1.5 Voltage, current and power in single phase circuit. We have decomposed the instantaneous power into two components (Fig. 1.6)10 Network Analysis and Synthesis Fig. 1.6 Active, reactive and total power in a single phase circuit. (i) The component P marked I pulsates around the same average power VI cos 9 but. never goes negative as the factor (1 — cos 2«) can at the most become zero but it will never go negative. We define this average power as the real power P which physically means the useful power being consumed. (ii) The component marked II contains the term sin $ which is negative for capacitive circuit and is positive for inductive circuit. This component pulsates and has zero as its average value. This component is known as reactive power as it travels back and forth on the line without doing any useful work. Equation (1.23) is rewritten as p=P(1-cos 2 w)- Qsin2 of wn(L.24) Both P and @ have the same dimensions of watts but to emphasise the fact that Q represents a nonactive power, it is measured in terms of voltamperes reactive ie. V Ar. The term Q requires more attention because of the interesting property of sin @ which is -ve for capacitive circuits and is +ve for inductive circuits. This means a capacitor is a generator of positive reactive V Ar, a concept which is usually adopted by power system engineers. So it is better to consider a capacitor supplying a lagging current rather than taking a leading current (Fig. 1.7). t — ts ¥ v =e Fig. 1.7. V4 relations in a capacitor. Consider a circuit in which an inductive load is shunted by a capacitor. If Q is the total reactive power requirement of the load and @ is the reactive power that the capacitor can generate, the net reactive power to be transmitted over the line will be (Q — @’). This is the basic concept of synchronous phase modifiers for controlling the voltage of the aystem. The phase modifier controls the flow of reactive power by suitable excitation and hence theBasic Circuit Elements 11 voltage is controlled. The phase modifier is basically a synchronous machine working as a capacitor when overexcited and as an inductor when underexcited. It is interesting to consider the case when a capacitor and an inductor of the same reactive power requirement are connected in parallel (Fig 1.8). ¢ I. —— t aa v v = Fig. 1.8 Power flow in L-C circuit ‘The currents 7, and J; are equal in magnitude and, therefore, the power requirement is same. The line power will, therefore, be zero. Physically this means that the energy travels back and forth between the capacitor and the inductor. In one half cycle at a particular moment the capacitor is fully charged and the coil has no energy stored. Half a voltage cycle later the coil stores maximum energy and the capacitor is fully discharged. Consider the case when the circuit is purely resistive when @ = 0 P=VI(1- cos 2 at) =VI-VI cos 2 wt (1.25) which means, the average value of power in a purely resistive circuit consists of two components, one a constant value VI and superimposed over this is a sinusoidally varying with double the supply frequency and its average value is zero. Therefore, the net average power P= VI, The wave form is shown in Fig. 19. 2 2k a Fig. 1.9 p, v and i wave form in a resistor. Next we consider a purely inductive circuit when $ = 90° The power equation becomes p=VI cs 6(1- cos 2 wt)- VI sin O sin 2 wt VI sin 2 ot (1.26) This means the average power is zero. Fig. 1.10 shows that there are four loops in the wave form for the instantaneous power. A positive loop shows that power is drawn from the source and negative loop shows that power is fed back to the source. The peak value of each loop is V J. Thus power or energy is taken from the source for a quarter cycle and then it is returned back to the source over12 Network Analysis and Synthesis the next quarter cycle. The statement that the energy absorbed from the source is later restored to the source requires that the energy is stored and is not used up as heat or as mechanical energy. This concept implies that the 90° voltage current phase relation- ship must be for either an inductor or a capacitor since these are the two basic electrical elements that are capable of storing energy. Fig. 1.10 Power relations when ilags v by 90° An inductor is a device capable of storing energy in the form of moving charge or in the form of a magnetic field. A capacitor is a device capable of storing energy in the form of separated charge or in the form of electric field. ‘The following example illustrates the relationship between the reactive power and the electric field energy stored by the capacitor. Consider an RC circuit (Fig. 1.11). c t ———_——_ |, sinot —————» Fig. 1.11 Relationship between electric field energy and reactive power. From Fig. 1.11 ¥. = Wie. (1,27) Ve +docr JRC +1 and if voltage is taken as reference ie. v = Vm sin ot the current isl, sin (t+ >) V,,0C ” a * (at + >) 1,28) "peo re ail I/o . 1 where sin o= = (1.29) VPR +a /0c? (RoC? +1 Now reactive power Q= VI sin (1.80) Substituting for J and sin $, we have VoC 1 V?ac Q=V- ‘i ee VRo't? +1 {Rat +1 Rec? +1Basic Circuit Elements 13 Reactive power Now this can be related with the electric energy stored by the capacitor. The energy stored by the capacitor, aia (1.32) 1 fidt=2 Vin cos (wt + >) Now © Yrtwtc® +1 o Cc _ V.cos (ot +) = (1.33) VR? +1 c. Yin 008" (at +6) _V? cos? (aw! +9) Re?+1 Rw? +1 etlee) 2 = Feigao 2 cos (wt + >)-sin (at + )-@-C ZH 471 8m Rat + 0) =Q sin 2 (ut + 9) wo( 1.35) From this it is clear that the rate of change of electric field energy is a harmonically varying quantity with a frequency double the supply frequency and has a peak value equal wp Q. In on R-L circuit the magnetic field energy and reactive power in a coil are similarly related. 1.2.2 The 3-phase Circuit Assuming that the system is balanced which means that the three-phase voltages and currents are balanced. These quantities can be expressed mathematically as follows: im Sin (wt — 120°) ‘m Sin (at + 120°) The total power in the circuit equals the sum of the individual powers in each phase. ‘aig + Viig + Veic =V,, sin of I, sin (ot - 6) + V,, sin (ot - 120% J,, sin (ot — 120 - 6) + Vit, sin (wot + 120°) sin (wt + 120° - 9) = V[[2 sin ot sin (of — 6) + 2 sin (wt — 120°) sin (wt — 120° - 9) + 2 sin (ot + 120% sin (wt + 120°- 9)]14 Network Analysis and Synthesis = V Hoos $ — cos (2 wt -) + cos > - cos (2 wt — 240° — 4) + cos $ — cos (2 wt + 240° — 4) =3V1 cs > (L387) ‘This shows that the total instantaneous 3-phase power is constant and is equal to three times the real power per phase ie. p = 3P, where P is the power per phase. In case of single phase circuits we noted that the instantaneous power expression contained both the real and reactive power expression but here in case of 3-phase we find that the instantaneous power is constant. This does not mean that the reactive power is of no importance in a 3-phase system. For a 3-phase system the sum of three currents at any instant is zero, this does not mean that the current in each phase is zero. Similarly, even though the sum of reactive power instantaneously in 3-phase system is zero but in each phase it does exist and is equal to V/ sin 6 and, therefore, for 3-9 the reactive power is equal to Qs. = 3V I sin = 3Q, where @ is the reactive power in each phase. It is to be noted here that the term Qy, makes as little physical sense as would the concept of three phase currents Ij = 3f. Nevertheless the reactive power in a 3-phase system is expressed as Q,,. This is done to maintain symmetry between the active and reactive powers. 1.2.3 Complex Power Consider a single phase network and let V=IVle@ and I = Ile” (1,38) where o and B are the angles that V and J subtend with respect to some reference axis. We calculate the real and reactive power by finding the product of V with the conjugate of Live. S=VI = 1Vle* [Me® = IVI Irlee- B = IVI ITI cos (or B)+ J \VI II sin (or B) (4.39) Here the angle (a — §) is the phase difference between the phasor V and J and is normally denoted by Z s V1 IT os @ 4+ F1VI ILI sin 6 =P + JQ (1.40) P=R,(VIland Q= 1, VI (LAD ‘The quantity S is called the complex power. The magnitude of S =,/P? + Q? is termed as the apparent power and its units are volt-amperes and the larger units are kVA or MVA. The practical significance of apparent power is as a rating unit of generators and transform- ers, as the apparent power rating is a direct indication of heating of machine which deter- mines the rating of the machines. It is to be noted that Q is positive when (a ~ B) is positive ie. when V leads I ie. the load is inductive and @ is ~ve when V lags J ie. the load is capacitive. This agrees with the normal convention adopted in Circuit Theory i.e. taking Q due to an inductive load as +ve and Q due to a capacitive load as negative. Therefore, to obtain proper sign for reactive power it is necessary to find out V J* rather than V‘ which would reverse the sign for Q as VI = IVle ITle® = IVI ITlete- =IVI ITI cos (a- B)-J7 IVI II sin (@- B) VI ATI cos @- jf IVI II sinBasic Circuit Elements 15 =P-jQ (1.42) P=Re(V*Iand Q=-1,, (V'7 -(1.43) 1.3. NETWORK CLASSIFICATION Electric networks can be classified mainly in two ways. The first one is based on the kind of elements in the network e.g. time-invariant or nonlinear or time variant ete. The second one is based on excitation and response i. for a given excitation the response decides the type of network. Here we shall study classification based on the second approach. 1.3.1 Linearity Suppose the network to be classified is under relaxed condition i.e. the initial condition is zero and an excitation v,(¢) is applied for which response is ¢,(¢) and for excitation v2 (¢) the response is cy (t). Then the network is classified as linear if for excitation v, (¢) + vs (¢) the response is c; (t) + cy (¢). This shows that linear network follows superposition principle. 1.3.2 Passivity Some networks have the property of absorbing/dissipating or storing energy. These are able to return the energy previously stored to the external network. However, this energy returned is never more than the energy stored. Such networks are known as passive networks. Let network N be connected to a source S. Suppose the network is initially relaxed. If u(t) is the voltage of the source and i(¢) is the resulting current into the network N, the average power delivered into the network is p(t) = u(t) i(t) and the energy delivered w(t) over time t is given by ‘ w(t) = Jule) ite) de 1.44) This energy will always be non-negative for a passive network ie. over time ¢ there will always be some energy delivered to the network or at least there will not be any energy when the network would have returned all the energy back to the source or it would have stored some energy. It will never be a situation for a passive network when it would supply more energy what it had drawn previously. Mathematically for a passive network. w(t) = Jolt) tat >0 (1.45) However, if the network has some energy stored equal to w(t,) before it is switched on to a supply at ¢ = f), then for a passive network energy delivered to the network from the source should satisfy the inequality at any time t pi w(t) = fole)i€e) de + wity)2 0 (1.46)16 Network Analysis and Synthesis A circuit which does not satisfy this condition is known as active circuit. That is for an active circuit foo ie at < 0 (LAT) 1.3.3 Lumped Many devices in electric system are distributed in space e.g. transmission lines, the wind- ings of transformers or that of the generators, are distributed in a way. Whenever these devices are energized, the effect is not experienced by the line length or winding lengths instantly because of finite velocity of electric signals. However, if we are interested in steady state and terminal quantities, it is sufficient to assume the parameters to be lumped rather than distributed. Sometimes when we are interested in the intermediate values and point to point variation of electric signals, we talk true nature of these devices i.e. the distributed nature. Otherwise, we assume the parameters to be lumped. In this book we treat these parameters as lumped unless it is specified otherwise. 1.3.4 Bilateral ‘The elements to be considered for electric network are assumed to be bilateral which means the voltage and current relations are same irrespective of direction of flow of current e.g. resistance, inductance, etc. However, for unilateral elements the voltage and current are different for two possible direction of flow of currents e.g. diodes. 1.3.5. Time Invariance A network is said to be time-invariant when there is some response to a certain excitation irrespective of time of application of excitation. Suppose for certain excitation v, (¢) the response is c, (¢), if now the excitation is v (f+ f)) the response would be c (¢ + ty). Here the values of the parameters are assumed to be constant at all times and do not change with time. 1.3.6 Reciprocity A network is said to possess the property of reciprocity when excitation and response terminals could be interchanged. Consider network N with terminals 1 and 2 as shown in Fig. 1.12. @ © Fig. 1.12 Networks to describe reciprocity. Say if v; is excitation and i, response as in Fig. 1.12 (a) and if vp is excitation then i, is the response as in Fig. 1.12 (6) The network is reciprocal if for vy = vs, iy = ip A transmission line is a reciprocal network. The network which does not satisfy the conditionBasic Circuit Elements 17 is a non-reciprocal network. R, L, C, are in general linear, passive, bilateral, time invariant and lumped elements. Since L and C can store energy in the form of electro-magnetic and electro-static fields respectively their representation needs special mention. In general volt- age across capacitor is given by cf wo =o fio at + 060) (1.48) where v(0) indicates the voltage due to initial charge. The capacitor which has initial voltage v(o) can be represented as shown in Fig. 1.13(a). + +s ‘ initially intaly va QD 3 relaxes = @ ” Fig, 1.13 Initial condition for a capacitor and inductor. Similarly if an inductor initially has a current i(o) the current at anytime ¢ is given by 1 ‘i i@ =F Joc dt + ico) suf L.49) Therefore, i(o) could be considered as a d.c. current source in parallel with an initially relaxed (initial condition zero) inductor as shown in Fig 1.13(b). 14 THE TRANSFORMER It is a two port network. An ideal transformer shown in Fig. 1.14 is described by the following equations: 1 hoo +4 mtg ee ot wh dle yy Yo My % ~ ® ~ ~ o ) Fig. 1.14 The idea! transformer. For Fig. 1.14 (a) vp anv, and ip =-n iy (1.50) If the direction of i, is reversed as what is given in Fig. 1.14 (b), ip = niy In matrix notation vy o alla ey-[2, [4 8018 Network Analysis and Synthesis It can be seen that an ideal transformer is characterized by a single parameter n known as tums ratio. The v-i relationships indicate idealized relations expressing Faraday’s law (v1 = n v,) and Ampere’s law (i, = ~n i,). Another characteristic of an ideal transformer is that a resistance R connected on to secondary side is reflected as n® R when referred to the primary side. ‘Also it can be seen easily that the total energy input to the ideal transformer is zero. t Total energy input = |(v,j +v2ig) dt “Tlea( sonia J (—Ugig + Unig) dt =0 (1.51) ‘This shows that an ideal transformer is a passive device, it transmits energy, it neither stores nor dissipates the energy. It can be summarized that an ideal transformer is (@ an abstract concept; (ii) characterized by a single parameter n, the turns ratio; (ii) the voltage and current are idealized relations derived out of Faraday’s law and Ampere’s law respectively; (iv) One where a resistance R connected to secondary side is reflected as n2R when referred to primary side; and (v) @ passive device. 1.4.1 The Pertect Transformer A less abstract model of a real life transformer is shown in Fig. 1.15. tb “ 4 % Fig. 1.15 The perfect transformer. ‘The v-i relations for the perfect transformer are given as = a. om oe =k 7 (1.52) = de ai 1 y= eM Se (1.58) Thus this is characterized by three parameters L,, L, and M the two self inductances and one mutual inductance in contrast to ideal transformer which is characterized by a single parameter n. The total energy delivered to the transformer is 5 = Jems +o )dtBasic Circuit Elements 19 = dy 42); 4 oy 4); -l(n ols M ta) ats |(1y +m indt i ‘ke = fiidks fm Gndi +i di)+ [tain di 3 3 a 4 Soe Ape Ghit+ Mint she A154) For perfect transformer to be passive, the energy stored should be non-negative i.e. Lip +2M iyi, +L, i220 (1.55) To prove that it is non-negative, we prove that the minimum of this is non-negative and hence the expression will be non-negative for all other values. Let ip = -xi, where x is a real positive number. ‘The above expression reduces to f(x) = Ly i? - 2 Mx iy? + Ly 2? i? M2) 2 eM if +2 x Iq it =0 or xoM@ ly Substituting value of x in f (x) we have i fea (1-2 «Msg or or or Let M o K= | LL Since this inequality is true, the inequality (1.65) is also true. Here K is known as co-efficient of coupling and its maximum value is unity when this, transformer is known as a perfect or perfectly coupled transformer. It can be seen that a perfect transformer is not same as ideal transformer. To establish the difference we know that in case of ideal transformer ihen In case of perfect transformer uy _ Lydiyjdt + M dip/dt vy” Ly di,/dt + M di,/dt20 Network Analysis and Synthesis _ La di,/dt + Ely dip/dt Ty di,fdt + ily di,/dt Multiplying and dividing the RHS by E we have VEIL, “Ly digfdt + Be {Ty digfat ty Be FP ET aia = [2 (1 & (1.58) ‘This shows for perfect transformer to be the same as ideal transformer n = I;/Iy- ‘Again, using current relations it can be shown that if in a perfect transformer i, andiz —» © but such that their ratio remains constant, the result will be an ideal transformer. Fig. 1.16 shows relation between a perfect and an ideal transformer. 1 1.5 THE GYRATOR A gyrator is another two-port terminal device shown in Fig. 1.17 h i, tho 4 2+ th + oe, = = & —$< a) o) Fig. 1.17 A Gyrator. ‘The v-i relations for the gyrator are given asBasic Circuit Elements 21 u=-rb oO o =r . OF = : (1.59) veri “loll o dle yerig fy] fo r]fq erik “e)-[ lt] 2.60) Here r is known as gyration resistance. The direction of arrow associated with r gives the direction of gyration. ‘The gyrator is a hypothetical device which is introduced to account for physical situ- ations where the reciprocity condition does not hold. It can be shown that gyrator is not a reciprocal device, it is anti-reciprocal. ‘The total energy input to the gyrator For Fig. 1.17 (a) For Fig. 1.17 (b) ‘ £@) = f(r, + vx dae t = Jerri + riz ig} ae =0 (1.61) Hence it is a passive device. Suppose the gyrator is terminated through a resistance R, it’s equivalent on the input side is given by by =p = —r (=) =r a =(" Qi, (1.62) ‘Thus, the equivalent resistance at the input terminals equals 7” times the conductance terminating at the output terminals. The gyrator, therefore, has the property of inverting. A very interesting case is found when the gyrator is terminated through an inductor or a capacitor. Say it is terminated through a capacitor. The equivalent of this when referred to input side is obtained as follows. i 6 we ¥ ») q = Fig. 1.18 Gyrator terminated through a capacitor. v1 = =r, = -n (0 i eg Hh =" . Leq ze (1.63)22, Network Analysis and Synthesis ‘This shows that through inversion a r” times capacitor is equivalent to an inductor and it can be shown that an inductor is inverted as a capacitor. It is found that in electronic circuits it is difficult to have inductors of suitable values. ‘These can be simulated through the use of a gyrator terminated through a suitable capacitor. Fig. 1.19 shows a general representation of a gyrator and its v-i relations are given as i nih per eos % ) q wl ]% Fig. 1.19 A general gyrator. Vi =-hry and V,= ry ‘The arrow here indicates that the device has a forward transmission path and this has no backward transmission. If r; = rg = r it is known as an ideal gyrator and it is a passive device. However if r+ ra it is an active device as power can be made negative as shown here. Power delivered to the gyrator is Vih+ Veh =(- hh (1.64) Therefore, with this it is an active device. The input impedance of the gyrator is in = 422 2h Ak T, Volt ™ ‘ai --(1.65) 1.6 THE NEGATIVE CONVERTER The next two pair terminal device is the negative convertor which is characterized by the following v-i relations v, = hug -[ Th] ig=hi, ™ La}" le o]lm =-h. o -kila or ‘ - ahi or [?] = [4 é ‘lal -a(1.66) Fig. 1.20 shows a general representation of negative converter, It is characterised by a single parameter k known as conversion ratio. Tt can be seen from the first set of equations that when i, is in the reference direction ig is also in the reference direction and hence the current is said to be inverted in going through the negative converter. However, the voltage is not inverted. Therefore, the first set of equations characterise a current negative converter. However the second set ofBasic Circuit Elements 23 equations show that the voltage is inverted but the current is not and therefore, these equations characterise a voltage negative converter. Ma #2 Lap ye: “ Inc “a * VNC vy £ = a ® © Fig. 1.20. Negative converters (a) Current negative converter (b) Votage negative converter. Let us study the behaviour of these devices when these are terminated through a passive element. Suppose these are terminated through an inductor L. Then the voltage vu, = -L diJdt Inserting the value of v2 in the v-i relations of the two negative converters we have ifat A] =e =-LPS (1.67) a = thm =2h(-1 28) Here + signs indicate the application to INC and VNC respectively. Thus at the input terminals, the equivalent inductance is — k*L ie. negative of the kL. Hence the device is termed as negative converter. Similar conclusions can be drawn by terminating the device with R or C. 1.7 INDEPENDENT SOURCES So far we have considered passive elements when interconnected, form a network. A network without an active source is meaningless. Mainly there are two types of sources (i) Voltage source (ii) Current source. Again these are classified as ideal or independent and dependent sources. 1.7.1 Ideal Voltage Source ‘An ideal voltage source is a two terminal device whose terminal voltage is independent of the current drawn by the network connected to its terminals. Both the magnitude and wave form of voltage remain unaffected. This means an ideal voltage source should have zero internal resistance. It is to be noted that short circuit at the terminals of an ideal voltage source makes no sense as this would impose two conflicting requirement. Fig. 1.21 shows the symbols and reference conventions for such a source and the voltage current characteristic. i i —— * >i * ® w Oy Fig. 1.21. () Ideal vottage source (i) v-i characteristic (Il) d.c, source.YA Network Analysis and Synthesis When the voltage generated does not change with time, it is represented by a battery as shown in Fig. (iii) otherwise for all the by Fig. @ However, in actual practice, there is no voltage source which does not have internal resistance, however small it could be and, therefore, an actual voltage source is always associated with an internal resistance as shown in Fig. 1.22. r : v "O “Less i o (@) Fig. 1.22 (a) Voltage source (b) v/ characteristic, ‘Therefore, the terminal voltage decreases as the current drawn by the external net- work increases and the voltage current relation is as shown in Fig. 1.22(b). 1.7.2 Ideal Current Source It is a two terminal device which delivers a constant current to the network connected across its terminals irrespective of the elements of the network ie. the current is independent of the voltage across its terminals. Here again it makes no sense to consider open circuiting of the terminals of a current source as this again imposes two conflicting requirements at the termi- nals. The voltage at the terminals will be determined by the network connected across its terminals. Fig. 1.23 shows the symbol and reference convention for the current souree and also the v-i characteristic of such a source. . L___yy @ » Fig. 4.23 (@) Idea! curent source (b) Hy characteristic. Certain devices may be represented by the model shown in Fig. 1.24 wherein a resistor is connected across the current source. The corresponding variation of terminal current with voltage at the terminals is shown in Fig. 1.29(b) Such devices as transistors and photo electric cells are examples of current sources. ‘ i@ v * v (@) (o) Fig. 1.24 () Current source (i) v- characteristic. It can be seen that the voltage and current sources are dual in the sense that the roles for current and voltage are interchanged in the two sources.Basic Circuit Elements 25 1.8 THE DEPENDENT OR CONTROLLED SOURCES A controlled voltage/current source is one whose terminal voltage/current is a function of some other voltage or current. These devices have two pairs of terminals, one pair corre- sponds to the controlling quantity and the other the controlled quantity. Here the controlled voltage/current is directly proportional to the controlling voltage or current. There are controlled sources where the voltage/current is proportional to derivative of some other voltage or current. Here controlled source will not be considered for the present. 1.9 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION In order to make the network manipulations direct and simple, following aspect would be considered: (i) Transformation of voltage source into a current source and vice versa. (ii) Shifting the positions of the sources in the network. In doing this, it is to be remembered that the terminal conditions i.e. v and i of these sources remain unchanged with respect to the extemal network to be connected to these sources. Suppose there are two voltage sources in series as shown in Fig. 1.25, the equivalent will be one source with voltage (0) + v2). However, it is to be noted that two voltage sourees ean't be connected in parallel unless these are identical in magnitude and wave shape and similarly two current sources can’t be connected in series unless these are identical. We know that two generators can’t be 4. (ut v0)" i 4 = @) ite Li. LH. (b) Fig, 1.28 (2) Two voltage sources in series, (b) Two current sources in parallel. connected in parallel unless their voltages are exactly identical otherwise, this results in a short circuit and the generators get damaged. Fig. 1.26 (a) shows a resistance R connected across a voltage source v and Fig. 1.26 (®) shows a resistance R in series with a current source when an external network is connected across the terminals of these source circuits. From computation point of view, the resistor across the voltage source and/or a resistor in series with the current source can be ignored as shown in Fig. 126 (a) and (6) respectively. Ext Ext, Ext Ext, + cet + cnt R ot Cat vi A “Vv . ( ¢ ; if @ © Fig. 1.26 (a) A connected across a voltage source, (b) Fi connected in series with a current source.26 Network Analysis and Synthesis In network anslysis, sometimes it may be more convenient to transform a voltage source into a current source and vice versa from computation point of view. To this, the basic criterion is that the terminal conditions (v and i) of the two networks, the source and the external network must remain same before and after the transformation. Let us transform a voltage source into a current source. Refer to Fig 1.27. a i ' 4 ‘ it] ext ‘ 10) xt vo “0 = ter cht kt 7 Ct A Fig. 1.27 Voltage to current source transformation. (1.68) or ret -4 (1.69) Equation (1.68) represents Fig. 1.27 (a) whereas equation (1.69) which has been derived from equation (1.68) represents Fig. 1.27 (6) and hence Fig. 1.27 (a) and (6) are equivalent of each other. Similarly if the series element is an inductor or a capacitor with the voltage source Fig. 1.28 (a) and (6), the equivalent current source is given by the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.28. i i vO “tative L 4 @) t- 0) Fig. 1.28 (a) Inductor in series, (b) Capacttor in series. Similarly current sources can be transformed into voltage sourcesBasic Circuit Elements 27 i R i + 4 R 4 a YAIR “ Fig. 1.29 Curent to voltage source transformation. i, i+ wa i R (1.70) or ,RaiR+o, or v,=¥,-iR ALD) If an inductor is connected across a current source (Fig. 1.30) O 4 Fig. 1.30 Inductor across current source. 5s oo 1 sity Jorat (1.72) or Li,=Lit Jude Differentiating the equation gives di, di LS sb Ss dt de aL i4% or o =L dt L a (1.73) Similarly an equivalent voltage source can be obtained when a current source is con- nected across a capacitor. It is to be noted that a single passive element when connected in series with a voltage source or across a current source its equivalent current or voltage source can be obtained by the method explained above. However for more than one passive elements when consid- ered, above method can’t be used, as the determination of the source equivalent involves the solutions of the differential equation. In many situations a voltage source may not be associated with a series passive element, and a current source with a parallel passive element. Here, before transformation could be carried out, it is necessary to shift the source within the network. A voltage source is shifted from one branch to the network by the process known as “push the voltage source through the node” with a new identical source appearing in every branch connected to the node such that it does not affect the current distribution in the network as shown in Fig 1.31.28 Network Analysis and Synthesis e a ©. a o a Fig. 1.31 Voltage source shift in a network. It is to be noted that whereas current distribution remains unaffected, the voltage dis- tribution in the network is changed since node ‘o' is at the same potential as ‘d’ after the shift. In order to shift current sources, it is required to maintain the same currents at all nodes of the network by adding and then subtracting the same current quantity as shown in Fig. 132. me LD 7} _ Fig. 1.32 Shifting of current sources. In the current source shifting process, the voltages are not changed by the transfor- mation even though the currents in the active souree branches are changed. While drawing graph from a network, the source transformation makes following suggestions: (i) Elements in parallel with voltage source or in series with a current source can be eliminated from the graph. (ii) When voltage source is shifted and hence pushed through the node, the voltage source may be short-circuited and the current source may be open cireuited and so eliminated from the graph which represents the network. While preparing a network before analysis following thumb rules are to be followed for convenience. If the network is to be analysed on nodal basis, the network should contain current sources and if it is to be analysed on loop basis, the network should contain voltage sources. However, if it is to be analysed based on state variable approach, the network may contain both kinds of sources. 1.10 DOT CONVENTION FOR COUPLED CIRCUITS The significance of dot convention is explained with the help of Fig. 1.33.Basic Circuit Elements 29 Suppose a time varying voltage source is connected across the primary of the trans- former and at any given instant the voltage source has the polarity shown and current i (¢) is in the direction shown by the arrow and is increasing with time entering the dotted terminal, this current induces a voltage in the secondary which is positive at the dotted se oo + yy Cy Fig. 1.33 A circuit for dot convention. terminal. Conversely if the current in the primary is increasing and is leaving the dotted terminal this will induce the voltage polarity in the secondary such that the undotted end will become positive and hence dotted terminals of both the windings will be negative simultaneously. The following experimental procedure can be used to establish dotted ends of the transformer windings. Mark a dot arbitrarily on one end of the primary winding and connect a dc. source with positive terminal connected to the dotted end and the negative terminal to the undotted end of the winding through a switch. Connect a MC volimeter across the secondary winding. The end of the secondary winding which gogs positive momentarily on closing the switch on the primary side as measured by the voltmeter, is the terminal to be dotted. If there are more than two windings, similar procedure can be followed for identifying relationship between each pair of windings. For each pair of winding different forms of dots (e+ = ©) should be used to avoid any confusion. Suppose we are required to write loop equations for a mutually coupled circuit shown in Fig 134. For primary loop the drops are iyr; +L: $1 + drop in primary loop due to current in secondary loop. The voltage induced in primary will be determined by the direction of iz with respect to its dot in secondary loop. Since current is going away from the dot, the polarity of voltage on the primary side will be positive at the undotted terminal. Therefore, for current i, it will be rise in voltage and the equation will be : diy dig Sty? S an tliat, a7? and for the secondary loop, similarly . di, yd gt LGM G = 030 Network Analysis and Synthesis ‘The equivalent two loops are as shown in Fig. 1.35. f uy 0 i) Fig. 1.35 Equivalent of Fig. 1.34. Consider Fig. 1.36 which is a magnetically coupled network R — op wo Fig. 1.38 Magnotically coupled network. The equivalent with dots is given in Fig. 1.37. Fig. 1.37 Equivalent of Fig. 1.36. Since all the three coils are mutually coupled, each coil will induce voltage in the other two coils, the magnitude will depend upon the current flowing through the coil and the polarity its relative direction of flow with respect to dot of the coil. Voltage induced in coil 1 Due to coil 2, the current through coil 2 is (is - ig) entering the circular dot, therefore the voltage induced in coil 1 will be with positive polarity at the dot. Due to coil 3, since the current is is leaving the triangular dot, the polarity will be -ve at the corresponding dot in coil 1. Voltage induced in coil 2 Due to coil 1, the current (i, — iz) enters the dot, therefore positive polarity at the dot of coil 2.Bastc Circuit Elements 31 Due to coil 3, the current i; leaves the dot (square), the polarity +ve will be at the undotted terminal of coil 2. Voltage induced in coil 3 Due to coil 1 the current entering the dot is (i, - i,) hence the positive polarity at the dotted terminal of coil 3. Due to coil 2 current (iz ~ ig) leaves the dot (square), the positive polarity will be at the undotted terminal. Hence the equivalent circuit given as follows: R Ma lich) Fig. 1.38 Equivalent of Fig. 1.38 with voltage sources. ‘The loop equations can be written as follows: Loop 1 , 2 d (iz ~ dt -a) Ri + My sae) +h sa ~My $8 =0(t) Loop 2 di, d (ig ~i, dt -i) d My BB 2, SOB) yy, PE) 5 ay, +1,2& 4 May Ht <0 Loop 3 d( in) di, d i. d 1 OE) — May BS — My FH 2) — Mg, SR di d-) 17; ye + Dy G+ Mag + Jaat=0 The above example explains clearly how voltage sources (corresponding to induced voltages) are inserted in the coils which are magnetically coupled and the dots have been assigned. When the two coils are to be interconnected it is important to know whether the mutual inductance M is aiding or opposing. However, it is known that the effect on each of the two coils must be the same. Refer to Fig. 1.39(a) where the mutual inductance is aiding their self inductances whereas in (b) it is opposing. If L, and L, are the self induc- tances of the two coils and M the mutual inductance, the total inductance say if is L, in case of Fig. 1.39%(a) and Lp that in Fig 1.396) then,32 Network Analysis and Synthesis ATCO _ LTO. SON sr, . - Fig, 1.39 (a) Two coils aid and (b) Oppose. Fig. 140 The coils at right angles. Ly =Ly + Ly + 2M and Ly =L, + Ly - 2M Therefore, M-tsale 4 This method provides a very convenient way of determining the value of mutual inductance between the coils. ‘The co-efficient of coupling and the mutual inductance between the two coils shown in Fig 140 are both zero. Although the flux of one coil appears to pass through the other coil, it does not actually link the turns of the other coil. Therefore, the linkages are zero and the value of M is zero. It is only when one coil is rotated with respect to other that a linking occurs, Example 1.4: Determine the inductance of thc individual winding and the equiva- lent inductance when mutual inductance is 8H. Since the flux through the two coils opposes each other, the mutual inductance is substractive from each coil and hence Z M=8H i = ol Cy 15H 16H 18H 16H - Fig. 1.4 L, =15-8=7H and Ly =16- 8 = 8HBasic Circuit Elements 33 Therefore equivalent inductance between the terminals Dy _1x8 = = Ho bape op 37 Example 1.5: Determine the inductance between the terminals for a three coil system shown below: From the Fig. Ly =25 + 10 - 10 = 25H Ly =30 + 10 - 15 = 25H Le =85 ~ 15 - 10 = 10H Therefore, Alt, b, 124245 Tg ~ 25°35 * 107” 50 or Ly == 5.558 A given network will always have a unique solution in terms of its nodal voltages and loop currents. It is, therefore, required to write down a set of linearly independent simul- taneous equations equal to the number of unknowns, and smaller the number of unknowns fewer the linear simultaneous equations and less time consuming will be the solution of these equations. It would be seen that sometimes it is more convenient to use nodal voltages as independent variables, sometimes loop currents as independent variables and yet some- times a suitable combination of both from the point of view of minimum independent variables required to describe the netowrk and hence the number of equations to seek solution of the network. If ‘n’ is the number of nodes and ‘d’ the number of branches in a given network, the minimum number of independent nodal voltages (nodal analysis) minimum number of independent loop currents (loop analysis) to describe the network uniquely is given by (n ~ 1) or (— n + 1) respectively. Therefore, from solution point of view, whichever is smaller of the two should be used for analysis of a given network. However, it may be mentioned here that there could be situations when it could be mandatory to use only a particular kind of variables (viz. nodal vollages) as we may not be interested in the other kind of variables (viz. loop currents). Example 1.6: Fig. E1.6(a) shows a gyrator which is described by the equation vy sir by =-iyr34 Network Analysis and Synthesis «dy ay as > : = a 7 ) uiate = = - J (2) gyrator (0) its equivalent Fig. E1.6 Determine the two element equivalent network shown in Fig. £1.6(6) Solution: i, = 2-022 aay Oa Now vgeniy or Sa, potas Ma rctt Hence a ihes perod et di ae vez ated Hence the two elements are Req = z and Lg =7°C Example 1.7: Two gyrators are connected in cascade. Derive the terminal relations for the network. i & e +t | > 4 x Pq My Vy Fig. 1.7 v, =r, v =i, = ig ry vy =-iry To eliminate v and i . on and i, = 4 r The relations show that two gyrators connected in cascade behave as an ideal trans- former with ratio as =. 4Basic Circuit Elements 35 PROBLEMS 1.1. Show that the rate at which energy is storied by the inductor equals its reactive power requirements. 1.2. A circuit has voltage and current given as v = 100 sin («-3] and i =10sin («+3] 6 6 Determine the power loss. 1.8. A circuit has voltage and current given as v = (50 + j 60) volts and i = (25+ 7 40) A Determine the active and reactive power. Is the circuit inductive or capacitive. 1.4. An impedance (5 + j 12) is connected across a 26 volt rms voltage. Determine and 2 compare the power in the circuit using the formulae (i) P ae Gi) P= PR. 1.5. Two capacitors of capacities 5 !F and 10 pF are charged with 100 volts and 200 volts respectively. Determine the energy stored by the capacitors. If now the two capacitors are joined together, what is the energy stored by the two capacitors? Is there any change in energy before joining and after joining of the capacitors? 1.6. A variable capacitor has its capacitance given as C’= Cy (1- cos a) and it is connected across a voltage source V = V,, sin wt. Determine the equation for the current in the circuit, 1.2. For the gyrator shown in Fig. P1.7, obtain the nodal admittance matrix. R —e : oe 4 % Fig. PLT 1.8. A gyrator is terminated through a series R, L circuit as shown in Fig. (a) here. Determine an equivalent two element network shown in Fig. P1.8(b) t +h b+ +i aa von — — Dd ee % % L é * : @ © Fig. P18 1.9. Three coils are interconnected with winding sense shown by dots. The self inductance of the coils are 2H each and the mutual inductance 1 H each. Determine L,, between Vv36 Network Analysis and Synthesis 4 Fig. P19 1.10. Two coils are wound on the same core and have negligible resistance as shown in the Fig. P1.10. Determine the current in the 1000 ohm resistor and its phase angle with respect to the applied voltage of 100 voit at a frequency of 50%? riz when the exis act (i) in the same sense (ii) in apposite sense. M=0.05H 100V 0.14 02H ape 4002 Fig. P1.10 1000 22 Network Equations 2.1 INTRODUCTION Kirchhoff’s postulated two basic laws way back in 1845 which are used for writing network equations. These laws concern the algebraic sum of voltages around a loop and currents entering or leaving a node. The word algebraic is used to indicate that summation is carried out taking into account the polarities of voltages and direction of currents. While traversing a loop we will take voltage drops as positive and voltage rises as negative. Also while considering currents at a node, the currents entering the node will be taken as positive and those leaving would be taken as negative. 2.2 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS Kirchhoff’s voltage law usually abbreviated as KVL is stated as follows: The algebraic sum of all branch voltages around any closed loop of a network is zero at all instants of time. Alternatively, Kirchhoff’s voltage law can be stated in terms of voltage drops and rises as follows: The sum of voltage rises and drops in a closed loop at any instant of time are equal. KVL is a consequence of law of conservation of energy as voltage is energy or work per unit charge. If we start from one node in a loop and move along the closed loop and comeback to the same node, obviously the total potential difference or sum of potential rises must equal the total sum of potential falls. Just as, if we start from one point on the surface of the earth and after travelling through valleys and hills come back to the same point, the total displacement is zero. We talk elevation’s and depression on the earth with respect to the sea level. Similarly, in case of voltages we take ground as the reference which is shown in Fig. 2.1(a). Here potential of node A is above the ground and that of B is below the ground potential. We know that electronic current flows from negative potential to positive potential, the conventional current flows from positive potential to negative potential. Therefore, when current i flows in the circuit of Fig. 2.1(b) it produces voltages polarites in various elements as shown in the Fig. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law U, + Up t Vg— 0 =0 Or in terms of voltage drops and voltage rises vy + Up + vy ev (21)38. Network Analysis and Synthesis : A : o> k Ground (a) ) Fig. 2.1 (a) Potential reference, (b) KVL application. Kirchhoff’s current law states that the algebraic sum of all currents terminating at a node equals zero at any instant of time. Alternatively, this states that sum of all currents entering a node equals the sum of currents leaving the same node at any instant of time. Fig. 2.2 One node with terminating branches. Fig 2.2 shows one node along with various branches terminating in it, in a network and the currents with directions in the various branches are shown by the arrows. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law abbreviated by KCL we get iy + ig- ip ig - i, =0 or Apt ij sigs ig is KCL is a consequence of law of conservation of charge. The charge that enters a node, must leave that node as it can’t be stored there. Since the algebraic sum of charges at a node must be zero, it’s time derivative must also be zero at any instant of time. The two basic laws by Kirchhoff’s can be applied to solve any network irrespective of its complexity. One typical application could be to find out equivalence between two net- works or given a network in some configurations, how to find its equivalent so that it could be used more conveniently. By definition, two networks are said to be equivalent at a pair of terminals if the voltage current relationships for the two networks are identical at these terminals. Consider a network having two resistances in series as shown. The objective is to replace it by a single equivalent resistance. From Fig. 2.3(a), we have