Uts Handout
Uts Handout
Uts Handout
WHAT IS PHILOSOPYH?
It is came from the Greek Words “Philos” and “Sophia” means “Love for Wisdom”
It is the study of acquiring knowledge through rational thinking and inquires that involves in answering
questions regarding the nature of existence of man and the world we live in.
Pythagoras was the first person who used the term Philosophy.
Socrates
Greek Philosopher
Concerned with the problem of the self.
He reminds us to “know thyself”
Believes in dualism, that every man is composed of body and soul
Body: Imperfect and Perfect
Soul: Perfect and Permanent
Plato
An ancient Greek philosopher, was a student of Socrates.
The soul is immortal
He believed in the existence of the mind and soul.
Mind and soul are given in perfection with God.
Also believes in dualism but the soul is divided into three parts.
He believes that the genuine happiness can only achieved who consistently
make sure that their reason is in control of their spirit and appetites.
St. Augustine
A Saint and a Philosopher of a church. He integrated the idea of Plato
and Christianity.
He fallows the idea that God encompasses us all, that everything will
be better if we were with God.
He believed in humankind is created in the image and likeness of God.
“Knowledge can only come seeing the truth that dwells within us.”
Rene Descartes
French Philosopher known to be the father of modern philosophy.
He knows for the statement “Cognito Ergo Sum” which means “I
think, therefore I am”
A person is comprised of mind and body, the body that perceives from
the different senses and the mind that thinks and question or doubt what
the body has experienced.
John Locke
Was an English philosopher and Physician.
Considered to be the father of classical liberalism.
He concluded that the personal identity is not in the brain but in one’s
consciousness.
The human mind at birth is “TabuaRasa” which means a blank state.
David Hume
He was a Scottish philosopher
Focused his work in the field of Empiricism, Skepticism, and
naturalism.
According to him, “there is no permanent self”
Self is only the accumulation of different impressions.
According to him, “what we called mind is nothing but a heap or
collection of different perceptions.”
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Immanuel Kant
A German philosopher that is known for his works on Empiricism and
Rationalism.
Theorized that consciousness is formed by one’s inner and outer
senses.
“Apparatus of the mind”
The self organizes different that one gets in relation to his own
existence.
He argued that sense called “Transcendental Appreciation”
Sigmund Freud
The father of psychoanalysis and his known for his work on human
nature and the unconscious.
Self is multi-layered. Composed of three structures of the human
mind: id, ego, and superego
ASPECT OF PERSONALITY
Id- satisfaction, needs, and self-gratification. Driven by the pleasure
principle.
Superego- Notion of right or wrong that is imparted to us.
Ego- Known as the mediator between Id and superego.
Gilbert Ryle
British philosopher.
The self is way people behave.
Behavioristic approach to self, he said that self is the behavior
presented by the person.
His notion of dualism is that the behavior that we show, emotions, and
actions are the reflection of our mind and such is the manifestation of
who we are.
Paul Churchland
He was a Canadian philosopher
He has the idea that, “self is defined by the movements of our brain.”
He believed that all that exist is ultimately physical.
Self is nothing but else but brain and self is contained entirely within
the physical brain.
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Maurice Merleau-Ponty
He was a French philosopher that is known for his works on existentialism and
phenomenology.
He distinguished the body into two types: subjective body and objective body.
The use of mind is inseparable from our bodily, situated, and physical nature.
The body cannot be viewed solely as an object, or material entity of the
world.
Aristotle
He was a student of Plato.
The soul is the essence of the self.
The body and soul are not two separate elements but are one
thing.
The soul is simply the form of the body, and is not capable of
existing without both.
DEVELOPMENT OF SELF:
PREPARATORY STAGE: Language develops self by allowing individuals to responds to each other
through symbols, gestures, words, and sounds.
PLAY STAGE: Play develop self by allowing individuals to take into different roles. It develops one’s self-
consciousness.
GAME STAGE: Games develop self by allowing individuals understands and adhere to the rules of activity.
ERVING GOFFMAN
• We used “impression management” to present ourselves to others as we hope to be perceived.
(DRAMATURGY)
• Each situation is a new scene and we perform different roles depending on who is present.
• In his theory of dramaturgical analysis, he argued that people live their lives much like actors
performing on stage.
AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
FAMILY- Families introduce children to the expectations of society.
Socialization is different based on race, gender, and class.
SCHOOL- in school, teachers and other students are the source of expectations that encourage children to
think and behave in particular ways.
PEERS- peer culture is an important source of identity. Through interaction with peers, children learn
concepts of self, gain social skills, and form values and attitudes.
MEDIA- The average young person (age 8-19) spends almost 7 hours per day immersed in media in various
forms, often using multiple media forms simultaneously.
RELIGION- Children tend to develop the same religious beliefs as their parents.
• Culture refers to customary behavior and beliefs that are passed on through enculturation.
• Enculturation is the social process which culture is learned and transmitted.
• Geertz define culture as a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of
which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge and attitudes towards life.
• The first part of the self • The part of us the • referred as the voice
to develop. function in reality of God
• Drives from our desires • Able to discern what is • It strives for
and wants right or wrong based on perfection
• It is the pleasure context
principles • It is the reality
• It doesn’t care about principle.
morals and societal
norms.
SELF IN FAMILIES
The kind of family that we are born in, the resources available to us (human, spiritual, economic), and
the kind of development that we will have will certainly affect us as we go through life.
Human persons learn the ways of living and therefore their selfhood by being in a family.
Without a family, biologically and sociologically, a person may not even survive or become a human
person.
The “I” is the thinking, acting, and feeling self, it is also the one who acts and decides. The “me” on
the other hand, is what you think or feel about yourself as an object, it is the physical characteristics as
well as the psychological capabilities that makes who you are (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011;
Hogg and Vaugh 2010)
Self-concept
Defined as the totality of complex, organized and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes, and
opinions, that each person holds to be true about his or her personal existence.
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Aspect of Self-concept
Existential self- begins with an individual recognizes his or her existence as a separate entity from others and
realizes that he or she will continue to exist over a period of time and space. Usually starts from infancy to early
childhood.
Categorical Self- starts after a child recognizes his or her existence as a separate entity and become aware that
he or she is an object in the world. Like objects with physical properties, one begins to categorize himself or
herself in terms of sex, age, height, weight. Afterwards. An individual engages in self-description and other’s
perceptions about him or her.
Self-awareness
Carver and Scheier (1981) identified two types of self that we can be aware of: (1) the private self (your
internal standards, private thoughts, and feelings), and (2) the public self (your public image)
Self-awareness also presents us with at least three other self-schema: the actual, ideal, and ought self.
The “actual” self is who you are at the moment, the “ideal” self is who you like to be, and the “ought”
self is who you think you should be.
Self-awareness has a great impact on our self-esteem through social comparison. According to the social
comparison theory, we learn about ourselves, the appropriateness of our behaviors, as well as our social
status by comparing aspects of ourselves with other people.
The Differential models look into a human being through examining its parts for it is divisible or can be
broken into components. Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung studied the human psyche and its
structure that is essential in understanding personality and identity. For Freud, the psyche is composed of
three parts—the id, ego, and superego.
Culture is an individualistic
Culture is called collectivistic culture since their focus is
culture as the group. on the person.
The cultivated self if subdued. Looks at the world in dualities.
social relations are given more Individual needs and wants are
importance than individual given more importance than
needs and wants social relations.
Religious Beliefs and Political Philosophies that Greatly Influenced the Mindset of Each
Nation
• Confucianism- code of ethical conduct, of how one should properly act according to their relationship
with other people, thus, it is also focused on having a harmonious social life.
• Taoism- living in the way of the Tao or the universe. However, Taoism rejects having one definition of
what the Tao is, and one can only state clues of what it is as they adopt a free-flowing, relative, unitary,
as well as paradoxical view of almost everything. Taoism rejects the hierarchy and strictness brought by
Confucianism and would prefer a simply lifestyle and its teachings thus aim to describe how to attain
that life.
• Buddhism- the self in this philosophy is seen as an illusion, born out of ignorance, of trying to hold and
control things, or human-centered needs; thus, the self is also the source of all these sufferings.
Environmental Conditioning
● Environmental influence shape the physical self.
● Family plays a crucial role and foundation of our development.
● As time passes by, we are conscious of our height, weight, and the way we look. As a result,
we began engaging in activities that would make us attractive and acceptable to others.
For example: for girls, choosing the right outfit, and acting more feminine
for boys, they begin to have facial hair and go to the gym
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Impact of culture on beauty and body image
● The appearance of a person can be an asset or liability.
● Present culture prescribed that being beautiful is a necessity, an obligation in order to be liked
and loved.
● Contemporary media portrayed slim and muscular bodies are the standard.
● It is important to remember that physical beauty is only skin-deep; that what matters is feeling
good about oneself and embracing a healthy perception of one's physical worth.
Erogenous Zones
● Refers to the parts of the body that are primarily receptive and increase sexual arousal when
touched in a sexual manner. e.g., mouth, ears, lips, neck
● Knowing these zones or “hot spots” is important for every couple as it would boost sexual
satisfaction.
Human sexual behavior
● an activity—solitary or in a group—that induces sexual arousal.
Types of Behaviors
1. Solitary Behavior - involves only one person.
2. Sociosexual Behavior - generally divided into heterosexual and homosexual behavior.
Methods of contraception
Factors in choosing a particular method of contraception:
1. It should be safe enough. There should be no unwanted side effects for every individual using
the contraceptive.
2. It should be efficient in averting unwanted pregnancies.
3. It should be simple and easy to use.
4. It should be available at any time.
1. Folk Method
a. Postcoital Douche or Douching - Douching is a method used by women to flush out the
vagina with a medicinal solution to remove or destroy the sperm.
b. Prolonged Lactation - This technique used by women is done by breastfeeding their baby for a
longer period.
3. Mechanical Contraceptives - there are mechanical contraceptives of different forms that act as
barriers to prevent the sperm from entering the uterus, thereby preventing pregnancy.
a. Condom - The condom is a thin material made of rubber used during sexual activity.
b. Diaphragm - This is a shallow rubber cup inserted into the vagina. The diaphragm is coated with
spermicidal cream or jelly to prevent the entry of sperm into the uterus.
c. Cervical caps - These are fitted over the cervix by a doctor.
The concept of being fixated on acquiring material things as a way to identify oneself is related to
the concept of the material self introduced by William James, (1890)
Religious Rituals
● Rituals are patterns of behavior or practices that are related to the sacred (Tischler, 2011).
● In Catholicism, rituals are called sacraments. There are seven sacraments, namely, baptism,
Holy Eucharist, confirmation, reconciliation, anointing of the sick, marriage, and holy order.
● Religion establishes norms that mold or shape human behaviors (Schaefer, 2013).
● Rites of passage are rituals that mark important stages in an individual's life cycle.
❖ Buddhism
● believes that life is not a bed of roses. Instead, there are suffering, pain, and frustration.
● some practices of Buddhism is samatha and vipassana. Samatha is practiced as mindfulness
of breathing and the development of loving-kindness (Metta Bhavana). Vipassana practices
aim at developing insight into reality.
● Some of the major Buddhist celebrations are Parinirvana Day in February; Buddha Day
(Wesak) in May, Dharma Day in July: Padmasambhava Day in October; and Sangha Day in
November.
❖ Christianity
● Christians believe in Trinitarian God. One God in three personas: God the Father (Creator),
God the Son (Savior), and God the Holy Spirit (Sustainer). Eternal life after death will be
achieved through faith in Jesus Christ.
● Christian churches practice the sacrament of Baptism and the Sacrament of Communion.
● Christmas and Resurrection (Easter) are the two major celebrations in Christianity. Christmas,
usually on December 25, commemorates the birth of Jesus Christ while Resurrection Sunday
(depending on the lunar calendar, sometime in March or April) celebrates the resurrection of
Jesus Christ from death.
❖ Hinduism
● Hinduism covers a wide range of traditional beliefs and religious groups; thus, there is no
single founder or leader. Hindus believe that existence is a cycle of birth, death , and rebirth,
governed by Karma. Karma is a concept where the reincarnated life will depend on how the
past life was spent.
● Vedas are sacred scriptures of Hindus. Mahabharata and Ramayana are two other important
texts of the Hindus.
● Diwali and Navrati are the most celebrated festivals of the Hindus. Diwali is the Festival of
Lights while Navrati is the festival of nine nights, which celebrates the triumph of good over
evil. Hindus have set dates to honor particular manifestations of God.
❖ Islam
● Muslims believe in Allah, who is their "One God." They believe in the unity and universality of
God. Muslims also have a strong sense of community or "ummah"
● The Holy Book of Islam is called the Quran,
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● Muslims believe in the five pillars of Islam, which are the foundation of Muslim life: shahadah,
salat, zakat, haji, sawm.
● Two of the major festivals in Islam are Eldul-Fitr and Eidul-Adha. Eidul-Fitr is the celebration at
the end of Ramadan, while Eidul-Adha is celebrated within the completion of the Pilgrimage,
the Hajj.
❖ Judaism
● The Jews believe in the God of Abraham, the same God that liberated the Hebrew slaves
from Egypt to Canaan, the Promised Land through the leadership of Moses and later, Joshua.
The Jews believe in the coming of Messiah, the Savior. The sacred scripture of the Jews is
called the Torah or the Law.
● Customs and Practices There are five major festivals observed by the Jews: rosh Hashanah,
Yom Kippur, pesach-Passover, Shavuot Pentecost and Sukkot.
Spirituality
● Spirituality is the aspect of the self that is associated with an individual's process of seeking
and expressing meaning and how he or she is connected to the self, to others, to the moment,
and to everything else that composes his or her environment, including the sacred and
significant.
● It is also viewed as "personal and private beliefs that transcend the material aspects of life and
give a deep sense of wholeness, connectedness, and openness to the infinite."
Religiosity
● Religiosity is defined as the adherence to a belief system and practices associated with a
tradition in which there is agreement about what is believed and practiced.
Ideal Citizen
● Citizenship denotes the status of being a legal member of a nation-state. Anyone can easily
claim that he or she is a citizen of a nation.
● In most constitutions, citizenship is acquired through blood relations.
● An ideal citizen can be a person who follows the laws, protects and takes care of the
environment, and contributes to the welfare of other people.
● Article XIV, Section 3, Paragraph 2 of the Philippine Constitution states that an ideal citizen
is patriotic and nationalistic, fosters a love of humanity, has respect for human rights,
appreciates the role of national heroes, knows the rights and duties of citizenship, has strong
ethical and spiritual values, and has good moral character and personal discipline.
1. Be an active Filipino citizen. A good Filipino citizen is aware of current events and
participates in government programs that aim for the country's progression and
development.
2. Study Philippine history. The road of Philippine history is long and bloody, and by
learning and fully understanding the events of Philippine history, you will learn so much
as to why it is so important for you to love your country with your life, and extend help to
your fellow. Filipinos in need, and recognize abuse of political power.
3. Support local products. When you buy local products, you not only support local
manufacturers and businessmen, but you also help strengthen the local economy.
4. Speak the Filipino language. The history of the Filipino language was as long and
hard as the Philippine history. Jose Rizal highlighted the importance of speaking a
national language as a way of displaying love for one's country.
5. Do not spread fake news and be democratic in engaging with dissent. This period
in the history of the Philippines has seen how the Internet has spawned tons of
possibilities for people, both good and bad. For instance, it is easier for Filipinos working
abroad to communicate with their loved ones left in the Philippines through the Internet.
Active Citizenship
● Active Citizenship refers to the structured forms of engagement with political processes and
everyday forms of participation in society.
● Active citizenship is anchored on one's cognitive and behavioral engagement to participate in
formal and informal political activities.
● Active citizenship is also associated with the "sense of community.”
● The political self is anchored on the inclination to participate in political activities that should
serve the interests of all sectors of society.
Political Culture
● Political culture is the pattern of individual attitudes and orientations toward politics among
members of a political system (Almond & Verba, 1965).
● Filipino political culture includes beliefs, feelings, group-accepted practices, language, and
paraphernalia shared by groups of Filipinos in their production, allocation, and usage of
political powers alongside.
● Culture is defined as the way of life followed by a people and which consists of learned and
shared values, behavior, and traditions,
● Culture has two major elements—material and non-material
● Democratic culture has become a way of life for Filipinos and it has been inculcated by the
nation's heroes before the arrival of the Americans.
● In keeping the nation's democracy, it is important that the Filipino people continue to cherish
the basic features of democracy.
Governance
● Governance is defined as the traditions and institutions that determine how authority is
exercised in a particular country.
● The seven Nolan Principles or seven principles of public life are selflessness, objectivity,
integrity, honesty, accountability, openness, and leadership.
Who is a Filipino?
● Filipinos are often referred to as globally renowned personalities like Manny Pacquiao, Lea
Salonga, and Michael Cinco who have made Filipinos recognized around the world through
their expertise.
● Culture and history have greatly influenced the manner Filipinos learn, live, and behave.
● The Philippines is a lush island paradise famous for its grandiose mountain views, pristine
beaches, and rich and diverse culture changing from province to province.
Filipino Values
There are inherent traits that make Filipinos different from other nationalities. These traits form
part of the socio-anthropological self of Filipinos.
1. Bayanihan - As a practice of the spirit of kinship and camaraderie, the custom of bayanihan is
observed whenever a helping hand is extended to accomplish a task as a group.
2. Damayan - Filipinos always extend sympathy for people, especially those who lost their loved
ones or who were victims of calamities.
3. Familism or Close Family Ties - Filipinos are known to prioritize the welfare of family
members above other things.
4. Optimism -Filipinos have the attitude of looking at all ways to be happy and to maintain a
positive outlook
6. Regionalism - Outside the "significant others," Filipinos have this attitude of giving more
priority to their province mate. One example of this is the so-called "Solid North”
7. Flexibility - Filipinos have the ability to adapt or conform to the expectations or will of other
people to achieve smooth and harmonious relationships.
8. Religious - This is characterized by strong faith and submission to the will of a supreme being.
9. Respect for Elders - Filipinos are thought to show courtesy towards the elderly at all times.
This is manifested in the act of pagmamano (kissing the hands of elders) and saying po and
opo when talking to someone older as a sign of respect.
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10. Remedyo Attitude - Filipinos are known for being creative and resourceful. This is
characterized by their ability to find usefulness in things that may already be considered as
junk by others.
11. Matiyaga - Filipinos are known for their grit and strong determination in every undertaking.
12. Utang na Loob- This is a feeling of gratitude, recognition of one's indebtedness, and
obligation to repay someone who has extended assistance to another.
1. Bahala na Attitude - This is a Filipino trait of leaving to fate and luck the outcome of a certain
undertaking, hence the expression bahala na.
3. Crab Mentality - It is a Filipino attitude born out of jealousy and insecurity characterized by an
attempt to pull down those who are ahead of them in life. Instead of admiring and emulating
the person, they end up in character assassination.
4. Euphemistic - This is a Filipino attitude of not being frank and straightforward so as not to
offend or hurt another person.
6. Gaya-gaya Attitude - This is a Filipino trait of copying or imitating others' work, product, type
of business, fashion, and the like.
8. Belief in Kapalaran - It is a Filipino trait of believing and accepting that one's fate is already
written in the stars. This is manifested in the practice of going to fortune-tellers a palm readers
just to earn affirmation of their beliefs rather than planning and pursuing their goals in life.
9. Mañana Habit - Mañana, from the phrase mamaya na means "I'll do it later," is an attitude of
Filipinos characterized by stalling on doing tasks instead of doing them immediately. The delay
in the performance of certain tasks affects one's productivity.
10. Ningas Kugon-This is characterized by the attitude of being enthusiastic only at the beginning
of an endeavor. This is usually observed in some politicians who are only good at the start of
their term but gradually disappear when public concerns start to pile up.
11. Oversensitivity - It is the inability of some Filipinos to withstand and accept criticism or
negative comments. When they hear criticisms, they are easily hurt as they take these
personally and negatively instead of constructively.
12. Pakikisama - It is a Filipino attitude of always adhering or submitting to the will of the group
they are part of.
13. Lack of Sportsmanship - It is an attitude of Filipinos manifested in how they cannot seem to
accept defeat. They would rather believe that they were cheated on than accept that they were
defeated.
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14. Tsamba lang Attitude -It is an attitude characterized by the refusal to take the credit for one's
own instead of owing it to charm and luck.
Filipino Markers
The following are constant reminders of our nationality.
● Proverbs or Salawikain
- Filipino proverbs, just like any other proverbs, are sayings that convey lessons and
reflections on Filipino practices, beliefs, and traditions.
- An example of a Filipino proverb is "Kung may tiyaga, may nilaga," which means that
hard work will be rewarded if one is persistent.
- Damiana Eugenio, regarded as the Mother of Philippine Folklore, classified proverbs
into six categories (Eugenio, 2000):
a. proverbs expressing a general attitude toward life and the laws that govern life;
b. ethical proverbs recommending certain virtues and condemning certain vices;
c. proverbs expressing a system of values;
d. proverbs expressing general truths and observations about life and human nature;
e. humorous proverbs; and
f. miscellaneous proverbs..
● Superstitions
- Filipinos also subscribe to their own set of superstitions passed down from generation to
generation. Some of these may be influenced by beliefs from other cultures, but
Filipinos have retold these superstitions according to their own experiences and they
sometimes end up even more interesting. According to a Filipino superstition, a woman
singing while cooking will end up a spinster so parents remind their daughters to avoid
singing while preparing their meals. Filipinos also avoid taking pictures in threes as the
one in the center is said to die, according to another superstition.
● Heroes and Icons - Heroes serve as a reminder of true patriotism and nationalism as
they have sacrificed their lives for the sake of their country's freedom and progress.
Famous Filipino icons such as Lea Salonga, Manny Pacquiao, and our very own
national hero, Jose Rizal, also serve as important Filipino markers as they have made
the Filipino name more pronounced worldwide through their own expertise.
● Online Identity - the sum of all our characteristics and our interactions.
● Partial identity, on the other hand, is a subset of characteristics that make up our identity. And
persona is the partial identity we create that represents ourselves in a specific situation.
Definition of Learning
● Learning is referred as the cognitive process of acquiring skill or knowledge. It involves changes in the present
knowledge, skills, habits, behaviors, or tendencies through experience, practice, or formal education.
Every human action is motivated or inspired by one’s aims, goals, or intention. Learning occurs because it is planned,
desired or even forced.
2. Learning is a Result of Experience. Learning is often associated with a change in behavior as a result of
experience.
3. Learning is Multifaceted. The focus of learning is not on the course alone.
4. Learning is an Active Process. Learning is not rote memorization. The principle of teaching states that
the students should be the center of the learning process.
● Brain Changes
When a person learns something new, the brain undergoes changes. The changes in the brain during learning
are: 1. New nerve cells may grow and new neutral networks will then be formed; 2. The strength
of existing synaptic connection changes, thus functionally changing the connectivity within the existing
neutral networks in response to a sensory stimuli; and
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3. New synapses are formed between neurons that were not connected before, thus effectively
creating new networks of neurons that, when active, represent a new memory.
● Behavioral Changes
Learning has been defines as permanent change in behavior as a result of experience. Behaviors that can be
changed includes: 1. Stage fright
2. False reasoning
3. Dishonesty
Becoming a Self-regulated Learner
Self-regulated learning refers to the learner’s ability to regulate or control one’s own learning and behavior. An effective
learner regulates one’s own learning by:
Study habits refers to the attitudes and behaviors of students when preparing for any learning assessment. Some ways
to develop good study habits include:
1. Get organized.
2. Prepare your review materials.
3. Ask help.
4. Test yourself or ask someone to test you.
5. Allot time to take a break and eliminate stress.
6. Create or join a study group.
7. Teach what you have learned.
8. Study to understand, not to remember.
Meaningful Learning
1. Asking the students about the practical application of their learning, particularly what they can do for their
family, school, government, and community;
2. Allowing students to demonstrate a new skill acquired from the lesson;
3. Requiring students to write an essay or a reflective journal of what they have learned.
4. Asking students to relate the lesson to other sciences or fields of knowledge; or
5. Helping students find the relevance of the lesson to their lives. Through these ways, the students can reinforce
their learning, empower themselves, express their thoughts, and make sense of those lessons to their lives and
to their worldand these exemplify meaningful learning.
The concept of self-efficacy was introduced by Albert E. Bandura in an article entitled “Selfefficacy: Toward a Unifying
Theory of Behavioral Change” published in Psychological Review in 1977. The article also became an instant classic in
psychology (Kendra 2017).
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In Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory, selfefficacy refers to one’s belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific
situations or accomplish a task. More often than not, one’s sense of selfefficacy can play a major role in how one
approaches goals, tasks, and challenges.
Dr. Bandura described four main sources of influence by which a person’s self-efficacy is developed and maintained.
These are:
Carol Dweck is one of the world most- renowned researchers in the area of motivation. She introduced the idea of
mindset which she defined as the implicit theories that individuals hold regarding the nature of intelligent behavior.
Fixed mindset
In the “fixed” theory of intelligence, the basic qualities such as intelligence and talents are fixed traits.
Growth mindset
In the “growth” theory of intelligence, talent and intelligence are developed through learning, effort, training, and
practice.
In the late 1960s, Dr. Edwin Locke conducted the first ever research on goal setting and motivation. He stressed that
setting a goal provides a significant source of motivation which, in turn, improves people’s performance.
In 1990. Edwin Locke and Gary Latham published a book entitled A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance. In this
book, they enumerated the five principles of goal setting, namely:
Julian Rotter’s Expectancy Theory is focused mainly on the expectations that shape a particular behavior in a particular
situation. Learning creates cognitions, known as expectancies that guide behavior.
The person believes that events are controlled by his or her own efforts, These individuals “make things
happen”. 2. External.
The person believes that events are controlled by external forces over which he or she has no control. These
individuals attribute their success to chance and luck.
Definition of Stress
Stress refers to the reaction of our physiological and psychological self to any kind of demand or threat.
Types of Stress
• Eustress. It is a beneficial stress that can be in the form of physical, psychological and biological stimuli. The
Greek prefix eu means good stress, hence the word “eustress” means “good stress”.
• Distress. It is also known as bad stress. It occurs when there is a tension buildup which becomes unbearable
and difficult to cope with.
• Acute stress. It is the body’s immediate reaction to a new and challenging situation.
• Episodic acute stress. It is when you have frequent episodes of acute stress. It can affect your physical
health and mental well-being.
• Chronic stress. When you have highstress levels for an extended period of time, you have chronic stress.
Long-term stress like this can have a negative impact on your health. It can lead to frequent ailments such as
headaches, an upset stomach, and sleep difficulties.
A Stressor is any event that compels a person to adjust or change.
Nurture
It encompasses the environmental factors that impact who we are. This includes our early childhood experiences, the
way we were raised, our social relationships, and the surrounding culture.
Self-care
Self-care refers to all the activities that a person does to maintain and improve his or her physical, psychological,
emotional, social, and spiritual well-being.
Benefits of self-care:
1. Enhanced productivity.
2. Improved vitality.
CHAPTER 3
MANAGING AND CARING
FOR THE SELF
3. Enhanced self-esteem. For example, self-control, distancing, 4. Increased self-knowledge. and wishful
thinking.
5. Mindfulness and compassion.
Self-compassion