Science Sec 2 Eoy

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year 1

kinetic particle theory


solid liquid gas

particles are closely packed particles are fairly close particles are very far apart
together together

particles vibrating about a able to move ard in all free to move in all directions
fixed position directions in straight lines and collide with each other

strong attraction to each some attraction between little attraction


other them
- as they heat up, the particles spread further apart
● when answering qn, describe what happens to the particles in each state separately

movement of substances
● diffusion: The net movement of particles (atoms, molecules or ions) from a region of
higher ‘concentration to a region of a lower concentration, down a concentration gradient
till they are evenly distributed (equilibrium)
● factors affecting the rate of diffusion
temperature
the higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion.
at higher temperatures, the particles possess more kinetic energy and are able to move faster.
Thus, diffusion takes place faster.

states of matter - solid, liquid and gas


comparing ice, water and water vapour, water vapour possesses the most kinetic energy and is
able to move freely.
as such, the rate of diffusion is faster in gases than liquids and slowest in solids.

diffusion distance
the shorter the distance, the faster the rate of diffusion will be

concentration gradient
the greater the difference in concentration of substances in two regions, the faster the rate of
diffusion will be

surface area to volume ratio


the larger the surface area to volume ratio, the higher the rate of diffusion

● osmosis: the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential
to a region of lower water potential through a partially permeable membrane
● active transport: active transport is the movement of substances against a
concentration gradient from a region of low concentration to a region of higher
concentration

● cell transport process


passive transport; diffusion, osmosis
active transport

● changes in state

diffusion osmosis

does not require energy does not require energy

not through a partially permeable membrane through a partially permeable membrane

movement in all types of particles in diff movement in only water molecules


states

down a concentration gradient down a water potential gradient

elements compounds and mixtures


● atoms: smallest particle of an element that have the chemical properties of that element

● molecules: a group of two or more atoms that are chemically combined together

● elements: substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical
methods
● made out of only one type of atoms or molecules
● fixed mp and bp

metals non-metals

shiny dull

high mp and bp low mp and bp


good COE and COH poor COE and COH

malleable brittle

separation techniques
pure substance
- a single substance that is not contaminated or mixed with other substances
- has a fixed melting and boiling point at room temperature and pressure
- using the melting and boiling point, a substance’s identity can be determined as no two
substances have the same boiling and melting point
- impurities cause the melting point to decrease and the boiling point to increase
- needed as impure substances can bring about undesired consequences

filtration
- separating a mixture with different particle sizes
- separating an insoluble solid from a liquid
substance left on the filter paper - residue
substance filtered into the beaker - filtrate
1. filter the given mixture
2. residue is ____ and filtrate is _____
3. wash the residue with water

evaporation to dryness
- to obtain the dissolved solid from a solution
- dissolved solid is thermally stable and does not decompose on strong heating
- heat the solution until all the liquid has evaporated and the solid left is the dissolved solid
- cannot be used to obtain crystals as many crystals give off water to form powders when
heated strongly

crystallisation
- to obtain the dissolved solid from a solution
- dissolved solid is not thermally stable and decompose on strong heating
1. heat the solution till its saturated (dip a glass rod inside and if crystals form upon
the rod, it is saturated)
2. cool the solution for crystallisation to occur
3. filter the mixture and collect the crystals as residue
4. wash the crystals with cold water and dry crystals with filter paper

saturated solution
- contains the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a fixed volume of solvent at
a specific temperature. For most solids, as temperature increases, the solubility
increases.
sublimation
- upon heating, the iodine will sublime and form iodine vapour. The iodine vapour rises
and cools on the inner side of the inverted filter funnel to form iodine solid. The sand is
left behind in the evaporating dish.

chromatography
- solvent front (where the solvent stops spreading)
- start line (where the solvent starts spreading)

how does it work?


● different substances have different solubilities. The more soluble substances will be able
to dissolve easily in the solvent and travel further compared to less soluble substances.
ensure that:
- start line is drawn in pencil
- solvent level must be below the start line
- container is covered with a lid

● one spot; substance is pure


● more than one spot; substance tested is a mixture and contains 2 or more substances
that are physically combined
● zero spots; substance is insoluble

simple distillation
- to obtain a pure solvent from a solution
1. solution in the flask is heated till the solution boils to form water vapour
2. water vapour rises and enters the condenser
3. water vapour then cool and condenses into water droplets which flow out of the
beaker and is then collected as distillate
4. temperature remains constant when water is collected
ensure that:
- boiling chips are added (for smooth boiling)
- bulb of thermometer is placed next to the side of the distilling flask
- water enters from the bottom and out from the top (condenser)

fractional distillation
- separate miscible liquids with different boiling points
1. when the mixture is heated, both ethanol and water will evaporate
2. both ethanol vapour and water vapour will enter the fractionating column,
condense on the surface of the glass beads and fall back into the flask (this
repeats)
3. as temperature rises and reaches the boiling point of ethanol, ethanol will boil
and form a vapour while water will evaporate to form water vapour
4. both vapours enter the fractionating column and in the column, ethanol vapour
continues to rise and enter the condenser wile water vapour will condense on the
glass beads and fall back into the mixture
5. ethanol will be collected as distillate

cell structure and function


nutrients and human digestive system

mass weight and density


● weight(N) = mass(kg) x gravitational weight
● density(g/cm3) = mass(g) / volume (cm)

forces-motion and friction


● force (N) = mass(kg) x acceleration (m/s2)

pressure and moments


● pressure(N/m2) = force (N) / area(m2)
● moment (Nm) = force (N) x perpendicular distance (m)
year 2
atomic structure and chemical bonding
● ions have both proton and neutron
● proton number = electro number
● isotopes: (like to ask for the relative mass) when 2 or more elements that contain equal
number of proton have a diff number of neutron
● how to find relative mass?
eg. chlorine (cl)
75% 25%
x% (100-x)%
(75/100 X 35) + (25/100 X 37) = 35.5%

ionic bonds covalent bonds

transfer of electrons from a non-metal to a sharing of electrons between atoms of


metal non-metals

● great ionic structure ● simple molecular structure


● high mp/bp ● weak mp/bp
● strong electrostatic forces of attraction ● weak intermolecular forces (strong
between cation and anion covalent bonds within ion)
● little energy required to overcome
● aqueous/molten -> no mobile
ions/electrons
● how to draw ionic and covalent bonds?

chemical formula and equations


● symbols and charges (must rmb)
● balancing: just make sure each element is equal number on both sides
● naming
- one: mono (hydrogen monoxide)
- two: di (carbon dioxide)
- three: tri

acids and bases


● acid: a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water
● main acids
- sulfuric acids (H2SO4)
- nitric acid (HNO3)
- hydrochloric acid (HCL)
● properties of an acid
- taste sour
- turns blue litmus paper red
- pH less than 7
- will turn either red, orange or yellow on an universal indicator
● bases: substance that react with an acid to form salt and water only
● soluable bases -> alkalis
● alkalis: a substance that dissolves in water to produce hydroxide ions (OH-)
● main alkalis
- anything that has hydroxide or oxide in it
● properties of an alkali
- taste bitter
- soapy to the touch
- turns red litmus paper blue
- pH more that 7
- will turn either blue or purple on an universal indicator

● pH scale
7 - neutral (green)
>7 - alkaline ( blue, purple)
<7 - acidic (red, orange, yellow)
to measure them;
- universal indicator
- data logger
- litmus paper

● [acid + metal -> salt + hydrogen]


- test for hydrogen gas :
test: insert a lighted splint at the mouth of the test tube
observation: the lighted splint will extinguish with a ‘pop’ sound when hydrogen is present
OR
the lighted end of the glowing splint will burst into flames when oxygen is present

● [acid + base -> salt + water]


- this reaction is called neutralisation
(acidic and basic properties are removed through neutralisation and the products formed in the
reaction are both neutral)

● [acid + carbonate -> salt + water + carbon dioxide]


- test for carbonate
test: bubble the gas into limewater
observation: white precipitate formed when gas is bubbled into limewater

chemical change
● chemical change vs physical change

chemical change physical change


new substances formed no new substances formed

heat and light produced no heat and light produced

change is usually irreversible change is usually reversible

● types of chemical change


a) mixing
- acid reactions
[acid + metal -> salt + hydrogen]
[acid + metal -> salt + hydrogen]
[acid + carbonate -> salt + water + carbon dioxide]

b) heating
- thermal decomposition
heating brings about decomposition of some substances

- combustion
combination of a substance with oxygen in the presence of heat (burning)
[petrol + oxygen —(heat)—> carbon dioxide + water]

c) exposure to heat
- photosynthesis
[ carbon dioxide + water —(sunlight & chlorophyll)—> glucose + oxygen]

d) interaction with oxygen


- oxidation (rusting of iron)
eg. [iron + water + oxygen -> hydrated iro (III) oxide

- respiration
[glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water]

e) using electric current


- electro plating
(control object with a metal by passing an electric current through the solution)

photosynthesis
● why is it important?
- provides chemical energy available to animals and other organisms
only producers (plants) are able to change light energy into stored chemical energy (glucose),
thus vital to earth
- provides raw materials needed for repiration
- removes carbon dioxide and provides oxygen
● absorption of light
- chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light best.
- absorbs green light poorly, most of it is reflected thus the leaf appears as green

● external structure of leaf


structure of leaf functions

the leaf is broad the large surface area allows maximum light
to be absorbed, hence increasing rate of
photosynthesis

the leaf is thin this increases the surface area to volume


ratio and allows rapid diffusion of carbon
dioxide into the leaf, hence increasing rate of
photosynthesis

network of veins these veins consist of the vascular bundle


which transports water, mineral salts and
manufactured food.

● internal structure of leaf (functions)


waxy cuticle:
- allows light to enter the leaf for photosynthesis
- it reduces evaporation through the leaf, prevents excessive water loss, especially in dry
areas
upper epidermis:
- provides mecchanical strength and protects inner layers of the cells.
- allows light to enter inner layers of mesophyll cells containing chloroplasts for
photosynthesis
palisade mesophyll tissue:
- more cells exposed to sunlight as nearer to the surface
- highest rate of photosynthesis takes place here
spongy mesophyll tissue:
- allows diffusion to carbon dioxide and oxygen in and out of mesophyll cells
- photosynthesis takes place here
- absorbs residual sunlight that filters through the palisade mesophyll tissue
veins;
- transports water (needed for photosynthesis) and mineral salts from roots to the leaf
cell [ xylem ]
- transports sucrose and amino acids in solution from the mesophyll cells to the rest of
the plant
lower epidermis:
- protects inner tissues and slows down evaporation
- regulate the opening and closing of stomata, diffusion and carbon dioxide
- photosynthesis takes place in guard cells
● factors affecting rate of photosynthesis
- light intensity
- carbon dioxide
- temperature

● experimental knowledge
to ensure the starch present is made during the experiment and not before the experiment,
destarch the plant by placing it in a dark room for at least 24h
- test the presence of starch
1) submerge the leaf in boiling water for approximately 3mins
to ensure all the enzymes in the lead will be denatured and will prevent the conversion of starch
to glucose in the leaf
2) put boiled lead in a boiling tube containing some alcohol. leave boiling tube in beaker of
hot water for 5mins
colour of alcohol changes from colourless to green as the alcohol removes chlorophyll from the
leaf and decolourizes it (iodine colour will be easier to see
TN: ethanol lvl drawn should be lower than the height of hot water in the water bath to ensure
that heat is evenly distributed
3) put leaf back in hot water
remove alcohol and soften the leaf, making it more permeable to the iodine solution
4) observation
blue black: starch present (photosynthesis occured)
yellow-brown: no starch present

ecology, biodiversity and classification


● ecology: study of the interaction between living organisms, and the interactions between
organisms and their environment

● abiotic: non-living environment


consists of the chemical and physical factors
- factors:
a) light
needed for photosynthesis to take place -> able to make food

b) air
animals and other creaturs breathe oxygen or absorb it from water, and plants grow from the
presence of carbon dioxide

c) water
essential for life and all biotic components of the ecosystem are directly dependent on water for
survival

d) temperature
influences the distribution of plants and animals in the ecosystem

e) mineral salts
needed by animals and plants for healthy growth

f) pH
pH 7 is needed for freshwater organisms to survive whereas marine organisms live in water with
pH 8

● biotic: living environment


consists of all living things that are part of the organism’s environment

● levels of organisation
species a group of organisms that can potentially interbreed and produce fertile
offspring

population group of organisms of one species that interbreed and live in the same
environment at the same time

community different populations of plants and animals living and interacting in a


particular environment make up a community

ecosystem is made up of the interactions between a community and the physical


environment

biosphere portion of the earth where all life exists

● commensalism; relationship between two organisms where one benefits and the other
is not affected by it

● mutualism: interaction between two organisms in the ecosystem with benefit to both

● parasitism: non-mutual relationship between species, where one species, the parasite,
benefits at the expense of the other, the host

● predation: relationship where one organism captues and consumes another


predator is the organism feeding on another organism while
prey is the organism being hunted

● interdependence within the ecosystem


i) producers
- autotrophs that can manufacture organic molecules from simple inorganic substances
using energy from light in photosynthesis
ii) consumers
- heterotroph that feed directly on producers are termed as primary consumers or
herbivores
- those that depend indirectly on producers by feeding on primary consumers are termed
as secondary consumers
those that feed on secondary consumers are termed at tertiary consumersiii) decomposers
- break down dead plants, animals and the waste of other organisms.
- they are very impt for any ecosystem. when plants and animals die, they become
food for decomposers like bacteria, fungi and earthworms.
recycle dead plants and animals into chemical nutriens like carbon and nitrogen that are
released back into the soil, air and water
● processes involved in maintaining a stable ecosystem
- photosynthesis and respiration are processes involved in the flow of energy
through food chains and food webs
- nutrients trapped in living organisms are recycled within the environment
- energy flow through food chain and food webs and processes such as
photosynthesis and respiration are involved
- nutrients in organisms are recycled within the encironment through action of
decomposers

● food chain, food webs and flow of energy


● food chain: shows the transfer of energy and materials from organism to organism
along a feeding pathway
● each stage in a food chain eg producer is known as a trophic level

● food web: happens when more than one organism can be present at each trophic level.
each species very often feeds on more than one type of prey, and each species also
may be food for at least two or more predator species

● food webs are more stable and more resistant to disruption compared to food chains
● everytime food energy is transferred to another organism, 10% of the energy is lost

● types of ecological pyramids

heredity and sexual reproduction


● sexual reproduction involves two parents. each parent produces reproductive sex cells
called gametes
● male gametes are sperm cells
● female gametes are egg cells
● each gamete is half the number of chromosomes found in other cells of the organism
● fertilisation is the process where the nucleus of a female and male gamete fuses
● fertilised egg is referred to as a zygote
● egg + sperm -> zygote(fertilised) -> embryo (ball of cells)

● heredity
● every individual inherited 23 chromosomes from each of theri parent
● genes reside in a cell’s chromosmes, each of which contains many genes
● individuals have two of each gene codes for a certain trait, one accquired from each
parent
● each gene can have several variants, which code for different variation of the trait
● dominant and recessive traits
● male reproductive system

testis/testes:
- produces sperms
- produces male sex hormones
- each testis is connected to epididymis

epididymis:
- narrow, coiled tube that stores inactive sperms before they enter the sperm duct

sperm ducts:
- transport sperms released from the testes and subsequently epididymis to urethra

male sex glands:


- contains ntrients and enzymes to help the sperm swim actively

penis:
- deposits sperms into vagina of female during sexual intercourse
- blood vesseld in the erectile tissue found in penis become filled with blood during sexual
arousal
- when filled with blood, the penis becomes erect and hard

urethra:
- a tube which passes through the centre of the penis to exterior
- transports urine and semen at different times
● female reproductive system

ovary/ovaries:
- produces eggs during foetal stage
- produces female hormones
- one egg (ovum) is generally released each month
ovaries take turns to release the egg but not neccessarilt alternate

oviduct: (fertilisation)
- muscular tube leading from ovaries to uterus and transports the mature ovum released
from the ovary once every month
- fertilisation occurs here; where the sperm meets anf fuses with the mature ovum
uterus: (implantation)
- where foetus develops during pregnancy
- inner lining is spongy and filled with blood capillaries -> endometrium for embryo
implantation

cervix:
- ring of muscles dilates to allow passage of baby during birth

vagina:
- where semen is deposited during sexual intercourse

● menstrual cycle
menstruation (day 1-5):
takes place when there is no fertilisation the previous cycle
- thick uterine wall supplied with blood capillaries will breakdown together with unfertilised
ovum
- discharged out of female’s body through vagina

fertile period (day 11-17):


days 6-13 (proliferative)
repair of uterine lining
- uterine lining starts to thivken and blood vessels form inside the thick lining
day 14 (ovulation)
- one of ovaries releases a mature ovum
- ovum can survive for about 12-24 hours after ovulation while sperms can survive within
the female for about 3 days (chance of getting pregnant is higher during the fertile
period)
- if there is no fertilisation, the ovum dies and disintegrates
-
secretory phase (days 15-28)
preparation for fertilisation
- lining of uterus is at its thickest
- if there was no fusion between the sperm and ovum, the thick uterus lining begins to
break down
- if fertilisation occurs, the thickness of the uterine lining is maintained to support foetus
development
● birth control methods
temporary:

rhythm method avoiding sexual intercourse during the fertile period of the
woman’s menstrual cycle

spermicide chemical that kills or blocks sperm from entering uterus

reduces chances of fertilisation

spermicide is inserted into vagina

diaphragm inserted into vagina and placed over cervix

impermeable and does not allow water to pass through. prevents


sperms from entering uterus and prevents fertilisation

condom thin rubber tube used to cover the erect penis before sexual
intercourse

impermeable to sperms (bacteria and virus). hence, sperms cannot


enter the uterus and no fertilisation occurs

protect the user from getting sexually transmitted infections

intra-uterine device piece of plastic or metal (copper) that is inserted into the uterus by a
doctor.

disrupts the function of the uterus prevents the embryo from being
implanted on the uterine lining

contraceptive pills contain certain female sex hormones which prevent ovulation.
disrupts the function of the ovary and prevents it from releasing a
mature egg every month.

permanent:

vasectomy tying and cutting of both sperm ducts


no sperms will be deposited during sexual intercourse and the male is
unabel to make his partner pregnant. helps to prevent fertilisation

tubal ligation tying and cutting of both fallopian tubes

egg is prevented from meeting sperm and hence no fertilisation occurs

● sexually transmitted disease


● spread primarily by close sexual contact and sexual intercourse
● either viral or bacterial
transmissions of HIV:
i) sexual intercourse with an infected person
ii) sharing of needles
iii) blood transfusion with blood from an infected person
iv) can be passed from infected mother to baby through umbilical cord
v) through breast feeding

protection from HIV:


i) keep to one partner
ii) abstinence from sex
iii) males should wear a condom
iv) do not abuse drugs, drug addicts tend to share needle
v) don’t share instruments that are likely to break the skin and be contaminated with blood
vi) go to reliable operators if acupuncture is required

work energy and heat transfer


● work done (J) = force (N) x distance (m)
● heat and heat transfer
- heat is a form of energy whereas temperature is a measurement of the
degreee of hotness of a body.
- heat flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.
regions of equal temperature are in thermal equilibrium

conduction
- flow of heat through matter from places of higher region to places of lower region
temperature without movement of the matter as a whole.
- poor COH: air, water
- good COH: metals
- affected by
● cross-section area
● length or thickness
● temperature difference between both ends
● material
- in metals and non-metals: have large number of ‘free’ electrons. when part of the metal
is heated, the electrons move faster and farther

convection (liquid + gas)


- flow of heat trhough a fluid from place of higher temperature to places of lower
temperature by movement of fluid itself
- convection currents. involve the rising and cooling of air (cold water sinks, hot air rises)

radiation
eg. heat from the sun
- radiation can occur in a vacuum
- has all the properties of electromagnetic waves. when it falls on an object, it is partly
reflected, partly transmitted and partly absorbed, the absorbed part raises the
temperature of the object
- affected by
● colour and texture of surface
● surface temp
● surface area

optics
● laws
- incident ray, reflected ray and normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane
- angle of incidence = angle of reflection

● rays
- divergent
- convergent
- parallel

● the image formed on the mirror would be…


- virtual (not real)
- real
- laterally inverted
- same distance
- same size as object

● refraction
- less dense to more dense -> light ray slows down and move towards the normal
- more dense to less dense -> light ray speeds up and bend away from the normal

electrical system
● voltage (V) = current (A) x resistance (Ω)
● power (W) = current (A) x voltage (V)
● kilowatt-hour (kWh) = kilowatt (kW) x hour (h)

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