Science Sec 2 Eoy
Science Sec 2 Eoy
Science Sec 2 Eoy
particles are closely packed particles are fairly close particles are very far apart
together together
particles vibrating about a able to move ard in all free to move in all directions
fixed position directions in straight lines and collide with each other
movement of substances
● diffusion: The net movement of particles (atoms, molecules or ions) from a region of
higher ‘concentration to a region of a lower concentration, down a concentration gradient
till they are evenly distributed (equilibrium)
● factors affecting the rate of diffusion
temperature
the higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion.
at higher temperatures, the particles possess more kinetic energy and are able to move faster.
Thus, diffusion takes place faster.
diffusion distance
the shorter the distance, the faster the rate of diffusion will be
concentration gradient
the greater the difference in concentration of substances in two regions, the faster the rate of
diffusion will be
● osmosis: the net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water potential
to a region of lower water potential through a partially permeable membrane
● active transport: active transport is the movement of substances against a
concentration gradient from a region of low concentration to a region of higher
concentration
● changes in state
diffusion osmosis
● molecules: a group of two or more atoms that are chemically combined together
● elements: substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical
methods
● made out of only one type of atoms or molecules
● fixed mp and bp
metals non-metals
shiny dull
malleable brittle
separation techniques
pure substance
- a single substance that is not contaminated or mixed with other substances
- has a fixed melting and boiling point at room temperature and pressure
- using the melting and boiling point, a substance’s identity can be determined as no two
substances have the same boiling and melting point
- impurities cause the melting point to decrease and the boiling point to increase
- needed as impure substances can bring about undesired consequences
filtration
- separating a mixture with different particle sizes
- separating an insoluble solid from a liquid
substance left on the filter paper - residue
substance filtered into the beaker - filtrate
1. filter the given mixture
2. residue is ____ and filtrate is _____
3. wash the residue with water
evaporation to dryness
- to obtain the dissolved solid from a solution
- dissolved solid is thermally stable and does not decompose on strong heating
- heat the solution until all the liquid has evaporated and the solid left is the dissolved solid
- cannot be used to obtain crystals as many crystals give off water to form powders when
heated strongly
crystallisation
- to obtain the dissolved solid from a solution
- dissolved solid is not thermally stable and decompose on strong heating
1. heat the solution till its saturated (dip a glass rod inside and if crystals form upon
the rod, it is saturated)
2. cool the solution for crystallisation to occur
3. filter the mixture and collect the crystals as residue
4. wash the crystals with cold water and dry crystals with filter paper
saturated solution
- contains the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a fixed volume of solvent at
a specific temperature. For most solids, as temperature increases, the solubility
increases.
sublimation
- upon heating, the iodine will sublime and form iodine vapour. The iodine vapour rises
and cools on the inner side of the inverted filter funnel to form iodine solid. The sand is
left behind in the evaporating dish.
chromatography
- solvent front (where the solvent stops spreading)
- start line (where the solvent starts spreading)
simple distillation
- to obtain a pure solvent from a solution
1. solution in the flask is heated till the solution boils to form water vapour
2. water vapour rises and enters the condenser
3. water vapour then cool and condenses into water droplets which flow out of the
beaker and is then collected as distillate
4. temperature remains constant when water is collected
ensure that:
- boiling chips are added (for smooth boiling)
- bulb of thermometer is placed next to the side of the distilling flask
- water enters from the bottom and out from the top (condenser)
fractional distillation
- separate miscible liquids with different boiling points
1. when the mixture is heated, both ethanol and water will evaporate
2. both ethanol vapour and water vapour will enter the fractionating column,
condense on the surface of the glass beads and fall back into the flask (this
repeats)
3. as temperature rises and reaches the boiling point of ethanol, ethanol will boil
and form a vapour while water will evaporate to form water vapour
4. both vapours enter the fractionating column and in the column, ethanol vapour
continues to rise and enter the condenser wile water vapour will condense on the
glass beads and fall back into the mixture
5. ethanol will be collected as distillate
● pH scale
7 - neutral (green)
>7 - alkaline ( blue, purple)
<7 - acidic (red, orange, yellow)
to measure them;
- universal indicator
- data logger
- litmus paper
chemical change
● chemical change vs physical change
b) heating
- thermal decomposition
heating brings about decomposition of some substances
- combustion
combination of a substance with oxygen in the presence of heat (burning)
[petrol + oxygen —(heat)—> carbon dioxide + water]
c) exposure to heat
- photosynthesis
[ carbon dioxide + water —(sunlight & chlorophyll)—> glucose + oxygen]
- respiration
[glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water]
photosynthesis
● why is it important?
- provides chemical energy available to animals and other organisms
only producers (plants) are able to change light energy into stored chemical energy (glucose),
thus vital to earth
- provides raw materials needed for repiration
- removes carbon dioxide and provides oxygen
● absorption of light
- chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light best.
- absorbs green light poorly, most of it is reflected thus the leaf appears as green
the leaf is broad the large surface area allows maximum light
to be absorbed, hence increasing rate of
photosynthesis
● experimental knowledge
to ensure the starch present is made during the experiment and not before the experiment,
destarch the plant by placing it in a dark room for at least 24h
- test the presence of starch
1) submerge the leaf in boiling water for approximately 3mins
to ensure all the enzymes in the lead will be denatured and will prevent the conversion of starch
to glucose in the leaf
2) put boiled lead in a boiling tube containing some alcohol. leave boiling tube in beaker of
hot water for 5mins
colour of alcohol changes from colourless to green as the alcohol removes chlorophyll from the
leaf and decolourizes it (iodine colour will be easier to see
TN: ethanol lvl drawn should be lower than the height of hot water in the water bath to ensure
that heat is evenly distributed
3) put leaf back in hot water
remove alcohol and soften the leaf, making it more permeable to the iodine solution
4) observation
blue black: starch present (photosynthesis occured)
yellow-brown: no starch present
b) air
animals and other creaturs breathe oxygen or absorb it from water, and plants grow from the
presence of carbon dioxide
c) water
essential for life and all biotic components of the ecosystem are directly dependent on water for
survival
d) temperature
influences the distribution of plants and animals in the ecosystem
e) mineral salts
needed by animals and plants for healthy growth
f) pH
pH 7 is needed for freshwater organisms to survive whereas marine organisms live in water with
pH 8
● levels of organisation
species a group of organisms that can potentially interbreed and produce fertile
offspring
population group of organisms of one species that interbreed and live in the same
environment at the same time
● commensalism; relationship between two organisms where one benefits and the other
is not affected by it
● mutualism: interaction between two organisms in the ecosystem with benefit to both
● parasitism: non-mutual relationship between species, where one species, the parasite,
benefits at the expense of the other, the host
● food web: happens when more than one organism can be present at each trophic level.
each species very often feeds on more than one type of prey, and each species also
may be food for at least two or more predator species
● food webs are more stable and more resistant to disruption compared to food chains
● everytime food energy is transferred to another organism, 10% of the energy is lost
● heredity
● every individual inherited 23 chromosomes from each of theri parent
● genes reside in a cell’s chromosmes, each of which contains many genes
● individuals have two of each gene codes for a certain trait, one accquired from each
parent
● each gene can have several variants, which code for different variation of the trait
● dominant and recessive traits
● male reproductive system
testis/testes:
- produces sperms
- produces male sex hormones
- each testis is connected to epididymis
epididymis:
- narrow, coiled tube that stores inactive sperms before they enter the sperm duct
sperm ducts:
- transport sperms released from the testes and subsequently epididymis to urethra
penis:
- deposits sperms into vagina of female during sexual intercourse
- blood vesseld in the erectile tissue found in penis become filled with blood during sexual
arousal
- when filled with blood, the penis becomes erect and hard
urethra:
- a tube which passes through the centre of the penis to exterior
- transports urine and semen at different times
● female reproductive system
ovary/ovaries:
- produces eggs during foetal stage
- produces female hormones
- one egg (ovum) is generally released each month
ovaries take turns to release the egg but not neccessarilt alternate
oviduct: (fertilisation)
- muscular tube leading from ovaries to uterus and transports the mature ovum released
from the ovary once every month
- fertilisation occurs here; where the sperm meets anf fuses with the mature ovum
uterus: (implantation)
- where foetus develops during pregnancy
- inner lining is spongy and filled with blood capillaries -> endometrium for embryo
implantation
cervix:
- ring of muscles dilates to allow passage of baby during birth
vagina:
- where semen is deposited during sexual intercourse
● menstrual cycle
menstruation (day 1-5):
takes place when there is no fertilisation the previous cycle
- thick uterine wall supplied with blood capillaries will breakdown together with unfertilised
ovum
- discharged out of female’s body through vagina
rhythm method avoiding sexual intercourse during the fertile period of the
woman’s menstrual cycle
condom thin rubber tube used to cover the erect penis before sexual
intercourse
intra-uterine device piece of plastic or metal (copper) that is inserted into the uterus by a
doctor.
disrupts the function of the uterus prevents the embryo from being
implanted on the uterine lining
contraceptive pills contain certain female sex hormones which prevent ovulation.
disrupts the function of the ovary and prevents it from releasing a
mature egg every month.
permanent:
conduction
- flow of heat through matter from places of higher region to places of lower region
temperature without movement of the matter as a whole.
- poor COH: air, water
- good COH: metals
- affected by
● cross-section area
● length or thickness
● temperature difference between both ends
● material
- in metals and non-metals: have large number of ‘free’ electrons. when part of the metal
is heated, the electrons move faster and farther
radiation
eg. heat from the sun
- radiation can occur in a vacuum
- has all the properties of electromagnetic waves. when it falls on an object, it is partly
reflected, partly transmitted and partly absorbed, the absorbed part raises the
temperature of the object
- affected by
● colour and texture of surface
● surface temp
● surface area
optics
● laws
- incident ray, reflected ray and normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane
- angle of incidence = angle of reflection
● rays
- divergent
- convergent
- parallel
● refraction
- less dense to more dense -> light ray slows down and move towards the normal
- more dense to less dense -> light ray speeds up and bend away from the normal
electrical system
● voltage (V) = current (A) x resistance (Ω)
● power (W) = current (A) x voltage (V)
● kilowatt-hour (kWh) = kilowatt (kW) x hour (h)