APPAREL ART

Wearable art, also known as Art wear or "art to wear", refers to individually designed pieces
of (usually) handmade clothing or jewellery created as fine or expressive art. While the
making of any article of clothing or other wearable object typically involves aesthetic
considerations, the term wearable art implies that the work is intended to be accepted as a
serious and unique artistic creation or statement. Pieces may be sold and/or exhibited. The
modern idea of wearable art seems to have surfaced more than once in various forms.

Most wearable art is made of fibrous materials and constitutes therefore a branch of the wider
field of fiber art, which includes both wearable and non-wearable forms of art using fabric
and other fiber products. Wearable art as an artistic domain can also include jewellery, or
clothing made from non-fiber materials such as leather, plastic sheeting, metals, etc.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS

1. All pines to pine fabric pieces together

2. Pin Cushion or Pin holder to keep needles and pins in place.

3. Push pins to hold paper in place.

4. Scissors - large for fabric, another for paper and a small for clipping threads.

5. Seam ripper for opening any seams or stitches.

6. Grading scale to mark lines.

7. Measuring Tape for taking measurements

8. Pencil, eraser, pencil sharpener, plastic ruler

9. Pinking shears for finishing the raw edges of fabric

10. Papers - plain paper, tracing paper, brown paper, graph paper.

11. Masking tape to keep fabric in place.

12. Plastic sheet for making templates.

13. Permanent pen to write on the templates

14. Coloured pencils to make rough layouts

15. Bot to keep things

16. Steam iron to iron out wrinkles.

17. Awl to make holes in paper

18. Cutter for cutting paper

19. Tailors chalk for marking on fabric

20. Tracing paper for tracing

21. Tracing wheel for transferring the markings

 22. Notcher to mark a paper

23. Styling tape for marking on dress form

STUDY OF EMBROIDERY AND BASIC STITCHES

Embroidery is the handicraft of decorating fabric or other materials using a needle to

apply thread or yarn.

Embroidery may also incorporate other materials such as pearls, beads, quills, and sequins. In

modern days, embroidery is usually seen on caps, hats, coats, blankets, dress shirts, denim,
dresses, stockings, and golf shirts. Embroidery is available with a wide variety of thread or
yarn color.

Some of the basic techniques or stitches of the earliest embroidery are chain

stitch, buttonhole or blanket stitch, running stitch, satin stitch, cross stitch. Those stitches
remain the fundamental techniques of hand embroidery today.

CLASSIFICATION

Embroidery can be classified according to what degree the design takes into account the
nature of the base material and by the relationship of stitch placement to the fabric. The main
categories are free or surface embroidery, counted embroidery, and needlepoint or canvas
work.
In free or surface embroidery, designs are applied without regard to the weave of the
underlying fabric. Examples include crewel and traditional Chinese and Japanese embroidery

Counted-thread embroidery patterns are created by making stitches over a predetermined

number of threads in the foundation fabric. Counted-thread embroidery is more easily worked
on an even-weave foundation fabric such as embroidery canvas, aida cloth, or specially
woven cotton and linen fabrics. Examples include cross-stitch and some forms of black work
embroidery.

While similar to counted thread in regards to technique, in canvas work or needlepoint,

threads are stitched through a fabric mesh to create a dense pattern that completely covers the
foundation fabric. Examples of canvas work include bargello and Berlin wool work.

Embroidery can also be classified by the similarity of appearance. In drawn thread

work and cutwork, the foundation fabric is deformed or cut away to create holes that are then
embellished with embroidery, often with thread in the same color as the foundation fabric.
When created with white thread on white linen or cotton, this work is collectively referred to
as white work. However, white work can either be counted or free. Hardanger embroidery is
counted embroidery and the designs are often geometric. Conversely, styles such as Broderie
anglaise are similar to free embroidery, with floral or abstract designs that are not dependent
on the weave of the fabric.

MATERIALS

The fabrics and yarns used in traditional embroidery vary from place to place. Wool, linen,
and silk have been in use for thousands of years for both fabric and yarn. Today, embroidery
thread is manufactured in cotton, rayon, and novelty yarns as well as in traditional wool,
linen, and silk. Ribbon embroidery uses narrow ribbon in silk or silk/organza blend ribbon,
most commonly to create floral motifs

BASIC STITCHES
The Back Stitch is a basic embroidery and sewing stitch used to produce a thin line of stitching,
to outline shapes that will be filled with satin stitch, or to stitch fabric pieces together.

1. RUNNING STITCH

The running stitch is good for outlining an embroidery design and is a very quick stitch to do.
There are two ways to do the running stitch: the first method is similar to hand sewing and
can be completed by pushing the needle and floss in and over the fabric in one continuous
motion; the second method can be literally pushing the needle through the fabric and pulling
it back up. I have heard this called the “punch and poke” or “stabbing” method.

2. BACKSTITCH
Unlike the running stitch, the backstitch creates a solid line and is good for hand
embroidering text or outlining a design. Begin by pulling the needle and floss up through the
fabric and do one stitch forward. From underneath, space the needle out the length of your
desired stitch, pull up through the fabric, and bring the needle and floss back down through
the end of the previous stitch.

3. SPLIT STITCH

Similar to the backstitch, the split stitch creates a solid line with an added texture to it. This
stitch is appropriate for text and outline as well, but it also works to fill designs and create
variation from the running or backstitch. To begin, pull your needle and floss up through the
fabric and create one straight stitch. Your needle and floss should be on the underside of your
hoop. Bring the needle up through the center of the stitch you just created and stitch forward
the same length as your initial stitch. Repeat by bringing the needle up through the center of
each stitch.
4. STEM STITCH

The stem stitch got its name from being the common stitch used for the stems of flowers or
vines. I like to use this stitch for text because it can curve nicely with letters. Similar to the
split stitch, you create one straight stitch forward and bring the needle and floss up
underneath the fabric, but instead of going through the center of this initial stitch, you will
bring the needle up just to the side of the stitch.

5. SATIN STITCH
A good filler stitch, the satin stitch creates a smooth appearance. I like to use this stitch to fill
in hearts or the leaves of flowers. Take your needle and floss and create one stitch. Bring the
needle up again just next to the opposite side of the initial stitch. Keep the stitches close to
one another, as required to fill the pattern or design you are working with.  

6. FRENCH KNOTS
This is a favorite decorative stitch for almost everyone that I know. French Knots can be used
to accent designs or create fun fillers for most designs. You’ll have to use two hands to create
the French Knot by bringing the needle and floss up through the fabric and wrapping the floss
around the needle twice. Hold the end of the floss taut and bring the needle down just next to
the space where it came out through. Keep holding the floss taut as you pull the needle
through. You can vary the size of your French knots by wrapping the floss around the needle
anywhere between one and three times.

7. CHAIN STITCH
Take your needle and floss and create a stitch, but before you pull the floss all the way
through the fabric, allow it to form a loop. Bring the needle up through that loop in order to
tether it from being pulled all the way through the fabric and pull. Place the needle either
directly in the hole you just stitched, or close to it, and pull through creating another loop by
not pulling the floss completely through the fabric. Pull the needle up through the loop to
tether it and pull. Repeat the steps to continue the chain. When you reach the end of the
chain, simply create a small stitch over the loop.
8. LAZY DAISY

This is a version of the chain stitch often referred to as the “detached chain stitch” or “lazy
daisy.” Instead of continuing the chain, there is a small stitch made just over the end of the
loop to create what looks like a daisy petal. Just like the chain stitch, take your needle and
floss and create a stitch, but before you pull the floss all the way through the fabric, allow it
to form a loop. Bring the needle up through that loop in order to tether it from being pulled all
the way through the fabric and create a small stitch over the top of the loop. Space out the
next loop or use the stitch to create a daisy.  
9. FEATHER STITCH

Another variation of a chain stitch is the feather stitch. This stitch looks great as a frame or
border to an embroidered piece. Similar to the chain stitch, you will use the second stitch to
anchor the loop of the previous stitch, but this stitch covers more space. Bring the needle and
floss up through the fabric and create a straight stitch, but don’t pull the floss all the way
through. Allow a loop to form and bring the needle up through that loop. Space the next stitch
over in the opposite direction from the previous stitch. Create another loop by not allowing
the floss to go completely through the fabric. Pull the needle up through the loop and repeat
on the opposite side.
10. SEED STITCH

This is a good filler stitch. Depending how close or far you space out your seed stitch, you
can create a wide fill or layers of floss that appear to have dimension. Imagine tossing the
contents of a seed packet into the air and watching the seeds fall randomly on the ground.
That same concept applies here. Bring the needle and floss up through the fabric and create a
straight stitch. Bring the needle and floss up through the fabric again in a different angle.
Continue until you have a filled area.

STUDY OF PAINTING TECHNIQUES

STUDY OF REGIONAL EMBROIDERY

1. Chikankari
From the land of Tehzeeb and Nazaquat, Lucknow, Chikankari is a delicate and intricate
embroidery style that is believed to have been introduced by Nur Jehan, the wife of Mughal
emperor Jahangir. While the art flourished under the patronage of the Mughals, references to
the art have been found as early as the 3rd century BC with Megasthenes mentioning the use
of flowered muslins by Indians. A chikan piece is created by block printing patterns on it.
Craftsmen then embroider stitches along the pattern, and the finished piece is later washed to
remove traces of the prints. Traditionally, Chikankari began as a type of white-on-white
embroidery, but today the craft uses a variety of fabrics and colours. From white thread
embroidered on soothing pastels to coloured silk threads, Chikankari has evolved into an art
for those with a taste for the finer things.

2. Kantha

One of the traditional embroidery styles practised in Bengal and Odisha, Kantha work is
known for its simplicity. Traditionally practised by rural women, Kantha was done on soft
dhotis and sarees, with a simple running stitch along the edges. Interestingly, the thread used
to do that was drawn from the border threads of the used cloth. Characterised by motifs of
birds, animals, flowers and everyday activities in a running stitch format with short gaps, the
Kantha embroidery today adorns sarees, dress materials, bed covers, wall hangings,
upholstery and a lot more.

3. Phulkari

If not as famous as sarson da saag and makke di roti, Punjab’s Phulkari is definitely the

second most famous thing that comes to the mind when you think of this state. As the name
suggests, Phulkari is the embroidery of flower motifs on fabric. Traditionally practised by
women of the house as a pastime, this embroidery is quite a unique one. The stitches are
embroidered on the reverse of the cloth so that the design takes shape in the front. The fabric
used is usually a hand-spun or natural-dyed khadi cloth. The contrast of bright colours on a
lighter coloured fabric is what makes this embroidery stand out.

4. Zardozi
An ancient art of sewing gold and silver threads on a fabric, Zardozi comes from the land of
Persia. An embroidery that was once used to embellish royal garments, the art flourished in
the 17th century during the rule of Mughal emperor Akbar. Original Zardozi work used gold
and silver threads as well as pearls and precious stones, and the choice of fabrics too had to
be royal. Hence, plush velvets and rich silks complemented this rich embroidery. However,
today’s Zardozi work uses a combination of copper wire with silver or golden polish and silk
threads. But that hasn’t taken away from the royal feel of the craft, as Zardozi lehengas and
sarees are every Indian bride’s favourite!

.
5. Rajasthani patchwork

Amidst a sea of sand and never-ending arid land, the Rajasthani people, with their bright
colourful clothes stand out like a green oasis. Besides a host of sophisticated arts and crafts
this state is famous for, the rustic charm of Rajasthani patchwork never fails to impress. It’s a
basic craft that stitches together small pieces of cloth in a decorative pattern to form the
topmost layer of the piece with layers of cloth padding underneath. And voila! You have a
treat for the eyes.

6. Kashidakari

Kashidakari, more popularly known as Kashmiri embroidery, evolved under the patronage of
Persian and Mughal rulers. While not much is known about the origins of this craft, legend
has it that a Persian sufi saint brought the skill to Kashmir. What started as a skilled craft,
soon became a source of domestic employment as farming in the harsh winters was not
possible. Inspired by the scenic locales of Kashmir, Kashidakari draws heavily from the flora
of the state. However, human and animal figures are not a part of this style of embroidery. A
unique feature of Kashidakari is the Kashmiri tea pot. Known for its simple chain stitches,
this embroidery done mostly on silk and wool is a global rage.

7. Aari
One of the most famous forms of Kashmiri embroidery that deserves a special mention is
Aari. Aari embroidery, also known as crewel work, is a speciality of Kashmiri artisans.
Created in fine, concentric rings of chain stitch using a long hooked needle called the crewel,
it is a form of very fine embroidery that involves elaborate and intricate floral motifs
favoured by the royals.

8. Mirror work

Mirror work, also known as shisha, is a popular craft from Gujarat and Rajasthan. The
Mughal Empire saw the first forms of this art in the 17th century. Available in three types
(hand blown shisha, machine cut shisha and shisha embroidery), this craft stands out because
of its use of mirrors and colourful threads. This embroidery is created by using small pieces
of mirrors of various shapes and sizes, stitched in between colourful embroidery. While
clothes embellished with mirror work are must-haves for Navratri festivities, this type of
work also adorns bags, accessories, decorative pieces and home decor.

PATTERN DEVELOPMENT& ITS ORIGIN

Pattern Designing is an extensive subject that covers principles of constructions and

techniques in a wider perspective rather than style details. It opens opportunities for creating
infinite styles. Pattern construction can be divided in two parts:
i) Measuring correctly
ii) Knowledge of technique with which they are applied.

Learning pattern-making by trial and error is like learning to play music by ear. The earlier
methods of pattern making generally used shapes by copying and reconstructing them.
Several systems of pattern constructions were devised in the early days of tailoring, long
before clothing industry came in existence. They served the needs of a busy tailor who
generally required a guide for drafting garments directly on to the cloth. As each garment was
cut individually to varying measurements, pattern drafting had to be simple and speedy in
operation. Since speed was an important factor, systems were devised to include necessary
seam allowances. The system now used for pattern development is called Block Method
where seam allowances are calculated at the time of cutting the final pattern. The human form
comprises complex geometric shapes and presents problems in pattern construction. The
accuracy of any cutting system depends largely on relevant and correct measurements. On the
other hand, Proportionate Systems seem to offer a ready solution to the problem of unreliable
or incorrect measurements. The Proportionate Systems work on the principles that the whole
body is divided into eight heads and the girth measurements are in proportion to each other.
Pattern makers generally tried to find an ideal system and did not realize that a system laid
down by one method may not fully satisfy the needs of another human figure since no two
human forms can be identical. Pattern construction systems are largely dependent and
influenced by the particular fashion of their period. Seam placement and suppression are an
integral part of a draft wherein design cannot be altered without disturbing the garment
balance. However experienced pattern makers invariably took the precaution of adding
sufficient inlays or allowance in the main seam of garment as a safeguard against error of
judgment.

Due to unreliability of cutting systems, many pattern designers started draping their patterns
on a dress form. A skillful designer can achieve good results but this method is inefficient
and time-consuming for the ready to wear market. The modern methods base their
foundations on principles of draping in the two-dimension form balance. Balance is the
underlying objective while manipulating pattern balance is a vertical relationship between the
front and back. If the balance of a pattern is faulty it means that accuracy of all vertical
measurements is lost.

There were just 18 pattern cutting books including that of Alcega published from the 16th
century to the 19th century in Europe. This can be attributed largely to lack of literacy and
numeracy prevalent amongst pattern makers, tailors and dress makers at that time.
Traditionally the skills were passed to the apprentices through demonstration and verbal
instructions.

INTRODUCTION TO TEXTILES
Textile is a type of material composed of natural or synthetic fibres. Types of textiles include
animal-based material such as wool or silk, plant-based material such as linen and cotton, and
synthetic material such as polyester and rayon. Textiles are often associated with the
production of clothing.

What are Textiles?

The word "textile" was originally used to define a woven fabric and the processes involved in
weaving. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres or Yarns.  Yarn is produced
by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, or other material to produce long strands.
Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or pressing fibres together
(felt).

The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered
almost beyond recognition by industrialization and the introduction of modern manufacturing
techniques.

SOURCES AND TYPES

Textiles can be made from many materials. These materials come from four main sources:
animal (wool, silk), plant (cotton, flax, jute), mineral (asbestos, glass fibre), and synthetic
(nylon, polyester, acrylic). In the past, all textiles were made from natural fibres, including
plant, animal, and mineral sources. In the 20th century, these were supplemented by artificial
fibres made from petroleum.

Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer to
the sturdiest canvas. Microfibre refers to fibres made of strands thinner than one denier.

Animal textiles

Animal textiles are commonly made from hair, fur, skin or silk (in the silkworms case).

Wool refers to the hair of the domestic goat or sheep, which is distinguished from other types
of animal hair in that the individual strands are coated with scales and tightly crimped, and
the wool as a whole is coated with a wax mixture known as lanolin (sometimes called wool
grease), which is waterproof and dirtproof. Woollen refers to a bulkier yarn produced from
carded, non-parallel fibre, while worsted refers to a finer yarn spun from longer fibres which
have been combed to be parallel. Wool is commonly used for warm clothing. Cashmere, the
hair of the Indian cashmere goat, and mohair, the hair of the North African angora goat, are
types of wool known for their softness.

Other animal textiles which are made from hair or fur are alpaca wool, vicuña wool, llama
wool, and camel hair, generally used in the production of coats, jackets, ponchos, blankets,
and other warm coverings. Angora refers to the long, thick, soft hair of the angora
rabbit. Qiviut is the fine inner wool of the muskox.

Wadmal is a coarse cloth made of wool, produced in Scandinavia, mostly 1000~1500 CE.

Silk is an animal textile made from the fibres of the cocoon of the Chinese silkworm which is
spun into a smooth fabric prized for its softness. There are two main types of the silk:
'mulberry silk' produced by the Bombyx Mori, and 'wild silk' such as Tussah silk. Silkworm
larvae produce the first type if cultivated in habitats with fresh mulberry leaves for
consumption, while Tussah silk is produced by silkworms feeding purely on oak leaves.
Around four-fifths of the world's silk production consists of cultivated silk.

Plant textiles

Grass, rush, hemp, and sisal are all used in making rope. In the first two, the entire plant is
used for this purpose, while in the last two, only fibres from the plant are
utilized. Coir (coconut fibre) is used in making twine, and also in
floormats, doormats, brushes, mattresses, floor tiles, and sacking.

Straw and bamboo are both used to make hats. Straw, a dried form of grass, is also used for
stuffing, as is kapok.

Fibres from pulpwood trees, cotton, rice, hemp, and nettle are used in making paper.

Cotton, flax, jute, hemp, modal and even bamboo fibre are all used in
clothing. Piña (pineapple fibre) and ramie are also fibres used in clothing, generally with a
blend of other fibres such as cotton. Nettles have also been used to make a fibre and fabric
very similar to hemp or flax. The use of milkweed stalk fibre has also been reported, but it
tends to be somewhat weaker than other fibres like hemp or flax.

The inner bark of the lacebark tree is a fine netting that has been used to make clothing and
accessories as well as utilitarian articles such as rope.
Acetate is used to increase the shininess of certain fabrics such as silks, velvets, and taffetas.

Seaweed is used in the production of textiles: a water-soluble fibre known as alginate is

produced and is used as a holding fibre; when the cloth is finished, the alginate is dissolved,
leaving an open area.

Lyocell is a synthetic fabric derived from wood pulp. It is often described as a synthetic silk
equivalent; it is a tough fabric that is often blended with other fabrics – cotton, for example.

Fibres from the stalks of plants, such as hemp, flax, and nettles, are also known as 'bast'
fibres.

Mineral textiles

Asbestos and basalt fibre are used for vinyl tiles, sheeting and adhesives, "transite" panels
and siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and fire blankets.

Glass fibre is used in the production of ironing board and mattress covers, ropes and cables,
reinforcement fibre for composite materials, insect netting, flame-retardant and protective
fabric, soundproof, fireproof, and insulating fibres. Glass fibres are woven and coated
with Teflon to produce beta cloth, a virtually fireproof fabric which replaced nylon in the
outer layer of United States space suits since 1968.

Metal fibre, metal foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the production
of cloth-of-gold and jewellery. Hardware cloth (US term only) is a coarse woven mesh of
steel wire, used in construction. It is much like standard window screening, but heavier and
with a more open weave. It is sometimes used together with screening on the lower part of
screen doors, to resist scratching by dogs. It serves similar purposes as chicken wire, such
as fences for poultry and traps for animal control.

Synthetic textiles

All synthetic textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing. Polyester fibre is used
in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibres such as cotton.

Aramid fibre (e.g. Twaron) is used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armour.

Acrylic is a fibre used to imitate wools, [13] including cashmere, and is often used in
replacement of them.
Nylon is a fibre used to imitate silk; it is used in the production of pantyhose. Thicker nylon
fibres are used in rope and outdoor clothing.

Spandex (trade name Lycra) is a polyurethane product that can be made tight-fitting without

impeding movement. It is used to make active wear, bras, and swimsuits.

Olefin fibre is a fibre used in active wear, linings, and warm clothing. Olefins are
hydrophobic, allowing them to dry quickly. A sintered felt of olefin fibres is sold under the
trade name Tyvek.

Ingeo is a polylactide fibre blended with other fibres such as cotton and used in clothing. It is
more hydrophilic than most other synthetics, allowing it to wick away perspiration.

Lurex is a metallic fibre used in clothing embellishment.

Milk proteins have also been used to create synthetic fabric. Milk or casein fibre cloth was
developed during World War I in Germany, and further developed in Italy and America
during the 1930s. Milk fibre fabric is not very durable and wrinkles easily, but has a pH
similar to human skin and possesses anti-bacterial properties. It is marketed as
a biodegradable, renewable synthetic fibre.

Carbon fibre is mostly used in composite materials, together with resin, such as carbon fibre
reinforced plastic. The fibres are made from polymer fibres through carbonization.

FIBRES AND FABRICS

Fibres are the basic components of textile fabrics. Each has a unique characteristic that it
lends to the fabrics made from it. Although fabric's character can be altered by yarn structure,
by the type of weave and also by the finish that is given to the fabric, the original personality
is still evident in the final fabric and is important to its uses and its care.
Before this century all the fabrics were made from natural sources. In recent years a plethora
of new fabrics have come into the market, which are products of chemical laboratories or, in
other words are man- made. There is a variety of fabrics available in the market; these can be
broadly divided into three major categories

Categories
i) Natural
ii) Man made
iii) Blends of natural and man made

Natural fabrics are further categorized into fabrics that are procured from animals and those,
which originate from plants. The commonly available and used animal fabrics are silk, wool,
fur, leather etc. However, some experts do not include fur and leather in textile fabrics
technically, as they are skins of animals. On the other hand, some do include them, as they
are widely used as an alternative to textile fabrics both for garments and household products.
The most commonly available and used plant fabrics are cotton and linen.

Characteristics

Natural fibres have the irregularities and sensitivity inherent in natural things. These
contribute to the beauty of natural fabrics.

Advantages: These fibres, due to their natural character, have common qualities of being
absorbent and breathe due to the porous structure. Thus, they are more responsive to climatic
changes in temperature and humidity and are hence more comfortable to wear under a variety
of climatic conditions.

The disadvantage of natural fabrics, especially for cotton and linen, which is also an inherent
quality, is that due to less elasticity they tend to wrinkle. This is also being overcome with a
variety of wrinkle-resistant finishes, though at the cost of some comfort.

Mercerized cotton is a common example of wrinkle-resistant finish without the application of

chemicals, where cotton fibre is spun at very high tension to produce sheen in the yarn and
make it more supple thus making it wrinkle-resistant.

Synthetic fabrics have their beginnings in chemical solutions that are forced through tiny
holes into chemical bath or air chamber; these harden into long ropes of fibres that are later
woven into fabrics.

Advantages: All synthetic fibres are elastic hence they are wrinkle-resistant.
Disadvantage: On the other hand almost all manmade fibres are less porous hence they are
uncomfortable in hot and humid weather.

Certain synthetics like Nylon are thermoplastic and hence can be moulded at controlled
temperature and pressure to create interesting textures and design variations; they are called
heat-set designs. An all time favourite of this design is heat set pleats. Japanese designers
have explored a lot in this technique and have mastered the art of heat set pleating. This
pleating can be done at any stage in fabric production at fibre stage, yarn stage or on the final
fabric.

Blended Fabrics are combinations of two or more different fabrics. Usually the fibre present
in higher percentage dominates the characteristics of the final fabric, but a successful blend
will have desirable qualities of all fabrics. One such successful and popular fabric is Terry
cot® which is a blend of 65% Cotton and 35% Terylene. A common problem with the
synthetics is the large number of terms used to identify them. For example, Acrylic may be
called Orlon® &Acrilan® as they are the registered trademarks of some companies which
generally confuse the consumers. In India, the consumer generally recognises the fabrics by
the trade names or the common group terms by which a shopkeeper might be referring to
them. Another problem is the fact of the common consumer being misled by shopkeepers
selling polyester blended silk as Khadi silk and claiming it to be pure silk. The consumer,
therefore, needs to learn to identify commonly used fabrics, as most fabrics cannot be
identified by their appearance alone. The information on the fabric bolt can be read, as it is
compulsory for the manufacturer to print it on the fabric

TEXTILE PRINTING 

Textile printing is the process of applying colour to fabric in definite patterns or designs. In

properly printed fabrics the colour is bonded with the fibre, so as to
resist washing and friction. Textile printing is related to dyeing but in dyeing properly the
whole fabric is uniformly covered with one colour, whereas in printing one or more colours
are applied to it in certain parts only, and in sharply defined patterns.
In printing, wooden blocks, stencils, engraved plates, rollers, or silk-screens can be used to
place colours on the fabric. Colorants’ used in printing contain dyes thickened to prevent the
colour from spreading by capillary attraction beyond the limits of the pattern or design.

METHODS

Traditional textile printing techniques may be broadly categorised into four styles:

 Direct printing, in which colorants containing dyes, thickeners, and the mordants or

substances necessary for fixing the colour on the cloth are printed in the desired pattern.
 The printing of a mordant in the desired pattern prior to dyeing cloth; the color adheres
only where the mordant was printed.
 Resist dyeing, in which a wax or other substance is printed onto fabric which is
subsequently dyed. The waxed areas do not accept the dye, leaving uncoloured patterns
against a coloured ground.
 Discharge printing, in which a bleaching agent is printed onto previously dyed fabrics to
remove some or the entire colour.

Resist and discharge techniques were particularly fashionable in the 19th century, as were
combination techniques in which indigo resist was used to create blue backgrounds prior to
block-printing of other colours.[2] Modern industrial printing mainly uses direct printing
techniques.

The printing process does involve several stages in order to prepare the fabric and printing
paste, and to fix the impression permanently on the fabric:

 pre-treatment of fabric,
 preparation of colours,
 preparation of printing paste,
 impression of paste on fabric using printing methods,
 drying of fabric,
 fixing the printing with steam or hot air (for pigments),
 after process treatments.
i) Preparation of cloth for printing

Cloth is prepared by washing and bleaching. For a coloured ground it is then dyed. The cloth
has always to be brushed, to free it from loose nap, flocks and dust that it picks up whilst
stored. Frequently, too, it has to be sheared by being passed over rapidly revolving knives
arranged spirally round an axle, which rapidly and effectually cuts off all filaments and knots,
leaving the cloth perfectly smooth and clean and in a condition fit to receive impressions of
the most delicate engraving. Some fabrics require very careful stretching and straightening on
a stenter before they are wound around hollow wooden or iron centers into rolls of
convenient size for mounting on the printing machines.

ii) Preparation of colours

The art of making colours for textile printing demands both chemical knowledge and
extensive technical experience, for their ingredients must not only be in proper proportion to
each other, but also specially chosen and compounded for the particular style of work in
hand. A colour must comply to conditions such as shade, quality and fastness; where more
colours are associated in the same design each must be capable of withstanding the various
operations necessary for the development and fixation of the others. All printing pastes
whether containing colouring matter or not are known technically as colours.

Colours vary considerably in composition. Most of them contain all the elements necessary
for direct production and fixation. Some, however, contain the colouring matter alone and
require various after-treatments; and others again are simply thickened mordants. A mordant
is a metallic salt or other substance that combines with the dye to form an insoluble colour,
either directly by steaming, or indirectly by dyeing. All printing colours require thickening to
enable them to be transferred from colour-box to cloth without running or spreading beyond
the limits of the pattern.

iii) Thickening agents

The printing thickeners used depend on the printing technique, the fabric and the particular
dyestuff. Typical thickening agents are starch derivatives, flour, gum arabic, guar gum
derivatives, tamarind, sodium alginate, sodium polyacrylate, gum Senegal and gum
tragacanth, British gum or dextrine and albumen.
Hot-water-soluble thickening agents such as native starch are made into pastes by boiling in
double or jacketed pans. Most thickening agents used today are cold-soluble and require only
extensive stirring.

iv) Starch paste

Starch paste is made from wheat starch, cold water, and olive oil, then thickened by boiling.
Non-modified starch is applicable to all but strongly alkaline or strongly acid colours. With
the former it thickens up to a stiff unworkable jelly. In the case of the latter, while mineral
acids or acid salts convert it into dextrine, thus diminishing its viscosity or thickening power,
organic acids do not have that effect. Today, modified carboxymethylated cold soluble
starches are mainly used. These have a stable viscosity and are easy to rinse out of the fabric
and give reproducible "short" paste rheology.

Flour paste is made in a similar way to starch paste; it is sometimes used to thicken aluminum
and iron mordants. Starch paste resists of rice flour have been used for several centuries in
Japan.

v) Gums

Gum arabic and gum Senegal are both traditional thickenings, but expense prevents them
from being used for any but pale, delicate tints. They are especially useful thickenings for the
light ground colours of soft muslins and sateens on account of the property they possess of
dissolving completely out of the fibres of the cloth in the post-printing washing process, and
they have a long flowing, viscous rheology, giving sharp print and good penetration in the
cloth. Today guar gum and tamarind derivates offer a cheaper alternative.

British gum or dextrin is prepared by heating starch. It varies considerably in composition,

sometimes being only slightly roasted and consequently only partly converted into dextrine,
and at other times being highly torrefied, and almost completely soluble in cold water and
very dark in colour. Its thickening power decreases and its gummy nature increases as the
temperature at which it is roasted is raised. It is useful for strongly acid colours, and with the
exception of gum Senegal, it is the best choice for strongly alkaline colours and discharges.
Like the natural gums, it does not penetrate as well into the fibre of the cloth pr as deeply as
pure starch or flour and is unsuitable for very dark, strong colours.
Gum tragacanth, or Dragon, which may be mixed in any proportion with starch or flour, is
equally useful for pigment colours and mordant colours. When added to a starch paste it
increases its penetrative power and adds to its softness without diminishing its thickness,
making it easier to wash out of the fabric. It produces much more even colours than does
starch paste alone. Used by itself it is suitable for printing all kinds of dark grounds on goods
that are required to retain their soft clothy feel.

Starch always leaves the printed cloth somewhat harsh in feeling (unless modified
carboxymethylated starches are used), but very dark colours can be obtained. Gum Senegal,
gum arabic or modified guar gum thickening yield clearer and more even tints than does
starch, suitable for lighter colours but less suited for very dark colours. (The gums apparently
prevent the colours from combining fully with the fibers.) A printing stock solution is mostly
a combination of modified starch and gum stock solutions.

vi) Albumen

Albumen is both a thickening and a fixing agent for insoluble pigments. Chrome yellow, the
ochres, vermilion and ultramarine are such pigments. Albumen is always dissolved in the
cold, a process that takes several days when large quantities are required. Egg albumen is
expensive and only used for the lightest shades. Blood albumen solution is used in cases
when very dark colours are required to be absolutely fast to washing. After printing, albumen
thickened colours are exposed to hot steam, which coagulates the albumen and effectually
fixes the colours.

vii) Printing paste preparation

Combinations of cold water-soluble carboxymethylated starch, guar gum and tamarind

derivatives are most commonly used today in disperse screen printing on polyester. Alginates
are used for cotton printing with reactive dyes, sodium polyacrylates for pigment printing,
and in the case of vat dyes on cotton only carboxymethylated starch is used. Formerly, colors
were always prepared for printing by boiling the thickening agent, the colouring matter and
solvents, together, then cooling and adding various fixing agents. At the present time,
however, concentrated solutions of the colouring matters and other adjuncts are often simply
added to the cold thickenings, of which large quantities are kept in stock. Colours are reduced
in shade by simply adding more stock (printing) paste. For example, a dark blue containing 4
oz. of methylene blue per gallon may readily be made into a pale shade by adding to it thirty
times its bulk of starch paste or gum, as the case may be. The procedure is similar for other
colours. Before printing it is essential to strain or sieve all colours in order to free them from
lumps, fine sand, and other impurities, which would inevitably damage the highly polished
surface of the engraved rollers and result in bad printing. Every scratch on the surface of a
roller prints a fine line on the cloth, and too much care, therefore, cannot be taken to remove,
as far as possible, all grit and other hard particles from every colour.

Straining is usually done by squeezing the colour through filter cloths like artisanal fine
cotton, silk or industrial woven nylon. Fine sieves can also be employed for colours that are
used hot or are very strongly alkaline or acid.

METHODS OF PRINTING

There are seven distinct methods presently used to impress coloured patterns on cloth:

 Hand block printing

 Perrotine printing
 Engraved copperplate printing
 Roller, cylinder, or machine printing
 Stencil printing
 Screen printing
 Digital textile printing

i) Hand block printing

This process is the earliest, simplest and slowest of all printing methods. A design is drawn
on, or transferred to, prepared wooden blocks. A separate block is required for each distinct
colour in the design. A blockcutter carves out the wood around the heavier masses first,
leaving the finer and more delicate work until the last so as to avoid any risk of injuring it
when the coarser parts are cut. When finished, the block has the appearance of a flat relief
carving, with the design standing out. Fine details, difficult to cut in wood, are built up in
strips of brass or copper, which is bent to shape and driven edgewise into the flat surface of
the block. This method is known as coppering.
The printer applies colour to the block and presses it firmly and steadily on the cloth, striking
it smartly on the back with a wooden mallet. The second impression is made in the same way,
the printer taking care to see that it registers exactly with the first. Pins at each corner of the
block join up exactly, so that the pattern can continue without a break. Each succeeding
impression is made in precisely the same manner until the length of cloth is fully printed. The
cloth is then wound over drying rollers. If the pattern contains several colours the cloth is first
printed throughout with one color, dried, and then printed with the next.

Block printing by hand is a slow process. It is, however, capable of yielding highly artistic
results, some of which are unobtainable by any other method. William Morris used this
technique in some of his fabrics.

ii) Perrotine printing

This process was patented by Bell in 1785, fifteen years after his use of an engraved plate to
print textiles. Bell's patent was for a machine to print six colours at once, but, probably owing
to its incomplete development, it was not immediately successful. One colour could be
printed with satisfactorily; the difficulty was to keep the six rollers in register with each other.
This defect was overcome by Adam Parkinson of Manchester in 1785. That year, Bells
machine with Parkinson's improvement was successfully employed by Messrs Livesey,
Hargreaves and Company of Bamber Bridge, Preston, for the printing of calico in from two
to six colours at a single operation.

Roller printing was highly productive, 10,000 to 12,000 yards being commonly printed in one
day of ten hours by a single-colour machine. It is capable of reproducing every style of
design, ranging from the fine delicate lines of copperplate engraving to the small repeats and
limited colours of the perrotine to the broadest effects of block printing with repeats from 1 in
to 80 inches. It is precise, so each portion of an elaborate multicolour pattern can be fitted
into its proper place without faulty joints at the points of repetition.

iii) Stencil printing

The art of stenciling on textile fabrics has been practised from time immemorial by the
Japanese, and found increasing employment in Europe for certain classes of decorative work
on woven goods during the late 19th century.
A pattern is cut from a sheet of stout paper or thin metal with a sharp-pointed knife, the uncut
portions representing the part that will be left uncoloured. The sheet is laid on the fabric and
colour is brushed through its interstices.

The peculiarity of stenciled patterns is that they have to be held together by ties. For instance,
a complete circle cannot be cut without its centre dropping out, so its outline has to be
interrupted at convenient points by ties or uncut portions. This limitation influences the
design.

For single-colour work a stenciling machine was patented in 1894 by S. H. Sharp. It consists
of an endless stencil plate of thin sheet steel that passes continuously over a revolving cast
iron cylinder. The cloth to be ornamented passes between the two and the colour is forced
onto it through the holes in the stencil by mechanical means.

iv) Screen-printing

Screen printing is by far the most common technology today. Two types exist: rotary screen
printing and flat (bed) screen printing. A blade (squeegee) squeezes the printing paste through
openings in the screen onto the fabric.

v) Digital textile printing

Digital textile printing is often referred to as direct-to-garment printing, DTG printing, or

digital garment printing. It is a process of printing on textiles and garments using specialized
or modified inkjet technology. Inkjet printing on fabric is also possible with an inkjet printer
by using fabric sheets with a removable paper backing. Today, major inkjet technology
manufacturers can offer specialized products designed for direct printing on textiles, not only
for sampling but also for bulk production. Since the early 1990s, inkjet technology and
specially developed water-based ink (known as dye-sublimation or disperse direct ink) have
made it possible to print directly onto polyester fabric. This is mainly related to visual
communication in retail and brand promotion (flags, banners and other point of sales
applications). Printing onto nylon and silk can be done by using an acid ink. Reactive ink is
used for cellulose based fibers such as cotton and linen. Inkjet technology in digital textile
printing allows for single pieces, mid-run production and even long-run alternatives to screen
printed fabric.
vi) Other methods of printing

Although most work is executed throughout by one or another of the seven distinct processes
mentioned above, combinations are frequently employed. Sometimes a pattern is printed
partly by machine and partly by block, and sometimes a cylindrical block is used along with
engraved copper-rollers in an ordinary printing machine. The block in this latter case is in all
respects, except for shape, identical with a flat wood or coppered block, but, instead of being
dipped in colour, it receives its supply from an endless blanket, one part of which works in
contact with colour-furnishing rollers and the other part with the cylindrical block. This block
is known as a surface or peg roller. Many attempts have been made to print multicolour
patterns with surface rollers alone, but hitherto with little success, owing to their irregularity
in action and to the difficulty of preventing them from warping. These defects are not present
in the printing of linoleum in which opaque oil colours are used, colours that neither sink into
the body of the hard linoleum nor tend to warp the roller.

Lithographic printing has been applied to textile fabrics with qualified success. Its irregularity
and the difficulty of registering repeats have restricted its use to the production of decorative
panels, equal or smaller in size to the plate or stone.

Pad printing has been recently introduced to textile printing for the specific purpose of
printing garment tags and care labels.

vii) Calico printing

Goods intended for calico printing are well-bleached; otherwise stains and other serious
defects are certain to arise during subsequent operations.

The chemical preparations used for special styles will be mentioned in their proper places;
but a general prepare, employed for most colours that are developed and fixed by steaming
only, consists in passing the bleached calico through a weak solution of sulphated or turkey
red oil containing 2.5 to 5 percent fatty acid. Some colours are printed on pure bleached
cloth, but all patterns containing alizarine red, rose and salmon shades are considerably
brightened by the presence of oil, and indeed very few, if any, colours are detrimentally
affected by it.
The cloth is always brushed to free it from loose nap, flocks and dust that it picks up whilst
stored. Frequently, too, it has to be sheared by being passed over rapidly revolving knives
arranged spirally round an axle, which rapidly and effectually cuts off all filaments and knots,
leaving the cloth perfectly smooth and clean. It is then stentered, wound onto a beam, and
mounting on the printing machines.

viii) Silk printing

The colours and methods employed are the same as for wool, except that in the case of silk
no preparation of the material is required before printing, and ordinary dry steaming is
preferable to damp steaming.

Both acid and basic dyes play an important role in silk printing, which for the most part is
confined to the production of articles for fashion goods, handkerchiefs, and scarves, all
articles for which bright colours are in demand. Alizarine and other mordant colours are
mainly used for any goods that have to resist repeated washings or prolonged exposure to
light. In this case the silk frequently must be prepared in alizarine oil, after which it is treated
in all respects like cotton, namely steamed, washed and soaped, the colours used being the
same.

Silk is especially adapted to discharge and reserve effects. Most of the acid dyes can be
discharged in the same way as when they are dyed on wool. Reserved effects are produced by
printing mechanical resists, such as waxes and fats, on the cloth and then dyeing it in cold
dye-liquor. The great affinity of the silk fibre for basic and acid dyestuffs enables it to extract
colouring matter from cold solutions and permanently combine with it to form an insoluble
lake. After dyeing, the reserve prints are washed, first in cold water to remove any colour not
fixed onto the fibre, and then in hot water or benzene to dissolve out the resisting bodies.

After steaming, silk goods are normally only washed in hot water, but those printed entirely
in mordant dyes will stand soaping, and indeed require it to brighten the colours and soften
the material.

Some silk dyes do not require heat setting or steaming. They strike instantly, allowing the
designer to dye color upon color. These dyes are intended mostly for silk scarf dyeing. They
also dye bamboo, rayon, linen, and some other natural fabrics like hemp and wool to a lesser
extent, but do not set on cotton.
STAIN REMOVAL 

Stain removal is the process of removing a mark or spot left by one substance on a specific
surface like a fabric. A solvent or detergent is generally used to conduct stain removal and
many of these are available over the counter.

Stain prevention

If a stain has "set", it has become chemically bonded to the material that it has stained, and
cannot be removed without damaging the material itself. It is therefore important to avoid
setting stains that one wants to remove. This can be done by avoiding heat (by not pressing or
ironing the stain), sponging stained materials as quickly as possible, using the correct solvent
(some solvents will act as catalysts on certain substances and cause the stain to set more
quickly), and avoiding rubbing the stain. Stain Removal is possible only due to hydrophilic
end and hydrophobic end present in detergents

Stain removal

Most stains are removed by dissolving them with a solvent. The solvent to use is dependent
on two factors: the agent that is causing the stain, and the material that has been stained.
Different solvents will dissolve different stains, and the application of some solvents is
limited by the fact that they not only dissolve the stain, but also dissolve the material that is
stained as well.

Another factor in stain removal is the fact that stains can sometimes comprise two separate
staining agents, which require separate forms of removal. A machine oil stain could also
contain traces of metal, for example.

Also of concern is the color of the material that is stained. Some stain removal agents will not
only dissolve the stain, but will dissolve the dye that is used to color the material.

BATIK

Batik is a textile art that includes a precise method of applying dye to fabric, usually cotton or
silk. Although used in by many countries, this art of Batik is believed to have originated from
India. The apparels are designed by coating the cloth with wax and then dyeing it. The wax
covered area hold on to their original colors; thus creating a splendid looking contrast
between the dyed and un-dyed regions. This is how the beauty of Batik is bequeathed. The
explicitness and the scope of experimentation in Batik dyeing have lead to the international
appeal among art communities around the world. In India, Shantiniketan in West Bengal and
Chola-Mandal near Chennai are considered to be the main hub and centers for Batik Art.

Batik can be called as a three-step art namely Waxing, Dyeing and Wax Removing,
excluding the finer process like sketching of designs and preparing the cloth. Batik art is
nothing but the reverse of painting. Instead of painting or coloring the fabric the wax is
applied to the area to keep it color free. The fabric is then soaked in dye, to have an even
coloring on all the wax free area. The cloth is boiled after dyeing to remove the wax. It is
then washed in soap water and dried in sun.

Liquid wax is generally prepared by mixing beeswax and paraffin wax in preferred quantity.
The role of beeswax is to hold the cloth together whereas paraffin wax helps in cracking.
Most widely used method of applying wax is by dipping in it whereas the screen printing
method requires a stencil and hand painting requires a Kalamkari pen. 

The designs and patterns used in the clothes are generally handmade paintings and not thread
weaving. It is the usage of colors that set Batik dyed clothes apart from other such arts, one of
the outstanding features of Batik art where artists get the freedom to show their talent and
creativity. The two-tone shade that occurs in the dyed and un-dyed parts of the garments adds
a unique style to the product, making it most spectacular.
Batik dyeing was earlier used only in garments but with new technologies and tastes, it's
usage has been extended to many other fields as well. Today, the exquisite murals, wall
hangings, colorful paintings and household linen also adds to the list of Batik art. 

TECHNIQUE OF BATIK PRINTING PROCESS

The term "Batik" is an Indonesian-Malay word. Batik is a process of decorating cloth by

covering a part of it with a coat of wax and then dyeing the cloth. The waxed areas keep their
original color and when the wax is removed the contrast between the dyed and undyed areas
gives the pattern. One of the significant features of this art is that it is very simple and can be
done by anyone. Colorful batik prints grace the home furnishings with elegance and style.
Beautiful bags, household linens, murals and wall paintings with striking batik works enjoy a
great demand in the domestic and international market. The batik wall hangings accentuate
the walls with their bright colors and motifs. Batik has also made its mark as impressive
textile products. Batik printed kurtis, saris and wrappers are the preferred choices of the
fashion crazy populace.

BATIK TECHNIQUE 

The art of batik is a three-stage process of waxing, dyeing and dewaxing (removing the wax).
There are also several sub-processes like preparing the cloth, tracing the designs, stretching
the cloth on the frame, waxing the area of the cloth that does not need dyeing, preparing the
dye, dipping the cloth in dye, boiling the cloth to remove wax and washing the cloth in soap.
The characteristic effects of the batik are the fine cracks that appears in the wax, which allow
small amounts of the dye to seep in. Batik wax exercises an important function in the process
of batik printing. Proper usage of wax results into an impeccable batik work. 30 per cent
beeswax and 70 per cent paraffin wax are generally applied. During application wax should
not be overheated or it will catch fire. The common batik fabrics that make for excellent batik
prints are cambric, poplin, voiles, and pure silk are used. Natural colors derived from barks of
trees, leaves, flowers and minerals were used.

Today, tjaping with a copper block is also used to meet the demand of the customers.
The Step by Step Process of Making Batik

Step 1

The first wax is applied over the penciled-in outline of the pattern. Almost
always the original cloth is white or beige.

Step 2

The cloth is dyed

in the first dye
bath. In this case
the first dyebath is
indigo blue. The
area of the cloth
where the wax
was applied in
Step 1 will remain
white.
Step 3

Second
application of wax
is applied. In this
case it is a dark
brown color. A
poorer quality of
wax is used to
cover larger areas
of cloth. The
darker color helps
to differentiate it
from the first wax
applied. Any parts
that are covered
with this wax
application will
remain the indigo
color.

Step 4

The cloth is dyed

in the second dye
bath. In this case it
is a navy blue.
Any areas that are
not covered by
wax will become
dark blue.
Step 5

All the wax that

has been applied
thus far is
removed. This is
done by heating
the wax and
scraping it off and
also by applying
hot water and
sponging off the
remaining wax.

Step 6

Wax is applied to
the area of the
fabric that the
artist wishes to
remain the indigo
blue color.
Step 7

Wax is applied to
the area of the
fabric that the
artist wishes to
remain white.

Step 8

The fabric is
submerged in the
final dye bath. In
this case it is
brown. Any areas
of the cloth that
have not been
covered with wax
will become
brown.

Step 9

The finished cloth

after all of the wax
has been removed.
 INTRODUCTION TO SOFT SKILLS AND COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Basic English Grammar Rules

Some of the most basic and important English grammar rules relate directly to sentence
structure. Some of these rules specify that:

 A singular subject needs a singular predicate.

 A sentence needs to express a complete thought.
Another term for a sentence is an independent clause. 

 Clauses, like any sentence, have a subject and predicate too. If a group of words does not
have a subject and predicate, it is a phrase.
 If they can stand alone and make a complete thought, then they are independent and called
sentences.
 If they do not express a complete thought, they are called "dependent clauses." An example
of a dependent clause, which is not a sentence, is “when i finish my work”. 
So, what are the other basic rules for sentence structure?

Subjects and Predicates

Basic to any language is the sentence, which expresses a complete thought and consists of a
subject and a predicate.

 The subject is the star of the sentence; the person, animal, or thing that is the focus of it. 
 The predicate will tell the action that the subject is taking or tell something about the subject.
Basic Parts of Speech

Once you have a general idea of the basic grammar rules for sentence structures, it is also
helpful to learn about the parts of speech:

 A noun names a person, animal, place, thing, quality, idea, activity, or feeling.  A noun can
be singular, plural, or show possession.
 A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun, like: “I”, “you”, or “they.” 
 A verb shows action and can be a main verb or a helping verb, like: “were” or “has.”  Verbs
also indicate tense and sometimes change their form to show past, present, or future tense.
Linking verbs link the subject to the rest of the sentence and examples are: “appear” and
“seem.”  
 An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun. It adds meaning by telling how much, which one,
what kind, or describing it in other ways.
 An adverb will modify a verb and tell more about it, like how much, when, where, why, or
how.
 A preposition shows a relationship between nouns or pronouns. It is often used with a noun to
show location, like: “beside”, “in”, or “on”. It can also show time, direction, motion, manner,
reason, or possession. 
 Conjunctions connect two words, phrases, or clauses, and common ones are: “and”, “but”,
and “or.”
Mention needs to be made about other types of words that are considered by some, but not
all, to be parts of speech.

 One of them is the interjection. It shows emotion and examples are: “yea”, “hurray”, “uh-oh”,
and “alas.”
 Articles are very useful little words that are also sometimes considered to be parts of speech.
The articles are: “a”, “an”, and “the”.  Indefinite articles are “a” and “an” and “the” is a
definite article.   
Punctuation

To fully understand basic grammar rules, you also need to look at punctuation rules. 

 All sentences must start with a capital, or upper case, letter. 

 Titles of people, books, magazines, movies, specific places, etc. are capitalized. 
 Organizations and compass points are capitalized. 
 Every sentence needs a punctuation mark at the end of it. These would include a period,
exclamation mark, or question mark.
 Colons are used to separate a sentence from a list of items, between two sentences when the
second one explains the first, and to introduce a long direct quote.
 Semicolons are used to take the place of a conjunction and are placed before introductory
words like “therefore” or “however.” They are also used to separate a list of things if there
are commas within each unit.   
 There are a lot of rules for commas. The basic ones are commas separate things in a series
and go wherever there is a pause in the sentence. They surround the name of a person being
addressed, separate the day of the month from the year in a date, and separate a town from the
state. 
 Parentheses enclose things that clarify and enclose numbers and letters that are part of a list.
Apostrophes are used in contractions to take the place of one or more letters and to show
possession. An apostrophe and “s” is added if the noun is singular and an apostrophe alone is
added if the noun is plural.

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION: AN INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

The word “communication” derived from the Latin word ‘communicare’ that means to
impart, to participate, to share or to make common. It is a process of exchange of facts, ideas,
opinions and as a means that individual or organization share meaning and understanding
with one another. In other words, it is a transmission and interacting the facts, ideas, opinion,
feeling and attitudes. It is the ability of mankind to communicate across barriers and beyond
boundaries that has ushered the progress of mankind. It is the ability of fostering speedy and
effective communication around the world that has shrunk the world and made
‘globalization’ a reality. Communication had a vital role to play in ensuring that people
belonging to a particular country or a culture or linguistic group interact with and relate to
people belonging to other countries or culture or linguistic group. Communication adds
meaning to human life. It helps to build relationship and fosters love and understanding. It
enriches our knowledge of the universe and makes living worthwhile.

ROLE OF COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS

 The term business communication is used for all messages that we send and receive
for official purpose like running a business, managing an organization, conducting the
formal affairs of a voluntary organization and so on.
 Business communication is marked by formality as against personal and social
communication. The success of any business to a large extent depends on efficient
and effective communication. It takes place among business entities, in market and
market places, within organizations and between various group of employees, owners
and employees, buyers and sellers, service providers and customers, sales persons and
prospects and also between people within the organization and the Business
Communication.
  All such communication impacts business. Done with care, such communication can
promote business interests. Otherwise, it will portray the organization in poor light
and may adversely affect the business interest.
 Communication is the life blood of any organization and its main purpose is to effect
change to influence action. In any organization the main problem is of maintaining
effective communication process. The management problem generally results in poor
communication. Serious mistakes are made because orders are misunderstood. The
basic problem in communication is that the meaning which is actually understood
may not be what the other intended to send. It must be realised that the speaker and
the listener are two separate individuals having their own limitations and number of
things may happen to distort the message that pass between them.
 When people within the organization communicate with each other, it is internal
communication. They do so to work as a team and realise the common goals. It could
be official or unofficial. Modes of internal communication include face-to-face and
written communication. Memos, reports, office order, circular, fax, video
conferencing, meeting etc. are the examples of internal communication.
 When people in the organization communicate with anyone outside the organization it
is called external communication. These people may be clients or customers, dealers
or distributors, media, government, general public etc. are the examples of external
communication.
 Communication is the life blood of the business. No business can develop in the
absence of effective communication system.
 Communication is the mortar that holds an organization together, whatever its
business or its size.
 When people within the organization communicate with each other, it is internal
communication and when people in the organization communicate with anyone
outside the organization it is called external communication. • Ability to work well in
teams, to manage your subordinates and your relationship with seniors, customers and
colleagues depends on your communication skill.

PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION
1. For instruction: The instructive function unvarying and importantly deals with the
commanding nature. It is more or less of directive nature. Under this, the communicator
transmits with necessary directives and guidance to the next level, so as to enable them to
accomplish his particular tasks. In this, instructions basically flow from top to the lower level.

2. For integration: It is consolidated function under which integration of activities is

endeavoured. The integration function of communication mainly involves to bring about
inter-relationship among the various functions of the business organization. It helps in the
unification of different management functions.

3. For information: The purposes or function of communication in an organization is to

inform the individual or group about the particular task or company policies and procedures
etc. Top management informs policies to the lower level through the middle level. In turn, the
lower level informs the top level the reaction through the middle level. Information can flow
vertically, horizontally and diagonally across the organization. Becoming informed or inform
others is the main purpose of communication.

4. For evaluation: Examination of activities to form an idea or judgement of the worth of task
is achieved through communication. Communication is a tool to appraise the individual or
team, their contribution to the organization. Evaluating one’s own inputs or other’s outputs or
some ideological scheme demands an adequate and effective communication process.

5. For direction: Communication is necessary to issue directions by the top management or

manager to the lower level. Employee can perform better when he is directed by his senior.
Directing others may be communicated either orally or in writing. An order may be common
order, request order or implied order.

6. For teaching: The importance of personal safety on the job has been greatly recognized. A
complete communication process is required to teach and educate workers about personal
safety on the jobs. This communication helps the workers to avert accidents, risk etc. and
avoid cost, procedures etc.

7. For influencing: A complete communication process is necessary in influencing others or

being influenced. The individual having potential to influence others can easily persuade
others. It implies the provision of feedback which tells the effect of communication.
8. For image building: A business enterprise cannot isolate from the rest of the society. There
is interrelationship and interdependence between the society and an enterprise operating in
the society. Goodwill and confidence are necessarily created among the public. It can be done
by the communication with the different media, which has to project the image of the firm in
the society. Through an effective external communication system, an enterprise has to inform
the society about its goals, activities, progress and social responsibility.

9. For employees orientation: When a new employee enter into the organization at that time
he or she will be unknown to the organization programs, policies, culture etc. Communication
helps to make people acquainted with the co-employees, superior and with the policies,
objectives, rules and regulations of the organization.

Other: Effective decision-making is possible when required and adequate information is

supplied to the decision-maker. Effective communication helps the process of
decisionmaking. In general, everyone in the organization has to provide with necessary
information so as to enable to discharge tasks effectively and efficiently.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Communication can be categorized into three basic types: (1) verbal communication, in
which you listen to a person to understand their meaning; (2) written communication, in
which you read their meaning; and (3) nonverbal communication, in which you observe a
person and infer meaning. Each has its own advantages, disadvantages, and even pitfalls.

i) Verbal Communication

Verbal communications in business take place over the phone or in person. The medium of
the Message is oral.

ii) Written Communication

In contrast to verbal communications, written business communications are printed messages.

Examples of written communications include memos, proposals, e-mails, letters, training
manuals, and operating policies. They may be printed on paper, handwritten, or appear on the
screen. Normally, a verbal communication takes place in real time. Written communication,
by contrast, can be constructed over a longer period of time.

iii) Nonverbal Communication

What you say is a vital part of any communication. But what you don’t say can be even more
important. Research also shows that 55% of in-person communication comes from nonverbal
cues like facial expressions, body stance, and tone of voice.

Here are a few examples of nonverbal cues that can support or detract from a Sender’s
Message.

Body Language

A simple rule of thumb is that simplicity, directness, and warmth convey sincerity. And
sincerity is key to effective communication. A firm handshake, given with a warm, dry hand,
is a great way to establish trust. A weak, clammy handshake conveys a lack of
trustworthiness. Gnawing one’s lip conveys uncertainty. A direct smile conveys confidence.

Eye Contact

In business, the style and duration of eye contact considered appropriate vary greatly across
cultures. In the United States, looking someone in the eye (for about a second) is considered a
sign of trustworthiness.

Facial Expressions

The human face can produce thousands of different expressions. These expressions have been
decoded by experts as corresponding to hundreds of different emotional states (Ekman, et. al.,
2008). Our faces convey basic information to the outside world. Happiness is associated with
an upturned mouth and slightly closed eyes; fear with an open mouth and wide-eyed stare.
Flitting (“shifty”) eyes and pursed lips convey a lack of trustworthiness. The effect of facial
expressions in conversation is instantaneous. Our brains may register them as “a feeling”
about someone’s character.
Posture

The position of our body relative to a chair or another person is another powerful silent
messenger that conveys interest, aloofness, professionalism—or lack thereof. Head up, back
straight (but not rigid) implies an upright character. In interview situations, experts advise
mirroring an interviewer’s tendency to lean in and settle back in her seat. The subtle
repetition of the other person’s posture conveys that we are listening and responding.

Touch

The meaning of a simple touch differs between individuals, genders, and cultures. In Mexico,
when doing business, men may find themselves being grasped on the arm by another man. To
pull away is seen as rude. In Indonesia, to touch anyone on the head or touch anything with
one’s foot is considered highly offensive. In the Far East, according to business etiquette
writer Nazir Daud, “it is considered impolite for a woman to shake a man’s hand (Daud,
2008).” Americans, as we have noted, place great value in a firm handshake. But
handshaking as a competitive sport (“the bone-crusher”) can come off as needlessly
aggressive, at home and abroad.

Space

Anthropologist Edward T. Hall coined the term proxemics to denote the different kinds of
distance that occur between people. These distances vary between cultures. The figure below
outlines the basic proxemics of everyday life and their meaning (Hall, 1966):

Standing too far away from a colleague (such as a public speaking distance of more than
seven feet) or too close to a colleague (intimate distance for embracing) can thwart an
effective verbal communication in business.

AIDS TO CORRECT BUSINESS WRITING

Aids to Correct Business Writing Guidelines for Choice of Words Communication becomes
effective when the receiver of the message is able to decode it. This can be possible only
when the message is encoded in words and symbols which are familiar to both the sender and
the receiver.

A few guideline regarding the choice of words are given below:

a. Use Familiar Words:

This is the first golden rule of clear writing. Always use simple and familiar words
in place of difficult and unfamiliar ones. The easier and more familiar the words,
the better the understanding of the familiar words e.g. Simple and familiar (Use
them) Pompous (Avoid them)

b. Use Single Words in Place of Circumlocution: Sometime people use more words
than are needed resulting in writing in a roundabout manner (Circumlocution).
Single Words(Use them) Long phrases (Avoid them) if at the event time now at
the present time always at all time
c. Use Concrete Words: It is advisable to use exact or specific words in place of
abstract one. Concrete words(Use them) Abstract words (Avoid them) Managing
Director administration Chair furniture 4. Use Short Words in place of Long
Expressions: Short words are preferable to long and trite words. Short words make
the message concise and easy to understand. Short Words(Use them) Long and
trite words (Avoid them) nearby in close proximity to enclosed enclosed herewith
please find
d. Use Strong Words: Like people, words have personality. Some words are strong
and vigorous while other are dull and weak. Strong and vigorous words are
preferable as they alert sense organs best and hold the reader’s attention. Strong
words(Use them) Weak words (Avoid them) Slump Period of decline in busiess
e. Avoid Double Entry: Do not use phrases containing two words which convey the
same meaning. Simple words(Use them) Double entry words(Avoid them) fact
actual fact
f. Use Verbs in place of Nouns: Use of verbs in place of noun helps to make writing
simple and clear. Verbs is stronger than noun. Verb is action word and, therefore,
commands better interest. Verbs (Use them) Nouns(Avoid them) acquire
acquisition announce announcement appear appearance
 g. Use Active over Passive Verbs : Verbs in active voice are preferable to verbs in
passive voice because active voice verbs make the writing lively and vigorous. In
active voice the subject does the action whereas in passive voice it receives the
action. Active: A committee will discuss your proposal Passive: Your proposal
will be discussed by a committee. 9. Avoid Overuse of Camouflaged Verbs:
Camouflaged verbs are verbs unnecessarily turned into nouns by adding another
verb of action. When writers use them straight and simple messages become
lengthy and their effectiveness is reduced.
h. Use Correct Idioms: Idiom refers to the way in which ideas are expressed in a
language. A large number of idioms and phrases are available in English language
but each has a character of its own. Correct Idioms (Use them) Faulty(Avoid
them) independent of independent from agree to a proposal agree with a proposal

i. Use Saxon Words in Place of Romance: Saxon words are British in origin
whereas Romance words are derived from Latin. Saxon words are easier to use
and understand than Romance words. Saxon words(Use them) Romance words
(Avoid them) dead body corpse talkative loquacious lawlessness anarchy
j. Use Appropriate Synonym: Many pairs of words have similar meanings.
k. Avoid Sexist Words: Modern society is concerned with equal treatment of men
and women. Fair play and courtesy require that we should not use words which
suggest male dominance. Avoid words derived from masculine words: Several
words are masculine even though they do not refer exclusively to men. Sexist
Non-sexist chairman Chairperson salesman Sales person Avoid words that
demean status of women: Use Avoid lawyer lady lawyer

LISTENING SKILLS

Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the communication
process.

Listening is key to all effective communication. Without the ability to listen effectively,
messages are easily misunderstood. As a result, communication breaks down and the sender
of the message can easily become frustrated or irritated.
If there is one communication skill you should aim to master, then listening is it.

Listening is so important that many top employers provide listening skills training for their
employees. This is not surprising when you consider that good listening skills can lead to
better customer satisfaction, greater productivity with fewer mistakes, and increased sharing
of information that in turn can lead to more creative and innovative work.

Many successful leaders and entrepreneurs credit their success to effective listening skills.
Richard Branson frequently quotes listening as one of the main factors behind the success of
Virgin.

CHARACTERISTICS THAT DEMONSTRATE EFFECTIVE LISTENING

1. Concentration: Concentration is a good indicator that you are actively listening. To

concentrate, you will need to remove or minimize distractions. Therefore, you should not
be doodling, shuffling papers, talking to others, or checking text messages when you
should be listening.
2. Eye contact: Making eye contact with the person speaking shows you are interested, you
are listening, and you are engaged in the exchange that is taking place. Prolonged eye
contact, on the other hand, is not a good thing and can make people feel uncomfortable.
So while it is good to regularly make eye contact, you will need to break the gaze from
time to time to avoid creating an uncomfortable stare situation.
3. Body language: It is important to make sure that your body language is receptive and not
closed off. Closed body language includes having arms folded, head turned, or possibly
looking at the floor. Receptive body language would be looking alert, making eye contact,
and having the arms in a relaxed position. Good body language also includes your facial
expression. You want to have an open and inviting expression, which puts the speaker at
ease rather than gives the impression that you are angry, bored, or expressionless.
4. Avoiding interruption: If you are speaking, it is really hard to hear what the other person
is saying. If you interrupt, you may be seen as someone who is rude and not an effective
listener. Asking questions or providing feedback is an essential part of active listening,
 but you need to do it at appropriate times, not by interrupting the speaker. Patience is an
important factor in good listening skills. You will need to be patient and wait until the
person speaking finishes or pauses to allow feedback.
5. Ask questions: If you ask questions or seek clarification, it will show that you are paying
attention and are interested in what is being discussed. Just be sure that you are not asking
in a critical way, which may put the speaker on defense.

6. Modeling Behavior
One of the easiest ways to be a good listener is to put yourself in someone else's shoes.
How would you want the other person to act while you were speaking? If, for example,
you were giving a company sales demonstration at a meeting, would you want those in
attendance to be checking cell phones, coming and going from the room, and doodling as
you were speaking?

Most likely not because it would be a pretty good indication that your words were being
lost and your time was being wasted. You would want to look out and see a room full of
people who had open body language, were making eye contact, and were open to asking
questions once you finished.

Think about the type of listener you want on the other end when you are the speaker.
Then aim to be that type of person when it is your turn to listen.

SEVEN C’S OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

There are 7 C’s of effective communication which are applicable to both written as well as
oral communication. These are as follows:

1. Completeness - The communication must be complete. It should convey all facts

required by the audience. The sender of the message must take into consideration the
receiver’s mind set and convey the message accordingly. A complete communication
has following features:
  Complete communication develops and enhances reputation of an
organization.
 Moreover, they are cost saving as no crucial information is missing and no
additional cost is incurred in conveying extra message if the communication is
complete.
 A complete communication always gives additional information wherever
required. It leaves no questions in the mind of receiver.
 Complete communication helps in better decision-making by the
audience/readers/receivers of message as they get all desired and crucial
information.
 It persuades the audience.
2. Conciseness - Conciseness means wordiness, i.e, communicating what you want to
convey in least possible words without forgoing the other C’s of communication.
Conciseness is a necessity for effective communication. Concise communication has
following features:
 It is both time-saving as well as cost-saving.
 It underlines and highlights the main message as it avoids using excessive and
needless words.
 Concise communication provides short and essential message in limited words
to the audience.
 Concise message is more appealing and comprehensible to the audience.
 Concise message is non-repetitive in nature.
3. Consideration - Consideration implies “stepping into the shoes of others”. Effective
communication must take the audience into consideration, i.e, the audience’s view
points, background, mind-set, education level, etc. Make an attempt to envisage your
audience, their requirements, emotions as well as problems. Ensure that the self-
respect of the audience is maintained and their emotions are not at harm. Modify your
words in message to suit the audience’s needs while making your message complete.
Features of considerate communication are as follows:
 Emphasize on “you” approach.
 Empathize with the audience and exhibit interest in the audience. This will
stimulate a positive reaction from the audience.
  Show optimism towards your audience. Emphasize on “what is possible”
rather than “what is impossible”. Lay stress on positive words such as jovial,
committed, thanks, warm, healthy, help, etc.
4. Clarity - Clarity implies emphasizing on a specific message or goal at a time, rather
than trying to achieve too much at once. Clarity in communication has following
features:
 It makes understanding easier.
 Complete clarity of thoughts and ideas enhances the meaning of message.
 Clear message makes use of exact, appropriate and concrete words.
5. Concreteness - Concrete communication implies being particular and clear rather than
fuzzy and general. Concreteness strengthens the confidence. Concrete message has
following features:
 It is supported with specific facts and figures.
 It makes use of words that are clear and that build the reputation.
 Concrete messages are not misinterpreted.
6. Courtesy - Courtesy in message implies the message should show the sender’s
expression as well as should respect the receiver. The sender of the message should be
sincerely polite, judicious, reflective and enthusiastic. Courteous message has
following features:
 Courtesy implies taking into consideration both viewpoints as well as feelings
of the receiver of the message.
 Courteous message is positive and focused at the audience.
 It makes use of terms showing respect for the receiver of message.
 It is not at all biased.
7. Correctness - Correctness in communication implies that there are no grammatical
errors in communication. Correct communication has following features:
 The message is exact, correct and well-timed.
 If the communication is correct, it boosts up the confidence level.
 Correct message has greater impact on the audience/readers.
 It checks for the precision and accurateness of facts and figures used in the
message.
 It makes use of appropriate and correct language in the message.
ROLE OF COMMUNICATION
 Business Industries depend heavily on major management functions like planning,
organizing, leading and controlling. These kinds of functions require the managers to
practice expert communication methods. Thus to achieve all these steps of managerial
functions, a managed and proper communication process flow along with details have
to be established.
 With the help of proper communication, managers can complete their responsibilities
associated with the job. For example, when planning is done for a project, it is
important that the manager gets to know all the pre-requisites and necessary
information required for it.
 Once planning is done, the manager should communicate it to the team members to
ensure that everyone understand how to proceed with the job. Thus this kind of two
way communication acts as a fundamental asset in organizations. In the same way,
organizing and delegating jobs also needs effective communication routines to be set-
up to achieve team goals.
 Communication also forms the fundamental part of leading and controlling with the
later more focussed on written communication methods. The phrase that
communication is the blood of an organization is true in all forms and thus can be
stated that for any organization to be successful, it is mandatory to establish proper
communication methods.
 Communication helps in promoting motivation in a group or team within an
organization. When details about a task and the methods involved for execution are
detailed to the team members it will help them carry out the work in an effective
manner. Thus when confidence on the work increases the motivation factor also
increases. Motivated employees tend to be more productive in any organization.
 When members of a team are well-informed about thoughts and processes in a team,
they tend to develop a higher confidence level. The increased confidence level will
move them to the comfort zone and will also alter their attitudes on a positive note.
Moulding employee attitudes will ensure that they provide their best to the
organization. This kind of moulding can be brought in by using all kind of effective
communication forms like meetings, journals, discussions, etc.
 Communication acts as a major decision-making factor in many organizational
policies. Without the complete information or knowledge there is no point in making
 decisions. Such decisions always fail and hence communication methods act as source
of credible information to make strategic decisions. The information collected will
help identify the problem, its resolution and alternative action courses.
 Communication is also required to establish discipline and control in an organization.
Hierarchies, principles and guidelines of an organization need to be communicated to
employees so as to make sure that they all adhere to the process and policies.
 It is also mandatory that employees are communicated the line of contact in case of
grievances. These kinds of communications are required to establish a controlled
environment in an organization. Also work delegation and responsibility sharing
needs to be orally communicated first and then documented as a reference for future
use.
 As a final note, man requires to communicate as the basic essence of survival. It is
impossible for an individual to survive in the business industry without proper
communication. Thus communication also leads to socialising nature in the members
of a team. Socialising between team members will increase team interactions and
boost productivity.
 Thus communication helps in all the functions of a business industry, planning,
organising, leading and controlling. The managerial efficiency depends on the
communication efficiency of the manager and team members. It is the duty of the
organization and its management to figure out possible barriers that might exist in the
communication structure and to rectify them to establish an effective communication
network.

TYPES OF BUSINESS LETTERS

There are a number of types of business letters in English. Accomplished speakers of English
also need to be able to write the following types of business letters to be successful in
business. Begin with a clear understanding of business letter writing basics. Once you've
understood basic layout styles, standard phrases, salutation, and endings, continue to improve
your business letter writing skills by learning to write the following types of business letters.
The following are the various types of business letters:

MAKING AN INQUIRY

Make an inquiry when you are requesting more information about a product or service.

This type of business letter tends to include specific information such as product type, as well
as asking for further details in the form of brochures, catalogs, telephone contact, etc. Making
inquiries can also help you keep up on your competition. Use this letter template to ensure
you receive a prompt reply.

SALES LETTERS

Sales Letters are used to introduce new products to new customers and past clients. It's
important to outline an important problem that needs to be solved and provide the solution in
sales letters. This example letter provides an outline, as well as important phrases to use when
sending out a wide variety of sales letters. Sales letters can be improved through the use of
personalization in some means in order to ensure attention.

REPLYING TO AN INQUIRY

Replying to inquiries are one of the most important business letters that you write.

Successfully replying to an inquiry can help you complete a sale or lead to new sales.
Customers who make inquiries are interested in specific information and are excellent
business prospects. Learn how to thank the customers, provide as much information as
possible, as well as make a call to action for a positive outcome.

ACCOUNT TERMS AND CONDITIONS

When a new customer opens an account it is essential to inform them of account terms and
conditions. If you run a small business, it is common to provide these terms and conditions in
the form of a letter. This guide provides a clear example on which you can base your own
business letters providing account terms and conditions.
LETTERS OF ACKNOWLEDGMENT

For legal purposes, letters of acknowledgment are often requested. These letters are also
referred to as letters of receipt and tend to be rather formal and short. These two examples
letters will provide you with a template to use in your own work and can be easily adapted for
a number of purposes.

PLACING AN ORDER

As a business person, you will often place an order - especially if you have a large supply
chain for your product. This example business letter provides an outline to make sure your
order placement is clear so that you receive exactly what you order.

MAKING A CLAIM

Unfortunately, from time to time it is necessary to make a claim against unsatisfactory work.
This example business letter provides a strong example of a claim letter and includes
important phrases to express your dissatisfaction and future expectations when making a
claim.

ADJUSTING A CLAIM

Even the best business may make a mistake from time to time. In this case, you may be called
upon to adjust a claim. This type of business letter provides an example to send to unsatisfied
customers making sure that you address their specific concerns, as well as retain them as
future customers.

COVER LETTERS

Cover letters are extremely important when applying for a new position. Cover letters should
include a short introduction, highlight the most important information in your resume and
elicit a positive response from your prospective employer. These two examples of cover
letters are part of a larger section on the site providing all the information you will need
on taking an interview in English during your job search.
What to Include in a Business Letter or Email

In some instances, what you include, how you write the correspondence, and the format of
the letter will vary. However, a basic professional letter will include the following:

 Subject line: If you are sending an email, include a clear subject line that concisely
explains the purpose of your email. For example, it might read, "Subject:
Congratulations on Promotion."
 Contact information: Include all your contact information — full name, address,
phone number, and email address — so it's easy for the person you are contacting to
respond to you. In a letter, you will include this information at the top of your letter
(you will then follow this information with the date, and the contact information of
the person to whom you are writing). In an email, you will include this information in
your email signature, below your name.

 Greeting: Include a salutation at the start of your letter. Make sure you use
the appropriate name and title for the person.
 A brief introduction: After your salutation, include a brief introduction. This might
include a brief, “I hope you are well,” or some other friendly introductory phrase.
Then, dive right into explaining why you are writing.
 The main purpose of your letter: The main part of your letter will focus on your
purpose. When writing the letter, be concise. Two or three paragraphs are plenty.
Your letter shouldn't be longer than one page. If it is an email, it should be even
shorter. If you have additional information to share with the reader, offer to discuss it
during a call or provide an attachment or enclosure with the details.
 Closing: End your letter with a professional closing that conveys your thanks and
respect. Closings like “Sincerely,” “Best,” and “Regards” work well.

 Signature: If you are mailing a hard copy of the letter, include your handwritten
signature above your typed signature. If you are emailing the letter, just include
your typed signature.
INTERNET BASICS

INTERNET

The internet is a massive “network of networks,” a networking infrastructure. It connects

millions of computers together globally. The computer you are sitting at (as long as it’s
connected to the internet) can communicate with the computer across the street, down the
block, or even around the world so long as the computer on the other end is connected to the
internet as well. Information that travels over the internet does so via a variety of languages
known as protocols.

What is the internet used for?

A lot of different things! People use the internet to apply for jobs, play games, do research,
watch movies, listen to music, go to school, stay in contact with friends, family, and co-
workers, run a small business, buy or sell products, and much more.

SURFING THE WEB

“Surfing the Web” or “Web Surfing” refers to browsing the World Wide Web by going from
website to website in search of something that interests you. Before we talk about how to surf
the web, it may be helpful to explain a few key terms. Take note of how they are spelled and
used. A web page is a single page of information on the World Wide Web. A website refers
to a group of web pages identified by a single domain. For example, all of the web pages on
the Indian Hills website begin with “www.indianhills.edu.” A homepage is the first or front
page of a website. If you were to type “www.indianhills.edu” into your web browser, the first
web page that came up would be the website’s homepage. For example: The Indian Hills
website contains many web pages, including the homepage.

A URL or “Uniform Resource Locator” is the unique address of each web page. For example,
the URL for the Indian Hills Bookstore is: http://www.indianhills.edu/bookstore/index.html
Each URL has several parts that appear in a specific order. Let’s look at each part by using
the URL for the Indian Hills Bookstore as an example:
http://www.indianhills.edu/bookstore/index.html

Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules, used to retrieve a specific document. The “http” in our
URL refers to HyperText Transfer Protocol. The “http” is followed by a colon and two
forward slashes, then “www,” which refers to the World Wide Web.
Domain Name: The domain name consists of two parts. In our example, “indianhills.edu” is
the domain name. where “indianhills” is the host and “.edu” is the top-level domain. This
suffix indicates the type of organization to which the host belongs. As you can probably
guess, “.edu” indicates that the host, “indianhills,” is an educational institution

Directory/Page: The next part of the URL tells the web browser where to find the specific
web page on the website. In our example, the “/bookstore/” tells us that the web page we are
looking for lives in the directory/folder entitled “bookstore.” The next part, “index.html,” is
the name of the actual web page. The “.html” refers to the programming language used to
create the page (in this case, HyperText Markup Language or HTML).

A Search Engine is a website that searches the World Wide Web for specific keywords,
which you enter into a search field. The search engine then displays a list of web pages that
are somehow related to the keywords you entered. You can then click the links to any of
these web pages that interest you. Search results are not perfect. You may be looking for a
specific website that does not appear right away. Most search engines have advanced options
that allow you to narrow your search. For example, you may want to find information about
jaguars (the animal not the automobile). If so, you could use the advanced features of your
chosen search engine to exclude search results that include the words “car” and “automobile.”
Each search engine does this differently. So, you will have to explore the website of your
selected search engine for more.

How do you connect to the internet?

There are many different ways to connect to the internet from your personal computer. The
most popular ways are listed below.

 Dial-up: With a dial-up connection you can connect to the Internet via a telephone
line and an internet service provider (ISP). This method is inexpensive, yet obsolete.
It provides the user with the slowest overall connection speeds. However, it may suit
the purposes of the occasional internet user without a need for a fast or consistent
connection.
 Broadband: Cable, DSL, and fiber optics are in this category. With a cable
connection, the user must subscribe to a cable television/internet service. These
connections offer speeds up to 70 times faster than dial-up. They also allow the user
 to stay connected to the internet at all times; the user need only open a browser
window to access the internet, as there is no log-on process to complete. Like cable
internet service, DSL offers much faster speeds than those available with dial-up
modems. However, there are a wide range of speeds available from different
providers. With DSL, normal telephone wires are used to combine usually separate
voice and data lines, allowing users to connect to the internet and talk on the phone
via the same telephone line. The newest technology, fiber optics, allows speed even
greater than DSL or Cable. Fiber optic connections are more expensive than DSL and
Broadband, and are not available in all areas (yet).
 Wi-Fi: It’s even possible to connect to the internet wirelessly from home or while you
are out and about. Wireless technology allows users to have mobile connections,
accessing the web where and when they need to. Wi-Fi networks can be found at
many businesses, restaurants, and other public areas (parks, schools, libraries) or a
home connection can be set up through your ISP. These technologies vary in terms of
connectivity, reliability, and cost, but they all allow users to connect whether they are
at home, school, work, or on the road

TECHNIQUES OF ATTENDING INTERVIEW

Here are a few more do's and don'ts for being at your best during a job interview

Job Interview Do's:

Preparing for a job interview is essential to making a good impression. Employ these handy
job interview techniques to win over your interviewer:
 Plan to arrive on time or a few minutes early. Late arrival for a job interview is never
excusable.
 Greet the interviewer by their first name.
 Wait until you are offered a chair before sitting. Sit upright and always look alert and
interested. Be a good listener as well as a good talker. Smile!
 Maintain eye contact.
 Follow the interviewer's leads but try to get them to describe the position and duties early
in the interview so you can relate your background and skills to the position.
 Make sure you convey your good points factually and sincerely. Keep in mind that you
alone can sell yourself to an interviewer. Make them realise why they need you in their
organisation.
 Always conduct yourself as if you are determined to get the job. Never close the door on
an opportunity. It is better to be free to choose from a number of jobs rather than only
one.

Job Interview Don'ts:

 Answer questions with a simple 'yes' or 'no'. Use the CAR technique (Context, Action,
Result) wherever possible. Share things about yourself relating to the position.
 Lie. Always answer questions truthfully, frankly and as concisely as possible.
 Ever make derogatory remarks about your present or former employers, colleagues or
companies.
 'Over-answer' questions. The interviewer may steer the conversation into politics or
economics. It is best to answer the questions honestly, saying no more than is necessary.
 Let your discouragement show. If you get the impression the interview is not going well
and you have already been rejected, don't show discouragement or alarm. Occasionally an
interviewer who is genuinely interested in you may seem to discourage you in order to
test your reaction.
 Ask about salary, bonuses or holidays at the first interview - unless you are positive the
employer is interested in hiring you and raises the issue first. However, know your market
value and be prepared to specify your required salary or range.

SELF-MANAGEMENT

Self-Management brings organizational structure to an enterprise spontaneously.  Individual

Colleagues, directed by their Personal Commercial Mission, are principally responsible for
organizing their relationships.  Their Personal Commercial Mission is their "boss."  The
managerial functions of planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling are the
personal responsibility of each Colleague.
Rules for Self-Management

1. Live by your values, whatever they are. You confuse people when you don’t, because they
can’t predict how you’ll behave.

2. Speak up! No one can “hear” what you’re thinking without you be willing to stand up for
it. Mind-reading is something most people can’t do.

3. Honour your own good word, and keep the promises you make. If not, people eventually
stop believing most of what you say, and your words will no longer work for you.

4. When you ask for more responsibility, expect to be held fully accountable. This is what
seizing ownership of something is all about; it’s usually an all or nothing kind of thing, and
so you’ve got to treat it that way.

5. Don’t expect people to trust you if you aren’t willing to be trustworthy for them first and
foremost. Trust is an outcome of fulfilled expectations.

6. Be more productive by creating good habits and rejecting bad ones. Good habits corral
your energies into a momentum-building rhythm for you; bad habits sap your energies and
drain you.

7. Have a good work ethic, for it seems to be getting rare today. Curious, for those “old-
fashioned” values like dependability, timeliness, professionalism and diligence are prized
more than ever before. Be action-oriented. Seek to make things work. Be willing to do what it
takes.

8. Be interesting. Read voraciously, and listen to learn, then teach and share everything you
know. No one owes you their attention; you have to earn it and keep attracting it.

9. Be nice. Be courteous, polite and respectful. Be considerate. Manners still count for an
awful lot in life, and thank goodness they do.

10. Be self-disciplined. That’s what adults are supposed to “grow up” to be.

11. Don’t be a victim or a martyr. You always have a choice, so don’t shy from it: Choose
and choose without regret. Look forward and be enthusiastic.
12. Keep healthy and take care of yourself. Exercise your mind, body and spirit so you can be
someone people count on, and so you can live expansively and with abundance.

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Personality is nothing but the aggregate conglomeration of memories and incidents in an

individual’s entire life span. Environmental factors, family background, financial conditions,
genetic factors, situations and circumstances also contribute to an individual’s personality.

Determinants of Personality

Following are the factors which help in shaping one’s personality:

1. Heredity - Heredity refers to factors that are determined once an individual is born.
An individual’s physique, attractiveness, body type, complexion, body weight depend
on his/her parents biological makeup.
2. Environment - The environment to which an individual is subjected to during his
growing years plays an important role in determining his/her personality. The varied
cultures in which we are brought up and our family backgrounds have a crucial role in
shaping our personalities.
3. Situation - An individual’s personality also changes with current circumstances and
situations. An individual would behave in a different way when he has enough
savings with him and his behavior would automatically change when he is bankrupt.

An individual’s appearance, character, intelligence, attractiveness, efficiency, style determine

his/her personality.

What is Personality Development ?

Personality development is defined as a process of developing and enhancing one’s

personality. Personality development helps an individual to gain confidence and high self
esteem.

Personality development also is said to have a positive impact on one’s communication skills
and the way he sees the world. Individuals tend to develop a positive attitude as a result of
personality development
Tips for Personality Development

Personality development cannot happen in a day. It happens over time. There are multiple
characteristics which need to be worked on while developing one’s personality. The
characteristics and attributes which add to an individual’s overall personality are:

1. Be Confident:
Confidence is certainly the most important factor which adds to the personality of any
individual. A person’s confidence might go down due to mistakes, failure, guilty or any other
thing which is undesirable. Some people often develop inferiority complex due to their
physical appearance, caste, financial status etc.  Such people perceive confidence as their
weakness, while the truth is that confidence is an individual’s biggest strength.

2. Improve Your Communication Skills:

 The way you speak reflects who you are. Be polite and gentle with your words. Use decent
words while interacting with everyone.  Always think before you speak. English being
globally accepted is preferred everywhere. So work on your English proficiency by listening
to English news, reading English newspapers and magazines. Always use simple words
general interactions.

3. Dress Up Well:
Dressing sense means the general sense about how you should dress up for office, party or
any other occasion.  A person should therefore wear according to the situation and according
to how well the attire suits him/her. Good looks no doubt will add to your personality but
what matters the most is how you are dressed up. Even a 5’4 guy with a dark complexion can
have a good personality if he knows how to carry himself.  Dressing sense thus plays a major
role in personality and confidence development.

4. Do What You’re Passionate About and Be Passionate About What You Do:

Always follow your passion and do what interests you. This will not only help you to grow
as a person but will also add to your confidence. Be passionate about your work. Make sure
that you give your best in whatever you do. This will add to your growth and strengthen your
self confidence. NEVER miss a chance to prove yourself.
5. Watch Your Body Language:

Body language plays an important role to judge a person’s confidence and personality.  Try to
make use of positive gestures while interacting with others. This shows that you’re at ease
while having a discussion. Studies reflect that 75% of our communication happens non-
verbally. Your gestures thus play a vital role while interacting with others.

6. Improve Your Social Skills:

Man is a social animal. Every individual has to interact with a group of people one time or
the other. Being shy or introvert is the least desirable characteristics in any
individual. Always stay updated with the current affairs and what is happening in your
society. Try participating in group discussions and seminars. This will help you to be more
open and adjust amongst a group of individuals.

7. Develop Leadership Qualities:

A good leader is believed to have a good personality. Leadership skills do not mean how well
you give orders to your subordinates. It means how well you can manage your subordinates
to accomplish a particular task. Work harder to set an example to your subordinates. Express
yourself and always do as you say.

8. Be Optimistic:

Have a positive outlook towards everything. Nobody wants to be around a person who is
negative and complaining all the time. Nobody wants to work or live with a pessimist. When
you face a failure, let go of the assumption that you’re the unluckiest person alive. Use
positive statements like “I can do it”, “I always have a choice” etc. Expect good things from
the future.

9. Be a Patient Listener:

Be an enthusiastic listener. Listening is a very essential part of communication. This will help
you to see things from the eyes of others. Mental presence is a must to be good listener. Try
to get away from any possible distraction while talking to your family members, friends and
co-workers. Ask questions to let the other person know that you were listening to him/her.

10. Be a Good Learner:

Good learning skills in an individual are highly desirable. You should always have the zeal to
learn new things while at work. This reflects your enthusiasm. Don’t let yourself repeat the
same mistakes. Learn from them.

The importance of personality development

 Personality development grooms an individual and helps him make a mark of his/her
own. Individuals need to have a style of their own for others to follow them.
 Personality development goes a long way in reducing stress and conflicts. It
encourages individuals to look at the brighter sides of life. Face even the worst
situations with a smile.
 Personality development helps you develop a positive attitude in life.
 It is essential for individuals to behave well with people around. Being polite with
others will not only make you popular among other people but also earn you respect
and pride. You can’t demand respect by being rude with people around. Personality
development plays an important role in developing not only your outer but also inner
self.
 Human being is a social animal. One needs people around. An individual needs to
have that magnetic power which attracts people towards him. You need to have that
charisma of yours. Personality development helps you gain recognition and
acceptance from the society as well as people around.
 Personality development plays an essential role not only in an individual’s
professional but also personal lives. It makes an individual disciplined, punctual and
an asset for his/her organization. An in-disciplined individual finds it difficult to
survive in the long run.
 Personality development teaches you to respect not only your Boss and fellow
workers but also family members, friends, neighbours, relatives and so on. Never
make fun of anyone at the workplace. Avoid criticizing and making fun of your
fellow workers.
 Personality development sessions help you differentiate between your personal as
well as professional life. It is really essential to keep a balance between both the lives
to lead a peaceful and stress free life.
 Personality development helps an individual to inculcate positive qualities like
punctuality, flexible attitude, willingness to learn, friendly nature, eagerness to help
others and so on. Never hesitate to share information with others. Always reach office
on time. Some people have a tendency to work till late. Late sittings not only increase
your stress levels but also spoil your personal life. Sitting till late at the office
indicates that an individual is extremely poor in time management skills.
 Personality development helps you develop an impressive personality and makes you
stand apart from the rest. Personality development also plays an essential role in
improving one’s communication skills. Individuals ought to master the art of
expressing their thoughts and feelings in the most desired way. Personality
development makes you a confident individual who is appreciated and respected
wherever he goes.
TEXTILE FURNISHING

Textile furnishing in a new dimension that combines outstanding textile design with a
material-technical innovation, the precise moulding of textile surfaces by means of a
patented casting method.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF FURNISHING MATERIAL

Woven : Woven fabric is any textile formed by weaving. Woven fabrics are often created on
a loom, and made of many threads woven on a warp and a weft. Technically, a woven fabric
is any fabric made by interlacing two or more threads at right angles to one another

Non Woven : Nonwoven fabric is a fabric-like material made from staple fiber (short) and
long fibers (continuous long), bonded together by chemical, mechanical, heat or solvent
treatment. The term is used in the textile manufacturing industry to denote fabrics, such as
felt, which are neither woven nor knitted.

FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF HOME FURNISHING

Factors which influence home furnishings choices include style, function, construction
features, cost, availability, and color.

Selection of Special Fabrics

Bed sheets
A bed sheet is a rectangular piece of cloth used as bedding, being placed immediately below
or above bed occupants. Blankets, quilts, duvets/comforters and other bed covers are laid
over the top sheet, but because of the top sheet they do not directly touch the bed occupant.

Bed covers

A bed cover is a covering made out of cloth that is made to cover the bed when it is not in
use. This is done so in order to protect the mattress and the sheets so that the bed will not be
touched by dust. Bed covers are usually made of thick material and this can be a blanket,
quilt or comforter. As a result, they can be used to cover oneself during the night on extra
cold nights, as well. Bed covers are also used for aesthetic purposes to give the bed a more
alluring appeal.

Pillow covers
The fill is surrounded with a cover or shell made of cloth, such as silk, known as the pillow
case or pillow slip. Some pillows have a fancier cover called a sham which is closed on all
sides and usually has a slit in the back through which the pillow is placed.

Table covers

A tablecloth is a cloth used to cover a table. Some are mainly ornamental coverings, which
may also help protect the table from scratches and stains. Other tablecloths are designed to be
spread on a dining table before laying out tableware and food.

Table Napkins
It is a square piece of cloth or paper used at a meal to wipe the fingers or lips and to protect
garments.

Towel
It is a piece of thick absorbent cloth or paper used for drying oneself or wiping things dry.

Curtain and draperies

A curtain (sometimes known as a drape, mainly in the United States) is a piece of cloth
intended to block or obscure light, or drafts, or water in the case of a shower curtain. A
curtain is also the movable screen or drape in a theater that separates the stage from the
auditorium or that serves as a backdrop.

Drapery is a general word referring to cloths or textiles (Old French draperie, from Late Latin
drappus). It may refer to cloth used for decorative purposes – such as around windows – or to
the trade of retailing cloth, originally mostly for clothing, formerly conducted by drapers.

Blanket
A large piece of woollen or similar material used as a covering on a bed or elsewhere for
warmth.
 Carpet
A carpet is a textile floor covering typically consisting of an upper layer of pile attached to a
backing. The pile was traditionally made from wool, but, since the 20th century, synthetic
fibers such as polypropylene, nylon or polyester are often used, as these fibers are less
expensive than wool.

Upholstery

Upholstery is a soft padded textile covering that is fied to furniture such as armchairs and
sofas

Upholstered furniture adds softness, comfort, beauty and style to any home. But because
upholstery is susceptible to staining and collecting dust, it is important to care and maintain it
properly.

CARE AND STORAGE

MAINTENANCE FACTORS

1. Main cleaning:
Begin to clean the fabric as soon as you see that regular vacuuming and dusting is no longer enough.
For the main cleaning foaming cleanser is recommended. Contact the furniture retailer for guidance.
How frequently this should be done depends on the furniture usage, but the parts of the furniture that
comes in contact with the skin should be cleaned at least once every three months. 

2. Stain removal:
When an accident happens, it is important to remove the spill / stain as quickly as possible. A new
spot can be easier to remove than old. If you get a stain that you are unsure of how to remove, you
should contact the furniture retailer. For removal of stains you should avoid common household
cleaners because many of them are too harsh for the fabric, and ALL other products containing
solvents or oil, as they can damage fabrics. 
3. Control of color fastness:
By main cleaning and stain removal, you should always check that the fabric dyes can withstand the
detergent you use. Test the dergent first on an invisible spot. Leave to dry and check the result.
 Natural fiber - fabrics made of natural fibers such as cotton, linen, wool, or the artificial
rayon are very comfortable because they breathe and absorb perspiration. These textiles are
hydrophilic - draws and absorbs water and anything that contains water. The fabrics are also
oleophilic - absorbing oil and grease, eg. fatty acids from sweat.
  Synthetic fibers - fabrics made of synthetic fibers such as polyester, polyamide, acrylic, has
outstanding mechanical resistance. These fabrics are hydrophobic - repels water and other
liquids. Stains from spilled liquids and water-based products are not absorbed by the fibers,
and these spots are thus easier to remove. The fibers are however oleophilic - attracts oil and
grease.
 Mixing fibers - fabrics made of mixed fibers - different combinations of natural, artificial and
synthetic fibers, are highly resistant to stains and superb comfort.
4. Precautions for upholstery fabrics:
The main considerations you should take for your furniture: Cleaning, lightfastness, avoid injuries,
furniture fabric's lifetime and pets.
 Lightfastness - A lot of furniture is destroyed unnecessarily by the interaction of
sunlight. Remember that all exposure to light will weaken both the fibers and dyes in
textiles. Although the furniture textiles are tested and approved for lightfastness, is
should be located so that direct sunlight and sharp reflexes are avoided. Shades or
blinds are recommended, but be also aware that not all fabrics in blinds or curtains
stop harmful UV rays. It is important to remember that the sun shines into the room
even when we are not present! Especially the "low" sun at our latitude goes far into
the room - all day. If you are going away for a longer while, the furniture should be
covered specifically. Ask your furniture retailer how to best protect your furniture so
they do not degrade unnecessarily  by sunlight.

 How to avoid damage to furniture fabrics - Clothing with extremely rough seams or sharp details
like rivets, or belts with metal fittings, increases wear and can pull out threads. Denim - particularly
new, and clothing with excess dye, can cause discoloration. Objects or tools in pockets can damage
the upholstery fabric.
 Fabric lifetime - Lack of care and maintenance reduces fabric life. If the furniture is used extremely
much every day, it is recommended with covers and protective sleeves (this can be ordered for most
furniture).
 Pets - Pets and upholstered furniture do not mix. Hair, nails and scraping tugs hard on the fabric.
Four-legged family members should be in their basket, not in the furniture.

CARE & MAINTENANCE OF SOFT TEXTILE UPHOLSTERY

 Vacuum and wipe clean regularly with a damp microfibre cloth and tepid water to remove
dust particles and prevent build up of soiling.
 Remove spillages promptly with an absorbent dry cloth.
  If heavier soiling has been permitted to accumulate, try using water only first, then use a mild
liquid soap, ensuring that cleaning products are removed, as they inhibit the stain repellent.
 Wipe off bodily fluids promptly (within 15 minutes) with cold water and then clean as above.

 For extreme soiling/infection control purposes, use a 5% sodium hypochlorite (bleach)

solution, Haz Tabs or Chlorclean. 6. Steam cleaning is an effective sanitizer (as are Haz Tabs
and Chlorclean) but is not a good cleaner. A wipe with a cloth, preferably microfibre, and
water is more effective for actual cleaning. Steam and heat from steam cleaners actually seal
in oily residues from bodily fluids, etc. If steam cleaning is essential, use infrequently for
emergency infection control purposes only and in accordance with the machine
manufacturer’s recommendations. As we are unable to comment on the variety of machines in
the marketplace or on the operator’s handling, care should be taken for the sake of both the
upholstery fabric and the wooden frame and we are unable to guarantee these.
 Do not machine wash (except Panvelle Wash), dry clean or apply other chemicals.

 Microfibre cleaning cloths are extremely effective even without soap, which is helpful as soap
residues can clog the fibre making it difficult to clean. Tests conducted by Satra Laboratories
showed that a microfibre cloth and water alone were just as effective in removing marks and
stains as using a proprietary cleaner

Stain Removal

Stain removal is the process of removing a mark or spot left by one substance on a specific
surface like a fabric. A solvent or detergent is generally used to conduct stain removal and
many of these are available over the counter.

 Normal cleaning – Vacuum fabric as needed, using an upholstery attachment. – Vacuuming

picks up dust and reduces the need for professional cleaning. Do not brush fabric or use a
vacuum attachment with a rotary brush. Brushing may permanently damage the nap or change
the character of the fabric.

 Spot cleaning – Immediately soak up the stain with a soft absorbent cloth. Do not dry the
stain completely or it may set. The longer a stain is allowed to remain on the fabric, the more
difficult it is to remove. Water-based stains such as coffee, soft drinks, fruit juices, or milk –
Tide powder detergent diluted in water (1 tablespoon per 1 cup warm water) in the following
manner can be used to remove the stain. A water-based cleaner (specifically for cleaning
upholstery fabric) could be used an alternative. – If a plastic spray bottle is used with the Tide
detergent mixture, spray on a cloth and not directly on the fabric. – Using a clean soft cloth,
work cleaner in a lather or foam. – Brush the stain with light, quick strokes. – Start at the
 outside of the stain and work toward the center. Rinse area thoroughly with a clean damp
cloth, avoiding heavy scrubbing, to remove cleaning solution residue which can attract soil
over time. Oil-based stains such as lipstick, grease, or salad dressing – Use a dry cleaning
solution applied with a damp clean cloth or sponge. – Test the cleaning solution on a small,
concealed area first. – If there is no spotting, ringing, or damage to the fabric or its dyes,
apply the cleaning solution to the soiled area with light, quick strokes. – Begin at the outside
of the stain and work toward the center, being careful not to over-saturate the fabric. Several
light applications are better than a heavy scrubbing application. Rinse area thoroughly with a
clean damp cloth, avoiding heavy scrubbing, to remove cleaning solution residue which can
attract soil over time.

INTRODUCTION OF FLOOR COVERING

Floor covering is a term to generically describe any finish material applied over a floor
structure to provide a walking surface. Both terms are used interchangeably but floor
covering refers more to lose-laid materials.

Rugs

A rug is a floor covering of shaggy or woven material used to cover part of a floor. Rugs, in
particular area rugs and oriental rugs are made of some sort of pile knotted onto a cotton
foundation. Materials can include wool, silk, cotton, camel hair, goat hair, sea grasses and
synthetics.

Cushion pads

A cushion pad consists of a plain fabric case stuffed with a soft filling. The pad is designed to
be used in conjunction with a cushion cover, which can come in a variety of fabrics to match
the home decor. The cushion cover is designed to unfasten so that the pad can be placed
inside or removed easily.
 Use and care
The finishing touches
Once you’ve finished installing the floor it just needs a final clean before you start to move in
the furniture. For vinyl that means a wipe with a damp cloth, warm water and a natural
detergent. For laminate and wood just brush off any remaining dirt or dust and rub all over
with a dry cloth to remove the last little bits. Then you’re ready to move in.
A clean sweep
For most of us there’s always a temptation to leave cleaning the floor until it really has to be
done. But the longer everyday dirt and stains are left, the more ingrained they become. So
quick regular cleaning is less work and more effective than a once-a-month blitz and it will
keep your floors looking good and lasting longer.

Care
 Use a doormat at the entrance to stop dirt being brought into your home.
 Felt or plastic protection on the bottom of furniture legs will prevent dents, scratches and
marks.
 Lift rather than sliding heavy furniture to move it.
 Never spray cleaning products straight on to the floor.
 Don’t use polish or wax.

INTRODUCTION TO HOME DECORATION

Home accessories are furniture items which are easy to replace and easy to move, and include
almost any items that aren't strictly functionally necessary in the decorated space. These
accessories include such items as curtains, sofa sets, cushions, tablecloths and decorative
craft products, decorative wrought iron, and so on. These items are commonly used in indoor
furnishings and layout and can include cloth items, paintings, and plants.

Introduction

Home accessories, as movable decorations, reflect the owner's taste and create a personal
atmosphere where they are placed. These items can break the boundaries of traditional
decoration industry, using handicrafts, textiles, collectibles, and things such as lamps, floral
items, and plants re-combined to form a new concept. Home accessories vary according to
size and shape of room space, the owner's living habits, hobbies, tastes, and their economic
situation.

Curtains

A curtain (sometimes known as a drape, mainly in the United States) is a piece of cloth
intended to block or obscure light, or drafts, or water in the case of a shower curtain. A
curtain is also the movable screen or drape in a theater that separates the stage from the
auditorium or that serves as a backdrop.

Types of curtains

Cased Heading Curtains, also known as Rod Pocket Curtains

A simple cased heading is used mainly for nets and lightweight fabrics that are not to be
opened and closed frequently. A casing sewn across the top is left open at the ends. These
need to be hung on a slender curtain rod that threads through the channel and fits onto hooks
or into sockets at the sides of the window. Because the curtain rod gap is a tight fit, these
curtains are best used in rooms that are used less frequently, like a formal sitting room.

Pinch Pleated Curtains

Pinch Pleating gives curtains a decorative finish at the top, and although it gives quite a more
formal finish than rod pocket or standard gathering, pinch pleating will work with most fabric
types. There are five types of pinch pleating – the one shown here is called a three finger
pinch pleat. There are also two finger pinch pleats, three finger pinch pleats, four finger pinch
pleats and five finger pinch pleats. With more pleats, the size and fullness of the pleat
increases, and so does the amount of fabric needed to make the curtains increases, and the
cost.

Eyelet Curtains

Eyelet curtains, or Grommet curtains are ideal for light to medium weight fabrics and include
silver rings at the header that a rod weaves through. The curtains hang easily and freely
making this style ideal for kids bedrooms as they are easy to open, close and maintain. When
made with a more formal fabric eyelet curtains are a great option for a modern bedroom or
lounge room as their no fuss design is very contemporary.

Tailored Pleat Curtains

Tailored pleat drapes are similar to a Pinch Pleat, but the pleat starts at the top of the fabric
and falls from there. Some people also call this a Euro pleat. For some people the tailored
pleat, is a less fussy more stylish pleat, but it is personal opinion. Tailored Pleat Curtains
work best when made with a substantial fabric, lighter weight fabrics definitely will need
lining to look good if being made into curtains with a tailored pleat.

Goblet Pleat Curtains

If you are looking for very formal curtaining to suit a grand room in a traditional home with
very high ceilings, the goblet pleat curtain is perfect. The pleat at the top resembles a wine
glass. To keep the goblet pleat looking full and rounded, they should be shaped with
interlining or wadding.

Tab Top Curtains

Similar to eyelet curtains, tab top curtains have fabric loops on the top and can only be hung
on a rod. An easy, informal style of curtain, tab tops are suitable for all weights of fabrics as
they hang evenly and have a repetitive, folded appearance.

Sheer Curtains

Sheer curtains bring a lightness to any window as their sheer fabric allows a little privacy
while still filtering in light. Sheer curtains are often hung as secondary curtains or over
blinds. This means the primary curtain or blind can be used to block out light and then pulled
back to reveal the sheers which allow light in while still minimalising visibility into the room.
Sheers often have a tab top design but can be custom made into other curtain styles, keeping
in mind the delicateness and light weight properties of sheer fabric. Suitable for almost every
room, sheers can be made more formal when the curtain top is encased in a pelmet,
concealing the curtain rod and wall joinery.
Pelmets and Valances

Pelmets are a decorative framework used to conceal the curtain fixtures at the top of a
window casing. Pelmets are flat and box like in shape however they can be shaped to add
decorative detail. Often made from chipboard and covered in a decorative fabric, they are a
fantastic decorators trick for concealing multiple curtains rods (used when you hang multiple
layers of curtains like a sheer and block out curtain) in a modern and aesthetically pleasing
way. Valances are made for the same principals but are much softer in appearance with a
gathered or pleated heading.

Hanging curtains

Different curtains require different hanging needs. Curtains with rings, loops or tabs need to
hung on a curtain rod while more formal curtains like the box pleat or cased heading curtains
include curtain tape which runs along on a track. Whether you want to achieve a formal or
informal look, the length of the curtains will make a big difference. Curtains that are longer
than the window will pool on the ground, called "puddling". When done properly, this creates
a formal and grand look. The trick is too make sure you are using a medium to easy weight
fabric as if the fabric is too light weight it won't puddle nicely and can look messy and
unfinished. For a more modern look, curtains can be hung so they drop down to just a few
centimeters above the ground, creating a crisp and tidy appearance. You also need to consider
how high above the windows the rod or track will sit. Hanging your curtains high above the
window can make the windows look larger which is a great design trick.

Different Types Of Curtains And Draperies

Sash

Sash curtains are the most commonly used ones and can be typically found in every
household. Designed only to filter light, sash curtains are usually unlined and have the ability
to enhance the look of your room and give it a refined new look.
Café

Offering an informal feel, café curtains exemplify the light and cover only a certain portion of
the window. They not only give you your personal space but also allow a lot of light to come
in.

Sheer

Translucent in nature, sheer curtains offer little privacy, filter light and can be clubbed with
heavier ones as well. They have the tendency of blocking the view from the outside without
obstructing it from inside. If you require a curtain that blocks light, these ones would not
work for you.

Lace

Very similar in appearance to sheer curtains, lace curtains are made from lace fabric and are
mostly used strictly for decoration purpose. They lend a traditional look to any room and
when paired with another curtain they also help in controlling light and offer different looks
to your room.

Gathered

Gathered curtains let you change the look of your room whenever you wish to. When privacy
is not needed, you can simply pull them back roughly half way up and tie back. How to pleat
the curtain is your choice, you can even play with the overall length and lend a new look to
your room every 5-10 days.

Table top

Made typically from narrow straps, table top curtains have a loop of fabric that can be
attached to the rod used to hang them. They offer a handsome look to your room but drawing
them across when you need to obstruct light can be quite a challenging job. So, make sure
you use this kind only when you have no need of drawing them across too frequently.
Decorative treatments that you can offer your curtains

- Swag – Swag is a piece of pleated fabrics hung across the top in semi-circles. Swag is
typically paired with a cascade or jabot.

- Valance – In general, valances are used to hide the drapery hardware. They can also be
used strictly as a decorative element. Usually hung freely, valances can also be gathered, flat,
shaped or ruched.

- Jabot – The complex pleated portion that trails down the sides of the swag is jabot. You can
even experiment with jabot, instead of sides, hang them between sections of treatment and
give your living room a revamped look.

o Methods of finishing draperies –tucks and pleats

Curtain Finishes & Lining

There are a number of ways in which to finish the top, side, bottom and back of a curtain. The
following provides some guidance on standard finishes and describes options beyond that as
well. If you use our request a quote tool online, you'll see that it gives you the option to select
a pre-configured set of standard curtain finishes. You can specify a custom finish as well.

Top Finishes

Our most common top finish webbing is 3" polypropylene webbing in either black or white.
Jute webbing is generally used on natural fiber fabrics such as scrims and muslins. The top
finish attachment hardware is determined by how it will be hung and what it will hang from
e.g., will it be dead hung (stationary) or on a track. Another factor is sight line of the audience
and if the header will be seen. Photos are taken from the back of the drape to show detail.
Webbing, Grommets & Ties

Hidden, Sewn Twill Ties

Hidden Webbing, Grommets & Ties
(Double Grommet Webbing)

Pipe Hem Unlined with Hook & Loop

Closure, Hidden Grommets & Ties

Open Hem Unlined 5"

Pipe and Grommet

Webbing and Snap Hooks Above

Webbing and Snap Hooks Flush

Webbing and Snap Hooks Bottom

Webbing, Grommets & S-Hooks

Webbing, Grommets & Elephant Ears

Webbing, Grommets & CCF-2s

Jute Webbing
Hidden Bungee

Introduction To Living room furnishing

Living room furniture is the first impression that your guests will get about your home in
general and you will naturally want to make it a powerful one. Living room furniture is
something that should be chosen with great care.

Make a Design Plan:

The first step is to look at what you have at hand and chalk up a design plan. Refer to
magazine photographs, color swathes, fabric designs, artworks, friends' homes, shop
windows, nature, the Internet, everything is grist for the mill. It is inspiring and certainly very
interesting to know what leading interior designers are doing currently, but do not fall too
much for 'what's fashionable now' and 'what's hot and happening today'.

Get inspired: Once you know what you want, you can look at different design ideas. Lines
and shapes accent much of the modern living rooms furniture of today and those who
appreciate less decoration and more artsy design will enjoy the look of contemporary pieces.

Choosing the Right Sofa

A modern sofa or lounge chair in your contemporary living area furniture setting will spark
jealousy in your guests, and the stylish appearance is not compromised by comfort in the least
bit. Regardless of your personal interests, consider a modern sofa or lounge chair for your
new contemporary living room furniture set. You may use traditional three seated sofas, love
seats and couches, sectional sofas and even modular corner sofas that are best for rooms with
awkward angles.

Chairs that suits your taste

A number of contemporary living rooms furniture that are accessible these days, consist of
accentuate chairs, bamboo coffee tables and end tables, and the customary sofas and chairs.
Some people wish to add a couple of matching chairs or recliners, a desk, and perhaps a
couple of plant stands for decorative purposes. The basic living room furniture pieces are
usually a sofa, one or more chairs (of various types), a coffee table, maybe some end tables,
and lighting.

Sofa covers

A sofa cover that is too large or too small not only looks unsightly but also cannot protect the
sofa from any damage. ... The material that sofa covers are generally made of include blends,
cotton, faux leather, jacquard, polycotton, polyester, silk velvet, etc.

cushion covers

A cushion is a soft fluffy bag of some ornamental material, stuffed with wool, hair, feathers,
polyester staple fiber, non-woven material, or even paper torn into fragments. It may be used
for sitting or kneeling upon, or to soften the hardness or angularity of a chair or couch.

Bed Linens-

The cloth items used to make up a bed, such as sheets and pillowcases, formerly made of
linen but now coming in a wide variety of material such as cotton or polyester.

· Different types of bed linen

A bed sheet is a rectangular piece of cloth used as bedding, being placed immediately below
or above bed occupants. Bed sheets can generally be divided into two categories: "top" and
"bottom" sheets. A bottom sheet is laid above the mattress and bed occupants lie on it.

Blanket & Blanket covers

Blanket is also used to stay warm, but it is usually a single layer bed covering made from
woolen material. These are thicker than bed sheets, but not like quilts. Difference Between
Duvet and Comforter. Comforter is also a thick bed spread like quilt.

Blanket covers are traditionally called a night spread, and used to decorate the bed when the
bedspread is removed. Blanket Covers are a unique piece that provides great versatility
when finishing a bed. They are designed to fall to the bottom of the mattress covering the
blanket and bed sheets for a finished look.

Comforts & Comfort covers

Bed spreads

The bed spread is then the ornamental cover over everything else. It may be thick and
function as an extra blanket or very light. Nowadays many people use a Comforter with a
decorative cover rather than a traditional blanket/bedspread combination.

Pillow covers

The fill is surrounded with a cover or shell made of cloth, such as silk, known as the pillow
case or pillow slip. Some pillows have a fancier cover called a sham which is closed on all
sides and usually has a slit in the back through which the pillow is placed.

USES
The purpose of a fitted bottom sheet is to keep it from slipping off the mattress while the bed
is in use. A particular way of folding and tucking while making the bed, known as "hospital
corners," is sometimes used when the bottom sheet is flat rather than fitted.
KITCHEN LINEN

Kitchen linen is important for every woman who cooks, bakes and spends much time in a
kitchen. Linen has an assortment of linen kitchen towels, aprons, grill gloves, baskets and
napkins. Kitchen linen towels are known for their ability to absorb moisture quickly. Aprons,
grill gloves, as well as other products, are made of natural linen, so they are nice to wear,
easy to wash. Kitchen linen has to be easy taken care of.

Types of Kitchen Linens

Tea Towels: Tea towels can vary in size, material and colour. Their function is to dry dishes
quickly and effectively and polish glassware to a high sheen. They’re absorbent, hardwearing
and can be coordinated to match your kitchen interior.
Polishing Cloths: Polishing cloths are traditionally used to dust wooden surfaces and bring
out the shine in jewellery, furniture and kitchenware. They are often made from a soft cotton
which will prevent smudging and watermarks without the need for rigorous rubbing or
swabbing.
Cleaning Cloths: Cleaning cloths include everything from dishcloths and floor cloths to
window scrims. Their purpose is to clean dishes and kitchenware, any surfaces in the kitchen,
appliances, windows and floors.

Table Linens

They are cloth accessories for use at a table, such as tablecloths, placemats, and napkins. It is

the tablecloth and napkins that you put on the table when you servea meal

The Different Types of Table Linens

Tablecloths
The basic foundation of your table settings, tablecloths do more than just cover and protect
the tables. They have a big role in creating the right color scheme, flair, and theme to your
event. Tablecloths are extremely customizable and come in a wide array of colors, sizes,
shapes, and materials. Standard tablecloths are decoratively draped while fitted or stretch
tablecloths cling close to the table.
Whether you want your event to be sleek and traditional or vibrant and modern, there is a
tablecloth out there that is perfect for your needs.
Table Skirts
For sophisticated events, like a trade show or wedding reception, table skirts are a budget
way to add elegance and class. Covering from the top of the table to the floor, table skirts
come in a variety of colors and are an easy way to disguise less-than-beautiful tables. Design-
wise, table skirts often come in a beautiful box pleat, though more flowery styles (such
as Grandiose Rosette table skirts) are in vogue as well.
For events that serve food in a buffet-line style, box pleat table skirts are great for adding
professionalism to buffet tables.

Table Overlays
Sometimes called table toppers, table overlays are an attractive type of table linen. Like
flowers or decorative icing on the top of a wedding cake, overlays are typically layered over
your tablecloth for added color or style. Depending on the situation however, some people
prefer the look of table overlays by themselves on a bare table.
Especially if you choose plain colored or white tablecloths, overlays are a great way to add a
touch of luxury and visual interest. Popular overlay materials include classic lace, colorful
satin, and accents like sequins or embroidery.

Table Runners
Similar to an overlay, table runners are a great accessory to boost a formal table setting.
Typically they are a long strip of fabric that “runs” through the middle of a table and across
its length. They can either stop at the end of a table or hang decoratively off the ends. Not
only do table runners help protect the table, but they are an easy way to incorporate patterns,
accent colors, or a certain theme.
Especially for events that make use of centerpieces, like flowers or other items at wedding
receptions, table runners are a great way to partition the table and highlight whatever is
placed in the middle.

Placemats
Often used in combination with table runners, placemats are typically square or rectangular
portions of fabric used to designate individual spaces. They can be quite decorative, and are
often available in a range of colors and materials.
Depending on the style you choose, placemats are very useful for creating a cohesive visual
pattern across the table. For example, if you are going for a vintage look, burlap or pintuck
placemats are especially popular. Alternating between two colors is fun for casual events.
In addition, not only are placemats useful for occasions that have a certain theme (such as a
Thanksgiving dinner), but they also help protect the tablecloth from spills and stains.

Napkins
A dining necessity, fabric napkins are also a key table linen for formal table settings.
Available in nearly every type of fabric that tablecloths come in, napkins can either
compliment or provide an accent color to your table setting. There are even patterned fabric
napkins for those who like unique and visually impressive table settings.
Napkins can be intended for guests to wipe their hands and mouths on or for purely
decorative purposes, so choose napkins based on the needs of your event. The most common
is a “lunch” napkin, which is usually 20 inches square. However, there are also larger
“dinner” napkins (typically 24 inches square) and “cocktail” napkins, which are often 4 to 6
inches square. To keep napkins looking neat, they should be folded decoratively or used
with napkin rings.
How to Dress Your Table with Linens
While you are free to let loose with your creativity, here is a basic guide to dressing a table
using linens. In general, the number of table linens you use is based off of how formal your
event is. A major occasion like a wedding reception would use more table linens while a
casual family dinner might just have a tablecloth and placemats.
In general, a standard table setting is all about layering. Begin with the base, which is a
tablecloth suited in size and shape to your table. Once you have centered and laid out the
tablecloth, begin adding other linens such as a decorative lace overlay across the top and/or
table runner down the middle. Finishing touches would include placemats and napkins for
each person’s space as well as decorations such as centerpieces, candles, or flowers.

Formal and Casual Table Setting Ideas

Since formal events often use more table linens, many people get confused about how to
coordinate the different parts. As a general rule of thumb, a formal table setting should have a
white or solid colored tablecloth with matching napkins. In addition, the table runner and
placemats should synchronize well, either as a secondary color or texture accent.

On the other hand, table settings for casual events have almost limitless possibilities. Instead
of formal white, feel free to mix and match bright colors with patterns. Ideas include a solid
tablecloth with patterned placemats, a striped tablecloth with a solid table runner, or a solid
tablecloth with alternating napkins in a different color.

Types of Fabric

When considering table linens, the type of fabric they’re made of should be at the top of your
list. Fabric choice determines your look and, more importantly, the amount of maintenance
your table linens will require. Here are some of the most popular materials used in table
linens:
• Linen is made from the flax plant. Being a natural fiber, it tends to have a soft, relaxed feel.
Linen adds refinement to your table, whether at an intimate dinner or a grand event.
• Cotton is a good choice if you’re looking for table linens that are functional and machine
washable. Cotton may require some ironing to look crisp, so consider a cotton-poly blend if
you want to wrestle with fewer wrinkles.
• Polyester is less prone to fading, so your linens are more likely to hold their color, even
after many washings. While polyester lacks the smooth feel found in natural-fiber table
linens, it’s the easiest fabric to care for.
Tablecloths

Whether it’s your grandmother’s dining room set or a folding card table, tablecloths are an
easy way to add color, interest, and texture to your table. Tablecloths are available in a
variety of shapes, sizes, and fabrics, so you can find a tablecloth suitable for every table and
occasion.

Table Runners

Table runners are a versatile addition to your table linens collection. A table runner can add
visual drama or create a cohesive look. It can also protect your table from hot dishes or pans.
Available in simple or ornate designs, and in a variety of fabrics, table runners are a quick
way to mix things up. As a rule, a table runner should hang over six inches at each end of the

table.

Placemats

Placemats are a practical addition to your linen closet. Placemats protect your table from
spills and make cleanup a snap. Rectangular placemats are traditional, but now they’re also
available in square and round shapes for a more contemporary look. Placemats are made in a
variety of materials – jute, canvas, linen, wood, plastic, and more – to accommodate every

look or occasion.

Cloth Napkins

Your guests (and your lips) will thank you for using cloth napkins. They’re reusable, which
means they’re eco-friendly. They’re easily laundered with your other linens. Standard sizes
for cloth napkins range from 16″ x 16″ square to 21″ x 21″ square. Generally, the larger sizes
are best for more formal occasions, as they allow for more elaborate folding patterns.

Napkin Rings

While napkin rings might not be critical for a casual gathering, they add a polished touch to
more formal affairs. When deciding on the best napkin rings for your next occasion, consider
the colors of your linens and overall theme of your design. The best-designed tables balance
form and function, and napkin rings are a perfect way to tie everything together.

OVERVIEW OF RETAIL INDUSTRY

Retail industry, being the fifth largest in the world, is one of the sunrise sectors with huge
growth potential and accounts for 14-15% of the country’s GDP. Comprising of organized
and unorganized sectors, Indian retail industry is one of the fastest growing industries in
India, especially over the last few years.

According to the Global Retail Development Index 2012, India ranks fifth among the top 30
emerging markets for retail. The recent announcement by the Indian government with
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in retail, especially allowing 100% FDI in single brands and
multi-brand FDI has created positive sentiments in the retail sector.

Emerging Areas

Some sectors that occupy a prominent position with the retail industry are:

Apparel and fashion – Everybody understands the impact of fashion and textiles on the
environment. Almost $19.5 billion were spent on online apparel shopping in the year 2009
and increasing since then.

 
Fashion & Lifestyle - In India the vast middle class and its almost untapped retail industry are
the key attractive forces for global retail giants wanting to enter into newer markets, which in
turn will help the retail to grow faster.

Food & Beverage retail - Backed by huge potential and changing lifestyles, the food and
beverage retail market is growing at a robust 30-35 per cent per year.

Pharmaceutical Retail – Driven by therapies like anti-diabetic, vitamin, anti-infectives and

dermatology, it accounted for a robust 15% growth in 2011.

E-commerce or E-tailing – the next big revolution - With the advent of e-commerce in the
retail industry, retail stores are facing stiff competition from e-stores. The rising demand for
e-shopping has lead to a new debate cropping up in the world.

Factors driving growth are:

 Emergence of nuclear families

 Falling real estate prices
 Growing trend of double-income households
 Increase in disposable income and customer aspiration
 Increase in expenditure for luxury items
 Large working population
 Low share of organized retailing
 Growing liberalization of the FDI policy in the past decade

 
Skill sets required are:

The industry employs a staggering number of people, and given its rapid proliferation, this
number is always on the rise. The backbone of the sector are the operations and supply chain
management jobs but there are various other options as well, from sales executives and store
managers to merchandise planners and buyers.

 Conceptual understanding
 Analytical skills
 Detail-orientation
 Fair understanding of customer’s psychology
 Observations skills
 Project Management
 Operational Skills
 In-depth product knowledge

Bottlenecks

 A long way to meet international standards

 Lack of efficient supply-chain management
 Lack of required retail space
 No fixed consumption pattern
 Shortage of trained manpower
 Lack of proper infrastructure and distribution channels

UNDERSTANDING OF DIFFERENT RETAIL FORMATS

Retailing is the final step in the distribution of merchandise - the last link in the supply chain
(connection between the bulk producers of commodities to the final consumers). Retailing
covers diverse products such as food, apparel, consumer goods, financial services and leisure.
The Indian retail market, pegged at US$ 350 bn and accounting for 10% of the country's
GDP, is large but highly fragmented (Source: IBEF). Organised retail in India constitutes
approximately 2% of the total retail industry. The concentration of organised retail players is
mainly in the top 10 cities, which account for 96% of the organised retail market. The growth
in organised retail is being led by changes in consumer behaviour and is being driven mainly
by the increased availability of shopping opportunities provided by the retailers.

There has been a transition from the traditional retail sector to organised retailing, from small
kiranawalas to big super markets over the years. Given the time constraint, convenience of
shopping with multiplicity of choice under one roof is what consumers are looking for these
days. And this has been the driving factor for organised retailingin the country.

Formats like kiranas, traditional mom and pop stores, kiosks, street markets,
exclusive/multiple brand outlets are traditional formats. While company owned and company
operated supermarkets (Food world), hypermarkets (Big Bazaar), department stores
(Shoppers' Stop), specialty chains (Ikea), entertainment (Inox) are modern formats. In this
article, we have discussed the various retail formats and the value proposition that they offer.

Retail formats can be broadly be classified into two types viz., a) Store format and b) Non-
store format.

Store formats: Store formats are formats based on the physical store where the vendor
interacts with the customer. A super market, convenience store, department store, discount
store, category specialist and malls are few examples of the store formats.

 Department stores: A department store is a large store with a wide variety of products
organised into departments such as clothing, house wares, furniture, appliances, toys
and the like. The value proposition of this store is that it provides a one stop shop
catering to varied consumer needs. 

 Super market: Super markets are extremely large self-service retail outlets with the
same value proposition as delivered by the department stores - one stop shop catering
to varied consumer needs. For example: Food world. 
  Hyper-mart: It is larger than a super market, sometimes with a warehouse appearance
and generally located in quieter parts of the city. These stores offer vast choice at low
prices and also include services such as cafeterias. For example: Big Bazaar. 

 Discount stores: These types of stores offer discounts on the retail price by selling
high volumes and reaping the economies of scale. The value proposition attached to
these types of formats is in the name itself - low prices or at a discount. 

 Convenience stores: Convenience stores are small self-service formats located in

crowded urban areas. The value proposition attached to these type of formats is
convenient location and extended operating hours. 

 Branded stores: The exclusive showrooms either owned or franchised out by a

manufacturer are termed as branded stores. They offer complete range for a given
brand with certified product quality. For example: Shoppers' Stop. 

 Speciality stores: This type of store focuses on a specific consumer need and caters to
most of the available brands. These types of stores provide greater choice to the
consumers and also enable brand comparison. For example: Ikea 

 Shopping malls: An enclosure having different formats of in-store retailers, all under
one roof is termed as a shopping mall. This type of a format is gaining importance
these days. The benefit of this type of format is that different shops are located close
to each other, thus enabling convenience of shopping.

Non-store: Non-store formats are those forms of retailing where end users are served without
meeting them in the physical store. Non-store formats are represented by catalogue and direct
mail retailing, telemarketing, television home shopping, direct personal selling, vending
machine selling and internet selling. Here, we focus on two such formats namely vending
machines and electronic retailing.

 Vending machines: A vending machine is a retailing format involving the coin or card
operated dispensing of goods (such as beverages) and services (such as life insurance
sales at airports). It eliminates the use of sales personnel and allows for round the
clock sales. Machines can be placed wherever they are most convenient to the
consumers i.e. inside or outside a store, at a station, airport or a street corner. 
  Electronic retailing: Electronic retailing (also called e-tailing and Internet retailing) is
a retail format in which the retailer and customer communicate which each other
through an interactive electronic network. The customer places orders directly
through the interactive network or by telephone, after which the goods are then
delivered to the customer's address.

LEARN BASIC OPERATIONS OF GARMENT RETAIL STORES

Store Atmosphere

The store must offer a positive ambience to the customers for them to enjoy their shopping
and leave with a smile.

 The store should not give a cluttered look.

 The products should be properly arranged on the shelves according to their sizes and
patterns. Make sure products do not fall off the shelves.
 There should be no foul smell in the store as it irritates the customers.
 The floor, ceiling, carpet, walls and even the mannequins should not have unwanted
spots.
 Never dump unnecessary packing boxes, hangers or clothes in the dressing room.
Keep it clean.
 Make sure the customers are well attended.
 Don’t allow customers to carry eatables inside the store.

Cash Handling

 One of the most important aspects of retailing is cash handling.

 It is essential for the retailer to track the daily cash flow to calculate the profit and loss
of the store.
 Cash Registers, electronic cash management system or an elaborate computerized
point of sale (POS) system help the retailer to manage the daily sales and the revenue
generated.
Prevent Shoplifting/Safety and Security

 The merchandise should not be displayed at the entry or exit of the store.
 Do not allow customers to carry more than three dresses at one time to the trial room.
 Install CCTVs and cameras to keep a close watch on the customers.
 Each and every merchandise should have a security tag.
 Ask the individuals to submit carry bags at the security.
 Make sure the sales representative handle the products carefully.
 Clothes should not have unwanted stains or dust marks as they lose appeal and fail to
impress the customers.
 Install a generator for power backup and to avoid unnecessary black outs.
 Keep expensive products in closed cabinets.
 Instruct the children not to touch fragile products.
 The customers should feel safe inside the store.

Customer Service

 Customers are assets of the retail business and the retailer can’t afford to lose even a
single customer.
 Greet customers with a smile.
 Assist them in their shopping.
 The sales representatives should help the individuals buy merchandise as per their
need and pocket.
 The retailer must not oversell his products to the customers. Let them decide on their
own.
 Give the individual an honest and correct feedback. If any particular outfit is not
looking good on anyone, tell him the truth and suggest him some better options.
 Never compromise on quality of products. Remember one satisfied customer brings
five more individuals to the store. Word of mouth plays an important role in Brand
Promotion.

Refunds and Returns

 Formulate a concrete refund policy for your store.

 The store should have fixed timings for exchange of merchandise.
  Never exchange products in lieu of cash.
 Never be rude to the customer, instead help him to find something else.

Visual Merchandising

 The position of dummies should be changed frequently.

 There should be adequate light in the store. Change the burned out lights immediately.
 Don’t stock unnecessary furniture at the store.
 Choose light and subtle colours for the walls to set the mood of the walk-ins.
 Make sure the signage displays all the necessary information about the store and is
installed at the right place visible to all.
 The customers should be able to move and shop freely in the store.
 The retail store should be well ventilated.

Training Program

 The store manager must conduct frequent training programs for the sales
representatives, cashier and other team members to motivate them from time to time.
 It is the store manager’s responsibility to update his subordinates with the latest
softwares in retail or any other developments in the industry.
 It is the store manager’s responsibility to collate necessary reports (sales as well as
inventory) and send to the head office on a daily basis.

Inventory and Stock Management

 The retailer must ensure to manage inventory to avoid being “out of stock”.
 Every retail chain should have its own warehouse to stock the merchandise.
 Take adequate steps to prevent loss of inventory and stock.

Store Design and Layout - Different Floor Plans and Layouts

Opening a retail store is no joke and requires meticulous planning and detailed knowledge.

Location

Make sure your store is in a prime location and is easily accessible to the end-users. Do not
open a store at a secluded place.
Floor Plan

The retailer must plan out each and everything well, the location of the shelves or racks to
display the merchandise, the position of the mannequins or the cash counter and so on.

1. Straight Floor Plan

The straight floor plan makes optimum use of the walls, and utilizes the space in the
most judicious manner. The straight floor plan creates spaces within the retail store
for the customers to move and shop freely. It is one of the commonly implemented
store designs.

2. Diagonal Floor Plan

According to the diagonal floor plan, the shelves or racks are kept diagonal to each
other for the owner or the store manager to have a watch on the customers. Diagonal
floor plan works well in stores where customers have the liberty to walk in and pick
up merchandise on their own.

3. Angular Floor Plan

The fixtures and walls are given a curved look to add to the style of the store. Angular
floor plan gives a more sophisticated look to the store. Such layouts are often seen in
high end stores.
 4. Geometric Floor Plan

The racks and fixtures are given a geometric shape in such a floor plan. The geometric
floor plan gives a trendy and unique look to the store.

5. Mixed Floor Plan

The mixed floor plan takes into consideration angular, diagonal and straight layout to
give rise to the most functional store lay out.

Tips for Store Design and Layout

 The signage displaying the name and logo of the store must be installed at a place
where it is visible to all, even from a distance. Don’t add too much information.
 The store must offer a positive ambience to the customers. The customers must leave
the store with a smile.
 Make sure the mannequins are according to the target market and display the latest
trends. The clothes should look fitted on the dummies without using unnecessary pins.
The position of the dummies must be changed from time to time to avoid monotony.
  The trial rooms should have mirrors and must be kept clean. Do not dump
unnecessary boxes or hangers in the dressing room.
 The retailer must choose the right colour for the walls to set the mood of the
customers. Prefer light and subtle shades.
 The fixtures or furniture should not act as an object of obstacle. Don’t unnecessary
add too many types of furniture at your store.
 The merchandise should be well arranged and organized on the racks assigned for
them. The shelves must carry necessary labels for the customers to easily locate the
products they need. Make sure the products do not fall off the shelves.
 Never play loud music at the store.
 The store should be adequately lit so that the products are easily visible to the
customers. Replace burned out lights immediately.
 The floor tiles, ceilings, carpet and the racks should be kept clean and stain free.
 There should be no bad odour at the store as it irritates the customers.
 Do not stock anything at the entrance or exit of the store to block the way of the
customers. The customers should be able to move freely in the store.
 The retailer must plan his store in a way which minimizes theft or shop lifting.
i. Merchandise should never be displayed at the entrance or exit of the store.
ii. Expensive products like watches, jewellery, precious stones, mobile handsets
and so on must be kept in locked cabinets.
iii. Install cameras, CCTVs to have a closed look on the customers.
iv. Instruct the store manager or the sales representatives to try and assist all the
customers who come for shopping.
v. Ask the customers to deposit their carry bags at the entrance itself.
vi. Do not allow the customers to carry more than three dresses at one time to the
trial room

CUSTOMER INTERACTIONS AND HELP THEM TO PURCHASE MERCHANDISE

Customer interaction means a communication between a customer and a company:

Each customer interaction is an opportunity to create a good impression.
Ways customer interactions can improve your business

1. Improved customer satisfaction

Customer satisfaction rests at the heart of every successful business. Learning how to craft
positive customer experiences while retaining your company’s culture is paramount to that
success. Each customer interaction not only provides insight into the experience of a
particular customer, but also adds another data point to your customer base’s satisfaction as a
whole.

2. Improved training methods

Most customer satisfaction centers have call recording, kind of similar to chat transcripts on
live chat, and one of the most potent uses for this call recording is to record the best customer
service interactions and use them to train the others. A tough customer may come along, and
a great resolution can be used as a case study and folded into part of the training program.

3. Improved customer recovery 

Customer recovery. Nobody likes to hear those words, but it’s something which happens to
those who have even the best intentions. Put simply, it’s the art of calling a mad customer off
the ledge of going to another company or screaming at you.

4. Improved employee motivation

If everyone in your support team is dedicated to improving customer satisfaction levels by

learning from customer interaction, motivation will rise because there will be a decrease in
the number of angry customers with which to deal. Morale improves and employees
motivation increases when they’re not feeling like they have arrows fired at them.

5. Improved operational procedures

When businesses are keen to learn from their customer support team, operational procedures
begin to change. All of those great practices observed from interactions with customers
become codified within the company culture. These improved operational procedures can
always be tweaked and adjusted to yield more success with customers and within the
business. All it takes is the willingness to adopt new practices.
Communication Skills

Communication is the act of transferring information from one place to another. This can be
in numerous forms including vocally, written (e.g. using printed or digital media), visually
(e.g. utilizing charts or graphs) or non-verbally (e.g. using body language or gestures).
Effective communication skills are the ability to express yourself clearly and concisely, in a
way that things are understood and done. A person with good communication skills can read
other people’s behavior, compromise to reach an agreement, avoid and resolve conflict, and
adapt to new and different situations. And don’t forget that it is a two-way street, so being a
good listener is absolutely vital.

How Can I Develop Communication Skills?

1. Become a good listener. The best thing you can do to improve your communication skills
is learn to listen. Pay attention to what others are saying, let them put their point across
without interrupting them, show interest in what is being said and set aside your judgments.
This will help you become an engaged listener, which is a key quality of a good
communicator. Only when people will think you are interested in their thoughts and opinions,
they will be willing to listen to your ideas.

2. Learn articulation – be brief but specific. Nobody likes listening to long speeches or
reading long mails when the same message could have been implied through fewer words.
Try to keep your communications short and crisp, be clear about the point that you are trying
to make, and avoid beating around the bush. For people lose interest easily when any form of
verbal or written communications lacks clarity and brevity.

3. Tailor your message to your audience. This is another very important communication hack
that best communicators use. If you are addressing a room full of young students, include
stories/anecdotes that will be relevant to them. For example, if you are talking to high school
students about importance of higher education, you might want to throw in short stories about
some famous person from their generation or add references to latest movies or TV shows.
This will get them interested in your speech and your message will be conveyed to the
audience with a much better impact.

4. Improve your body language. While communicating face to face with people, it is
important to watch your nonverbal signs along with the words that you say. Use your body
language to bring attention to your words. For example, pounding your fists to emphasize on
your point or using air quotes to highlight something. Also, try to maintain a steady stance as
you communicate as moving too much is a sign of anxiety and under confidence. Make eye
contact with your audience from time to time, which also reflects confidence and keeps them
involved in the conversation.

5. Assert yourself. You can communicate the best only when you believe in whatever you are
saying. Value your opinions, know your needs and wants, offer constructive criticism and
always receive feedback positively.

6. Ask questions. Communication is a two way street. If you want others to be interested in
whatever you write or say, you need to prompt them to express their thoughts and opinion
too. This will ensure an engaging and fruitful communication.

7. Learn new skills. No matter which phase of life you are in, always strive to learn new
things. Join a club of your choice in school, or participate in extracurricular activities at
college or volunteer for office presentations, explore new opportunities around you and
develop on them. Stepping out of your comfort zone and engaging with new people will help
further sharpen your proficiency.

8. Do not be afraid. In order to be a good communicator, you need to convey your thoughts
with confidence and assertiveness. So do not be afraid of expressing yourself, you will only
get better with each mistake. Good communication skills will help you at each stage and age
of your life, not only within the office or classroom walls but also beyond. Hope this guide
helps you become an excellent communicator!

COMMUNICATION SKILLS EVERY PROFESSIONAL SHOULD MASTER.

1. Active listening skills: The ability to listen to and incorporate other views in your
communication. Listening shows you value opinions outside of your own and are
open to new concepts. As a result, your audience views you as an equal partner and
you can come to a solution that benefits the greater good. An active listener will allow
pauses for interjections, repeat other people’s words and ask questions to affirm his or
her engagement in a conversation.
2. Writing skills: Using specific data and examples in written communication to make a
solid case, and communicating proposed action items. Written communication for
business should be brief but informative, and helps an audience focus on only the
most important points. Good written communication also includes adequate follow-
up, which closes the communication loop and shows proactive activity towards goals
3. Verbal skills: The ability to communicate information (ideas, thoughts, opinions and
updates) in a clear manner verbally. Like good written communication, good verbal
communication in the workplace is also concise and specific (researchers have found
thattoday’s attention span amounts to only 8.25 seconds). Verbal communication
allows employees to engage with one another in-person and come to a mutually
agreeable consensus.
4. Interpersonal communication skills: Building trust and strong relationships with key
stakeholders in a business. Another “soft skill,” successful interpersonal
communication allows employees to find common ground, display empathy and build
bonds with one another. Interpersonal communication means connecting on more than
business level, but a personal level as well.
5. Teamwork skills: Effectively communicating with others who may have different
opinions and skill sets. In a business setting, this means putting aside personal
differences and working toward a common goal. For teamwork to be successful, all
parties must recognize that combined efforts are worth more than individual
contributions.
6. Presentation skills: Presenting information and ideas to an audience in a way that is
engaging, motivating, and effective. This method of business communication allows
one individual, or a group of individuals, to share evidence to support an idea or
argument. A good presenter is also a good storyteller, using data, stories and examples
to influence an audience to act toward a desired outcome.
7. Selling skills: Persuading stakeholders to pursue an idea, decision, action, product or
service. Selling skills extends beyond just those whose jobs fall under the sales
department. Employees with selling skills can use these skills to influence other
employees to buy into a project, team members to choose a side, or executives to offer
new products or services.
8. Negotiation skills: Reaching a mutually beneficial solution by understanding and
leveraging the other side’s motivations. A mutually beneficial or “win-win” solution
is one that both sides finds favorable, and maintains positive relationships for future
 interactions. In order to achieve this outcome, you’ll need to discover what factors
would be most influential and agreeable for the other side.
9. Networking skills: Displaying business value and encouraging others to enter into
your business network. In order to network successfully, you’ll need to be interesting
enough that others desire to partner with you in some way. A large business network
can also be a safety net, and means you have more people to rely on when you require
help, information or services.

What Are Soft Skills?

Non-verbal cues, in a conversation with anyone, can say more than the actual words.
Managing the cues to create a better situation requires the use of soft skills. In a work
environment, there are two types of skills: hard and soft.

Hard skills are the technical skills you use each day to perform your job. Some examples
would be your computer skills or procedural knowledge you apply in your job.

Soft skills, the topic of this lesson, are the subtle behaviors and communication styles that
help make a work environment or interaction with another person easier to manage. Soft skill
examples include communication skills, such as voice inflection and gestures. They also
include attributes such as adaptability and flexibility. Other soft skills include:

 Problem Solving
 Creative Thinking
 Conflict Resolution
 Time Management
 Self-Motivation

Important Soft skills

1. Leadership Skills.
Companies want employees who can supervise and direct other workers. They want
employees who can cultivate relationships up, down, and across the organizational chain;
assess, motivate, encourage, and discipline workers; build teams, resolve conflicts, and help
to create the desired culture.
2. Teamwork.
Most employees are part of a team/department/division, and even those who are not on an
official team need to collaborate with other employees. You may prefer to work alone, but
it’s important to demonstrate that you understand and appreciate the value of joining
forces and working in partnership with others to accomplish the company’s goals.
3. Communication Skills.
Successful communication involves five components. Verbal communication refers to your
ability to speak clearly and concisely. Nonverbal communication includes the capacity to
project positive body language and facial expressions. Aural communication is the ability to
listen to and actually hear what others are saying. Written communication refers to your
skillfulness in composing text messages, reports, and other types of documents. And visual
communication involves your ability to relay information using pictures and other visual aids.
4. Problem Solving Skills. 
Many people shirk from problems because they don’t understand that companies hire
employees to solve problems. Glitches, bumps in the road, and stumbling blocks are a part of
the job. The ability to use your knowledge to find answers to pressing problems and
formulate workable solutions will demonstrate that you can handle – and excel in – your job.
5. Work Ethic. 
While you may have a manager, companies don’t like to spend time micromanaging
employees. They expect you to be responsible and do the job that you’re getting paid to do,
which includes being punctual when you arrive at work, meeting deadlines, and making sure
that your work is error free. And going the extra mile shows that you’re committed to
performing your work with excellence.
6. Flexibility/Adaptability. 
In the 21st century, companies need to change at the speed of light to remain competitive. So
they want workers who can also shift gears or change direction as needed. Also, while the
economy may be recovering, many companies are not fully staffed, so they want employees
who can wear more than one hat and serve in more than one role.
7. Interpersonal Skills. 
This is a broad category of “people skills” and includes the ability to build and maintain
relationships, develop rapport, and use diplomacy. It also includes the ability to give and
receive constructive criticism, be tolerant and respectful regarding the opinions of others, and
empathize with them.
 Definition of Logistics Management

The management process which integrates the movement of goods, services, information, and
capital, right from the sourcing of raw material, till it reaches its end consumer is known as
Logistics Management. The objective behind this process is to provide the right product with
the right quality at the right time in the right place at the right price to the ultimate customer.
The logistic activities are divided into two broad categories they are:

 Inbound Logistics: The activities which are concerned with procurement of material,
handling, storage and transportation
 Outbound Logistics: The activities which are concerned with the collection, maintenance, and
distribution or delivery to the final consumer.

Apart from these, other activities are warehousing, protective packing, order fulfillment,
stock control, maintaining equilibrium between demand and supply, stock management. This
will result in savings in cost and time, high-quality products, etc.

Definition of Supply Chain Management

Supply Chain Management (SCM) is a series of interconnected activities related to the

transformation and movement of raw material to the finished goods till it reaches to the end
user. It is the outcome of the efforts of multiple organizations that helped in making this
chain of activities successful.
Supply Chain Management

These organizations may include the firms with whom the organization is currently working
like partners or suppliers, manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers, and consumers. The activities
may include integration, sourcing, procurement, production, testing, logistics, customer
services, performance measurement, etc.

Supply Chain Management has a multi-dimensional approach which manages the flow of raw
materials and works in progress (semi-finished goods) within the organization and the end
product outside the organization till it reaches the hands of the final consumer with a
complete emphasis on the customer requirement.

Understanding Fashion & trend forecasting

To cope with the ever-changing technologies, the markets and consumer are rapidly evolving
from traditional, static, demographic-based criteria to more towards dynamic, modern, mood,
lifestyle and psycho graphic influences.
Fashion trend forecasting resources help predict trends in the fashion industry. Fashion &
trend forecasting is the prediction of mood, behavior and buying habits of the consumer at
particular time of season. It is no longer a question of finding your markets or consumers by
age, geography or income, but looking into how and what they buy, based on their culture,
mood, beliefs, occasion & geographic locations, it is also dependent on fashion cycle and
plays a major role in introductory phase of recurring fashion cycles.

Fashion trend forecast calculates as following:

Season > Target Market > Consumer >Colors > Fabrics > Silhouette > Texture > Usage

Understanding fashion trends forecast is one of the most arduous and calculative work for all,
I know most of top business houses around the world totally rely on designers for
understanding the same, but on the other side there are others who dont believe in it at all. In
current times when we look at technology we know nothing is by chance and there are people
who are working behind the scenes, day and night to make things appear easy and affordable
to us. Question which often comes to our mind is which trend forecast to use and how we can
understand it better. Many technological forecasting methods have been reported in various
forecast related books & mentioned in literature of many countries, and they have been
successfully applied widely. As trend forecasting results are mainly influenced by the
forecasting method used by the end user, it is of utmost importance to determine the method
that will be most appropriate to a business model you adopt. Lets identify the main factors
affecting Fashion trend forecasting:

Seasons:

Each season, the design and merchandising departments worldwide are waiting whats in
trend for coming seasons. They rely heavily on creating a new line using these valuable data
collected by professional agencies. Trend forecasts are based on seasons Spring,
Summer, Fall &Winter like we connect certain colors with holiday and seasons, they expect
to see earthy tones in fall season, jeweled colors for holidays, the pastels of flowers in early
spring, and refreshing white for the summer. All the manufacturers include some of these
standard colors in there line or collection planning. Work on new line normally begins six
months before the selling season( A flowery dress to be worn in may should be in design
section starting December). The manufacturers must produce four or five seasonal lines a
year. Targeting delivery ahead a month is providing consumers with continual fresh
merchandise each season.

What are Retail Management Information Systems?

Retail management means running a store where merchandise is sold and Retail Management
Information Systems include using hardware, software and procedures to manage activities
like planning, inventory control, financial management, logistics and point of sale
transactions. You can use a retail management information system in your business to
manage your store, finances and inventory from one office.

What are the features of Retail Management Information Systems?

Retail management information systems support distributed stores by linking them. By

allowing information to be exchanged instantly, store managers can stay in contact to more
effectively control profits for the whole company. RMIS should support product management
and should also enable a detailed analysis of customer data. It is a flexible system that allows
managers to set prices for variable time periods based on the store location and to meet the
needs of sales and inventory managers, retail management information systems involve the
use of a mobile user interface.

How do Retail Management Information Systems function?

Retail Management Information Systems support the basic functions of procurement, storage
and delivery. With a retail management information system a manager can manage
customers, inventory, suppliers and product sales. The system also allows you to track
purchase orders and update inventory records with dynamism. Moreover, you can analyze
cash, check and credit card transactions to reconcile information and improve efficiency by
examining overage and shortages to reveal developments that can be remedied.

What types of Retail Management Information Systems are there?

Retail management information systems can be customized for each industry. For example it
can be customized for sports, department stores, supermarkets, furniture, fashion, jewelry or
for prescription drugs. Some systems also support multiple languages, currencies, tax systems
and cost structures. With retail management information systems there is support for different
business models and can accommodate franchise, consignment, direct sales or online
business models.

What are the benefits of Retail Management Information Systems?

Operations are improved and costs are reduced by preventing duplicate entries because RMIS
facilitates the integration between payments, inventory and transactions. By effectively
tracking inventory, customer requests can be dealt with faster. With expedient responses you
can also improve service, expand your customer base and increase profits. Easy access to data
allows you to identify opportunities to improve waste reduction, recycle materials and choose
environmentally friendly packaging. These strategies pave the way for profitable business.
With system safeguards adherence to legal restrictions on pricing, promotion and other
policies are ensured.

What considerations do Retail Management Information Systems require?

To identify new customers and personalize their service, exploit your databases and utilize
sophisticated data mining techniques. Also avoid overstocking by analyzing customer
behavior to predict sales and the market need. RMIS are essential for managers in a complex,
dynamic global marketplace.