6

How to Structure Business

Processes for Strategic Execution

How well an organization executes is largely determined by how well its

business processes are designed. To be effective as strategic resources,
business processes must do the following:

• Create value for which customers are willing to pay.

• Support the desired organizational behavior needed for a strat-
egy by facilitating workforce collaboration, accountability, and
responsibility.
• Be designed to include techniques to measure, manage, and control
the desired performance outcomes of the activities and tasks that
comprise the process.
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Designing these qualities into business processes requires the following

to be defined:

• A mix of core outcome measures common to most strategies, and

performance drivers that reflect the uniqueness of a particular
strategy used to track and manage execution (as advised by Kaplan
and Norton)
• The control techniques needed to make corrections when perfor-
mance or outcomes vary

To properly do so, organizations must distinguish between various

types of processes, because the design of each addresses different stra-
tegic needs.

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 82  •  Strategy and Business Process Management

DEFINING PROCESSES
A basic definition of a process is a logical sequence of activities that trans-
forms input into output or results. Other definitions add details about the
technicalities of execution. More accurate definitions describe a process as
a means to create value. Indeed, processes are much more than just sterile
transactions. They are how we do business with customers, partners, and
suppliers; how we establish and nurture relationships; how we make, ser-
vice, and fix things; how we share knowledge to create new things; how
we make decisions, solve problems, or do something that has never been
done before. And in the end, processes provide the means for us to make
money and get paid.
Processes viewed in this light take on new meaning. In fact, they take
on several meanings. A proper extended definition of a process, therefore,
is the following.
(1) Process is a logical series of related activities that converts input to
results or output. (2) Value-added extension is designed to create or deliver
customer value or shareholder value through efficiency. (3) Asset extension
is an asset that affects the quality of a product, service, or brand to uniquely
satisfy customer needs and differentiates its executor from competitors.
Innovative leaders and managers elevate the status of processes from
sequential activities to value-adding assets. They then seek to use them to
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create competitive advantage. They do so by differentiating the various types

of processes that comprise their value chain and operating model and focus
on controlling the quality and consistency of their performance outcomes.

Operating, Support, and Management Processes

Processes that can create competitive advantage are those that directly
contribute to the creation of value, support it in some way, help make deci-
sions, control variance, or solve problems. These types of processes gener-
ally fall into three high-level classes.

Operating Processes

Operating processes create, add, or deliver value for which customers are
willing to pay. They develop, make, sell, and deliver products and services.
They are typically designed to execute an organization’s stated business

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 How to Structure Business Processes for Strategic Execution  •  83

strategy. Depending on your strategy, examples of operating processes can

be product manufacturing, raw material refinement, sales order process-
ing, customer services, or rendering repair and warranty services.

Support Processes

Support processes do not directly create products or services but are

necessary to facilitate or assist the execution of operating or manage-
ment processes. Examples of processes that support operating processes
are supply procurements, inventory replenishment, and machine main-
tenance. Examples of processes that support management processes are
administrative, typically associated with finance, accounting, sales, or
human resources.

Management Processes

Management processes provide the means to measure and control quality

and ensure the desired performance outcomes. They help make decisions,
control variance, and resolve problems. They help guide the organiza-
tional behavior needed for a strategy by facilitating workforce collabora-
tion, accountability, and responsibility.
To be effective in maintaining quality and desired outcomes, manage-
ment processes need to be able to sense when outcomes are at risk, inter-
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pret options, decide, and then engage an appropriate response. Doing

this reliably requires forethought, agility, and structure. Industry leaders
prepare for this by distinguishing two types of management processes:
decision-making and control processes.
Decision-making processes are management processes that define objec-
tives, study alternatives, analyze available data, and reflect on intuitive
beliefs. They interpret findings and compare alternatives to form a conclu-
sion or make a choice upon which the organization may act. Examples of
decision-making processes include strategic planning, selecting new sup-
pliers, acquiring or merging with another organization, or how best to
restructure during trying economic conditions.
As are many processes, decision-making processes are diverse and sub-
jective, but uniquely so because they are strongly influenced by the per-
sonalities and culture of the organization’s leadership and management
teams. This makes them difficult to standardize and automate, especially
when new people fill key leadership and management roles.

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 84  •  Strategy and Business Process Management

Moreover, different decisions often warrant different approaches. Most

organizations and management teams have unique professional skills and
organizational structure designed to assemble information and interpret
options for decisions. For example, some decisions by large retailers regard-
ing how best to market to consumers may be derived from a process of rig-
orous data acquisition and statistical analysis of historic consumer behavior.
In contrast, entrepreneurial management teams or visionary leaders may
make similar decisions based on “gut feeling,” sensing what they believe to
be correct with minimal data analysis or further market inquisition.
Industry leaders optimize decision-making processes through the
strength, quality, and talent of the leadership and management teams, the
structure and frequency of communication and collaboration, and the
quality and availability of relevant information.
Control processes are management processes that engage corrective
action and resolve problems. They keep performance outcomes on track
using dynamic sense-and-respond techniques such as those introduced
by Haeckel and discussed in Section I. These techniques enable organi-
zations, in many cases, to prepare predetermined responses. Properly
designed control processes execute with discipline and structure guided
by rules of engagement and policies that enable the workforce to interpret
options, make decisions, and solve problems quickly. This makes control
processes less susceptible to wavering styles of management and easier to
standardize and automate.
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Most organizations understate or misunderstand the value and impor-

tance of control processes to support execution and enable competitive
advantage. For this reason, they warrant closer examination.

Control Processes
A control process is a series of activities and tasks performed to adjust or
correct a business process (operating, support, or other management pro-
cess), or its outcome, when performance measures vary, exceed acceptable
thresholds, or when new opportunity is presented. Examples of control
processes include escalation procedures that accelerate responses to cus-
tomer complaints; quality control processes that make corrective actions
when errors or defects are discovered; and collaborative processes that
respond to something unexpected by interpreting options, deciding what
needs to be done, and then taking action.
Any number of events can cause outcome and performance measures
to vary from expected results. An event is something that happens

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 How to Structure Business Processes for Strategic Execution  •  85

or doesn’t happen (but is supposed to) during a process. It can be

either anticipated or unanticipated. The design of control processes
will depend upon whether the events are known or anticipated, or
unknown or unanticipated. Therefore, there are two general types of
control processes.
Known or anticipated events that cause a process to vary, or place
performance measures at risk, are exceptions; controlling them calls for
exception control processes. Unknown or unanticipated events that cause
a process to vary, or place performance measures at risk, present a greater
challenge. Resolution demands diligent workforce collaboration; control-
ling such events calls for resolution control processes.

Exception Control Processes  Exception control processes are control

processes that correct known and anticipated events, the “Oh, here we go
again!” problems that occur during normal operations. They are engaged
when either an IT system or the workforce senses that an event has
exceeded, or threatens to exceed, a predetermined measurement thresh-
old. All other relevant systems or stakeholders are alerted to the event, and
they, in turn, execute a prescribed series of predetermined activities and
tasks, usually performed sequentially, to make the necessary corrections.
For example, inventory levels falling below an acceptable level trigger an
alert to a purchasing manager in an online exception report. She then
knows to contact a supplier for a rush order. In another example, an event
Copyright © 2012. Auerbach Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

alerts a customer service representative (CSR) via e-mail that a new order
has been received but with errors. He then knows to call the customer or
the salesperson to make the necessary corrections within the timeframe
thresholds determined for such an event.

Resolution Control Processes  Resolution control processes determine

how best to correct unknown or unanticipated (the “Didn’t see that com-
ing! What do we do now?”) events, or properly respond to a sudden and
unexpected opportunity. (“The customer will double the order if we can
ship it TODAY?”) Sometimes referred to as “case management,” they typi-
cally require dynamic collaboration of multiple functional groups, subject
matter experts, and stakeholders accessing one or more internal and exter-
nal information system. Resolution control processes establish the rules
of engagement that coordinate the organization’s behavior to interpret
the event or opportunity and decide how best to act. The rules of engage-
ment help manage resolution attempts within prescribed boundaries and

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 86  •  Strategy and Business Process Management

record actions taken and commitments made, and hold accountable and
responsible the stakeholders involved. (Recall the discussion in Chapter
3 on the adaptive loop process and commitment management protocol
introduced by Haeckel.) For example, if a labor strike threatens contrac-
tual obligations with an established customer, or if an important customer
suddenly places an order for a product that exceeds the available inventory
and manufacturing capacity, alternative sourcing efforts may be required
to maintain the relationship.
Control processes are also part of a broader managerial discipline
designed to manage an organization’s risk. Event management is a form
(or subset) of risk management that coordinates control processes,
workforce behavior, information technology, and business policies to
prevent or control adverse effects of process variance on an organiza-
tion and its strategic objectives. It is discussed in greater detail later in
this chapter.

Control Processes and Competitive Advantage

Many organizations fail to plan for failure. Meaning, they do not know
what to do when things go wrong. Control processes are unheard of or
take a back seat in overall BPM strategies. Other organizations embed
control processes in operating or support processes where they are over-
looked. This prevents them from being scrutinized uniquely with rigor,
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causing them to become insufficient in their resolve. For example:

• If the input required of an activity (accounts receivable)

• Is awaiting the output of another activity (the check is in the mail)
• And there is no timing threshold to alert and prescribe action if the
output is delayed (a control process)
• The business process could unknowingly stop because no control is
in place (“Hey, did they ever pay us?”)
• Affecting several outcome measures such as day’s sale outstanding
(DSO), accounts receivable (AR), working capital, and others

A business rule identifies the timing threshold (e.g., if no input after

10 business days then trigger an alert to a process stakeholder), and the
alert (DSO exceeding timing threshold) triggers a prescribed action (call
the customer). But, sometimes business rules are mistaken as control pro-
cesses. In this example, an event triggers the timing threshold, sending an

Lehmann, Carl F.. Strategy and Business Process Management : Techniques for Improving Execution, Adaptability, and
Consistency, Auerbach Publishers, Incorporated, 2012. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/xamk-ebooks/detail.action?docID=8706
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 How to Structure Business Processes for Strategic Execution  •  87

alert to a customer service representative so they know to call the customer.

Great, but if the CSR is unaware of the appropriate control activities nec-
essary for exception or resolution management, performance measures
can remain at risk. In this case, the CSR needs to know more than just to
call the customer when a business rule is triggered. He also needs to know
how to respond when a call is made to inquire about the payment. For
example, if the customer response is, “Oh, our system was down. I’ll make
certain we get it out today.” The CSR completes an exception process (this
is a known and anticipated event) and makes the appropriate system entry
resetting the DSO alert.
But, if the customer response is, “Oh, I was wondering when you where
going to call; we have no intention of paying” (an unknown and unantici-
pated event), the CSR needs to initiate a resolution management process that:

• Interprets this event

• Engages the persons held accountable for its outcome (the owner of
DSO measures and others) who
• Decides what to do, agrees on how to do it, records the agreement for
tracking and analysis purposes
• Acts to successful conclusion (as prescribed by the adaptive loop pro-
cess and commitment management protocol discussed in Chapter 3).
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Formal resolution management processes are practically nonexistent in

most organizations. They typically happen on the fly and without regard
to the performance impact on the rest of the organization. As noted in
Chapter 5, many organizations overlook the quality and effectiveness of
workforce collaboration. To wit, you may have seen a placard hanging as a
testament to such oversight in a colleague’s cubicle or office,

Lack of planning on your part does not constitute an emergency on my part.

Often management will implement generic collaboration technology

such as e-mail, instant messaging, portals, workflow suites, Web 2.0 ser-
vices (social media), conferencing systems, and various mobile solutions
assuming their use alone will drive the necessary resolve among stakehold-
ers. Indeed, these are all valuable capabilities and assets to stakeholders,
but their mere presence does not ensure or guide the organizational behav-
ior necessary to drive strategic achievement or competitive advantage.

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 88  •  Strategy and Business Process Management

Sometimes management will rely solely on the reporting and analytic

capabilities of their business applications as a means to control and resolve.
Again, useful tools, but they need to be configured correctly, aligned with
relevant business processes, and linked with alerting and messaging tools
to be effective.
Control processes must be considered as unique and distinct from oper-
ating, support, or other management processes. When designed and tested
with rigor and coupled with properly configured collaborative, reporting,
and analytic technology, they can enable considerable competitive advan-
tage. Why? Because many of your competitors will overlook or underesti-
mate the need to do this.*

Business Rules and Process Controls

Control processes are specialized and designed to help organizations stay

on plan when strategic objectives are at risk or performance measures
begin to vary. Like many other processes, they are governed or influenced
in some way by business rules. Business rules enumerate an organization’s
rules of engagement, defining the boundaries within which it is necessary
or acceptable to do business. They act as thresholds triggering other oper-
ating, support, or management processes as required by business strategy
or process design.
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Creating customer value and enabling competitive advantage requires

organizations to manage and control business rules as adeptly as they
need to manage business processes. However, managing business rules as
strategic assets is an allusive art for many organizations because rules fre-
quently change.
Business rules are broadly defined from many perspectives. Your orga-
nization will structure rules to govern operations, manage resources,
control risk, adhere to policies, comply with government regulations, and
fulfill business commitments. Each business function, such as finance,
IT, operations, human resources, sales, and so on, will have unique rules
that are likely to change. Indeed, different leaders and managers will
reprioritize and redefine business rules as opportunities, regulations,
and risks dictate. The way in which business rules are implemented and

* Proper IT configuration requires the ability to alert relevant process stakeholders, making avail-
able the necessary information required to manage the event. How to enable this process-centric
approach to IT architecture is discussed in Chapter 7.

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 How to Structure Business Processes for Strategic Execution  •  89

enforced can also vary, using automated systems, the workforce, or both.
Controlling the diversity and dynamics of business rules requires that
they, too, be properly classified, defined, and organized in ways similar to
business processes.
In general, business rules are measures, conditions, or constraints that
define and govern execution, or the behavior of activities and tasks; they
assert control and influence further action. Business rules may result
from, or be a subset of, business policy. A business policy is a declaration
or statement of guidelines that govern business decisions. Policy state-
ments are often insufficient to form the design of a process or an auto-
mated system. Business rules specify the details of how policy is enacted
and enforced, thus influencing process design.
Regardless of a formal definition, business rules and the policies that
drive them are what you describe them to be for your purposes. They
must be easily articulated and understood to avoid ambiguity on the
part of those held accountable and responsible for their implementa-
tion in systems, and their execution in practice. To make this point,
consider the following business rule, “Orders require approval.” The
process stakeholder controlled by the rule must interpret this rule.
What type of orders? Orders for services? Orders for products? Both?
Approval by whom?
An unambiguous business rule is a definitive declarative statement such
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as, “All service orders over $100,000 must be approved by the senior sales
VP in charge at the time the order is received.” In this latter description,
little is left for interpretation.
The management and governance of business rules are not exclusive to
business process management. Indeed, business rules exist outside busi-
ness processes. Examples would be those governing ethical behavior, con-
ditions of employment, or statements of a belief or policy such as, “We are
an equal opportunity employer.” For our purposes, however, I focus on the
management and governance of business rules as they pertain to business
processes.
Business rules help to control a process, as noted earlier, but they are
not “control processes” themselves. As you recall, a “control process” is
a sequential or dynamic series of activities and tasks designed to take
corrective action. Process controls, on the other hand, are business rules
mandated by management that are embedded within, or called upon dur-
ing, the execution of a process, activity, or task to ensure the organization

Lehmann, Carl F.. Strategy and Business Process Management : Techniques for Improving Execution, Adaptability, and
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 90  •  Strategy and Business Process Management

achieves its performance objectives, mitigates risk, or complies with other

obligations as required.
Process controls can take on several forms. They can:

• Establish thresholds or conditions that govern behavior or respond to

an event. For example, “All requisitions exceeding $10,000 must have
senior VP approval” (a rule that governs behavior). “Upon receipt of
a requisition exceeding $10,000, alert the senior VP for approval” (a
rule that responds to an event).
• Define actions required before the process can resume. For example,
“Check credit rating of customer.”
• Call for reviews or oversights structured to ensure quality or mitigate
risk. For example, “Evaluate supplier response time and compare to
obligations established in service level agreement.” “Report findings
to supplier in quarterly performance reviews.”

Process controls are frequently used for internal and external audit-
ing to help organizations comply with government regulations such as
the Sarbanes–Oxley Act. In addition, well-documented business pro-
cesses and well-defined process controls are required to earn certifica-
tion from quality management standards bodies such as the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO 9000 et al.).
Later in this chapter I discuss techniques you can use to assign the
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proper value to business rules so they can be properly used to enable pro-
cess controls and manage process performance. I conclude the discussion
here on process definition by noting a means to prioritize your business
processes.

Core and Noncore Processes

Many works published on business strategy and process management
define a class of process known as core. For example, various definitions
and descriptions of value chains declare operating processes to be core
processes, uniquely distinguishing operating processes from support
or management processes. They argue that operating processes are core
because they generate products and services, or create value, whereas sup-
port and management processes simply help ensure that operating (core)
processes function. In many of these same works any discussion of man-
agement and control processes is often vague, overlooked, or ignored.

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 How to Structure Business Processes for Strategic Execution  •  91

I have chosen to explain process classes as I have because I believe it is

important to distinguish their unique purpose and role. As assets, they
create and deliver value, and should enable competitive differentiation
and advantage in some way. Moreover, your business strategy is supposed
to be unique. It should enable you to differentiate your organization (value
chain and operating model) from your competitors in the eyes of the cus-
tomers you seek. To do so, it is imperative to prioritize processes and clas-
sify them as you see fit, consistent with your unique strategy.
Therefore, I do not identify core as a “class” of high-value operating pro-
cesses, rather core processes are a “priority.” A core process is any process
your organization deems critical to the creation and delivery of customer
and shareholder value and enables some form of competitive advan-
tage. Core processes can be operating, support, management, or control
processes. Recalling the discussion in Chapter 2, Treacy and Wiersema
describe core processes to be any process that is central to the organiza-
tion’s operating model.
Processes not central to your operating model are noncore. Core pro-
cesses demand commitment, ownership, investment in performance
enhancement, and optimization. Noncore processes demand control,
restraint, and evaluation for necessity and purpose. To enable competitive
advantage, core processes must be managed as assets to ensure consistent
performance and outcomes. Noncore processes should be kept to a mini-
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mum by consolidating or eliminating them, thus minimizing their poten-

tial to create risk or liability due to lack of proper attention or oversight.

Preparing to Organize Processes as Assets

To this point, I have discussed how to classify processes at a high level as
value-adding assets. Each class is defined by specific abilities. In review:

• Operating processes are those that are critical to creating and deliver-
ing products and services.
• Support processes enable or facilitate operating or management pro-
cesses in some way.
• Management processes guide decisions and control outcomes.
• Control processes are specialized management processes expressly
and purposely designed to take corrective action and resolve prob-
lems. There are two types:

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 92  •  Strategy and Business Process Management

• Exception control processes correct known or anticipated

events.
• Resolution control processes correct unknown or unanticipated
events.
• Business rules guide process execution and control. When codified
within, or called for by a process, activity, or task, business rules
become process controls.
• Core processes are priorities because they are deemed by an orga-
nization to be critical to the creation and delivery of customer and
shareholder value, or enable some form of competitive advantage.
They demand commitment, ownership, investment in performance
enhancement, and optimization.
• Noncore processes require control, restraint, oversight, and evalua-
tion for necessity, purpose, and efficiency.

Classification helps determine which processes are critical to achiev-

ing objectives and which play secondary roles. It is an important practice
needed to structure a BPM initiative and prioritize processes for improve-
ment, streamlining, consolidation, or decommissioning.
But, classifying and organizing the dozens and potentially hundreds of
processes used to run day-to-day operations can be daunting. Few orga-
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nizations even list the processes they use, much less define them within
classes. Managing processes as value-adding assets therefore requires a
pragmatic means to identify and evaluate them.

MANAGING PROCESSES AS A PORTFOLIO OF ASSETS

Portfolio management is a general technique used to control and opti-
mize the efficiency of, and returns from, many diverse assets. Each asset
is continuously evaluated. When necessary, structural adjustments are
made to an asset that help increase its individual value and, consequently,
to the portfolio of assets as a whole. It is a common technique practiced
in finance where it manages the balance and returns of diversified stocks,
bonds, and other securities that collectively determine the overall value of
a financial portfolio.

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