Course Outline

1. Introduction to WECC
2. Fundamentals of Electricity
3. Power System Overview
4. Principles of Generation
5. Substation Overview
6. Transformers
7. Power Transmission
8. System Protection
9. Principles of System Operation
 Overview
• Purpose of Substations
• Substation Equipment
• Substation Control House
• Substation Bus Configurations
 Purpose of Substations
• In general, a substation is a power system
facility that contains power system
components such as:
– circuit breakers and other switchgear
– transformers
– reactors
– capacitors
 Purpose of Substations
• A substation usually includes a control house
that contains equipment such as:
– protective relays
– meters
– alarm annunciators
– communications equipment
 Purpose of Substations
• An indoor substation houses all electrical
equipment within the walls of a building.
Indoor substations may either be entirely
underground or look similar to other buildings
in the neighborhoods that they serve.
Purpose of Substations
 Purpose of Substations
• Outdoor substations have the same
equipment as indoor substations but the
equipment is located outside where it is
exposed to natural elements, rather than in a
building. The equipment is usually enclosed
within a fence.
Purpose of Substations
Purpose of Substations
 Purpose of Substations
• Ground Mat
– Substations usually include a ground mat. A
ground mat is a system of bare conductors, on or
below the surface, connected to a ground to
provide protection from high voltages.
 Purpose of Substations
• One purpose of a substation is to contain the
equipment for changing electric energy from
one voltage to another. Substations also
enable one or more of the following functions
to be accomplished:
• Switching operations
– Substations connect or disconnect elements of
the power system, using circuit breakers and/or
switches.
 Purpose of Substations
• Reactive power
compensation
– Utilities install synchronous
condensers, shunt reactors,
shunt capacitors, and static
VAR compensators at
substations to control voltage.
– Utilities install series capacitors
at substations to reduce line
reactance.
 Substation Equipment
• In this section we describe the function and
operating principles of the following power
system components:
– Switchgear Equipment
– Capacitors
– Reactors
– Ground Switches
– Lightning Arresters
– Wave Traps
 Switchgear
• Switchgear is a general term given to
switching and interrupting devices.
Switchgear equipment is commonly
contained in metal-enclosed units. However,
at higher voltages, the equipment may or may
not be in metal enclosed units.
• Switchgear equipment performs two separate
functions.
 Switchgear
• Under normal conditions, switchgear equipment
enables routine switching operations to occur.
• For example: Switchgear equipment disconnects
and isolates a piece of equipment so
maintenance work can be performed.
• Under abnormal conditions, switchgear
equipment automatically disconnects faulted
equipment from the rest of the power system as
soon as possible, in order to minimize damage.
Under these conditions, switchgear equipment
performs a protective function.
 Switchgear
• All switchgear operates by pulling apart
electric conductors (contacts). As the contacts
are drawn apart while power is flowing
through the device, an arc forms between the
contacts. The arc is drawn out in length as the
contacts open. To interrupt current flow, the
arc must be extinguished with a dielectric
substance, such as air, oil, or sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6).
 Switchgear
• We discuss the following types of switchgear
equipment:
– Circuit Breakers
– Load Break Switches
– Disconnect Switches
• We examine the function and operating
principle for each of these.
 Circuit Breakers
• Circuit breakers disconnect circuits or equipment
from the power system. A circuit breaker's
primary function is to interrupt current flow
under load or fault conditions.
• Circuit breakers rapidly isolate faulted portions of
the power system. They also provide a means to
carry out routine switching operations, such as
disconnecting a device to conduct maintenance.
Circuit Breaker Operating Principles
• To interrupt the current, the circuit breaker must
trip. Let's examine the mechanics involved in
tripping circuit breakers under fault conditions.
• When a fault occurs, relays sense the fault and
initiate the opening of the circuit breakers related to
the faulted equipment by energizing the circuit
breakers' trip coils. Module 8: System Protection,
presents the details on the operation of relays.
Circuit Breaker Operating Principles
• The circuit breakers open for a pre-determined time period
based on the reclosing relays settings. After the pre-
determined time period, the reclosing relays signal the close
coils to close the circuit breakers. The time delay is sufficient
to allow the arc to extinguish.
• If the fault still exists after reclosing (e.g., if it is a permanent
fault, such as a conductor touching the ground), then the
relays signal the circuit breakers' trip coils to open the circuit
breakers again, this time permanently.

• Note: Not all circuit relay schemes include reclosing relays.

How an Oil Breaker Works

Insulating Oil
Circuit Breaker Operating Principles
 Restriking
• The insulating medium (oil, air, etc.) is still hot from
the original arc and includes ionized molecules that
form a conducting path. Therefore, when the voltage
increases again, the arc usually re-ignites in an action
called restriking.
• During restriking, the cross head continues to separate
from the contacts. This process repeats itself twice per
cycle until the cross head is far enough from the
contacts that the arc cannot re-establish itself. At this
point, the flow of current is completely interrupted.
Crosshead and Contacts
Crosshead and Contacts
Open Contacts on
115kV CB

Interrupting Device with new Contact

Rod Receptacle installed

Operating Rod (Movable Member)

New Contact Rod installed

Side Plate (Cross member)

Burnt Contacts from 115kV OCB
Location of Contact Rod Receptacle inside Interrupting Device 115kV
OCB
 Operator
• Once the fault has been cleared, the circuit breaker
can be closed. The device used to close a circuit
breaker is called an operator. The methods of closing a
circuit breaker are:
– An energized solenoid drives the breaker into the closed
position.
– A motor compresses a closing spring that closes the
breaker.
– Compressed air drives a piston that drives the breaker to
the closed position. If pressure is lost, only the pneumatic
operator closing the breaker is affected; the circuit
breaker's tripping or interrupting capability is not affected.
Pneumatic Operating Mechanism
Air compressor

Compressed Air Tank

Pressure Switches
Air pressure gauge

Compressor run time meter

Pressure Regulator

Drain valve
Hydraulic Operating Mechanism
Nitrogen fill valve for accumulator
tank

Hydraulic pump motor

Accumulator tank with bladder

Closing Spring

Hydraulic Fluid Reservoir

Hydraulic fluid sight glass

Hydraulic Piston

Pressure Gauge
SOLENOID MECHANISM

Operating Rod

Plunger located
behind here

AB contact
linkage

Coil
 Operator
• Some circuit breakers are equipped with a switch
to manually trip in the event of a failure in the
electrical controls. Such switches commonly
need to be manually reset before the affected
circuit breaker can be closed again.
• A common problem that results in failure to trip
or close a circuit breaker is an open-circuit in the
trip coil itself or in the DC wiring leading to the
trip coil.
 Operator
• To detect an open-circuit condition before it is
necessary to trip the breaker, manufacturers
connect a lamp on the circuit breaker's
control panel in series with the trip coil and
its associated wiring.
– If the lamp is on, the wiring and coil are intact.
– If the lamp is off, the wiring and coils are not
intact and the circuit breaker may not operate
when called on to trip.
Trip Coil Monitor Lights
 Circuit Breakers
• We know that one function of a circuit breaker is to
interrupt fault current. Tripping the breaker to interrupt
fault current creates an internal arc that produces very
high temperatures.
• The two most common methods of extinguishing the arc
are:
– increasing the arc's length
– cooling the insulating medium around the arc (de-
ionizes the medium)
 Circuit Breakers
• Circuit breakers use many different insulating
media to interrupt the arc.
• The most common insulating media include:
– air
– oil
– SF6
– vacuum
 Types of Circuit Breakers
• There are several different circuit breaker types,
including:
– oil circuit breakers
– air circuit breakers
– air blast circuit breakers
– gas blast circuit breakers
– gas puffer circuit breakers
– vacuum circuit breakers
• Each type of circuit breaker indicates a method
used to interrupt the arc within the breaker.
Oil Circuit Breakers

46kV CB
3 Phase Single Tank OCB
Oil Circuit Breakers

115kV CB
Oil Circuit Breakers

Inspection/Maintenance Cover
(Manhole)
Oil Circuit Breakers
115 kV CB Oil has been
drained and major
maintenance in progress

Inspection portals to view

and maintain contacts.
(Manhole)

Location of control rods

and contacts.
Air Magnetic Circuit Breakers

Air Magnetic Circuit Breaker

Arc in Air Magnetic Circuit Breaker

Arc Chutes

Contacts

ARC
Arc in Air Magnetic Circuit Breaker

ARC
Arc in Air Magnetic Circuit Breaker

Extends the Arc

Arc in Air Magnetic Circuit Breaker

Voltage drop across each

baffle extinguishes the arc
 Air Blast Circuit Breakers
• Air Blast Circuit Breaker
– Interrupts the arc by:
 A blast of high-pressure air to stretch and cool the arc.
 At higher voltages pressurized air is the dielectric
media
 Energy breaks down air
 Opening resistors for some ratings
 High arc voltage, high current chopping levels
 Air Blast Circuit Breakers
• Pressurized porcelain
– 300 – 600 psig
• Many contacts
• Compressor systems
• Complex
• Noisy
• Still built (very cold climates)($$$$)
Air Blast Circuit Breakers
 Gas Blast (SF6) Circuit Breaker
• Interrupts the arc by using:
• Low-pressure SF6 gas as a dielectric.
• A blast of high-pressure SF6 gas (stored in a reservoir)
is used to stretch and cool the arc. In association with a
blast of compressed air.
• The expanding gas is allowed to exhaust to the inside of
the interrupter head tank through the inside of the
hollow stationary contact and moving arc horns.
• These type breakers are also referred to as “Live Tank”
breakers as the tank in which the contacts are located is
not grounded.
Gas Blast (SF6) Circuit Breaker
Interrupter Head

Access Door

230kV CB
(Live Tank)

Horizontal Pull Rods

High Pressure
SF6 Tank

SF6 Tank Heater

 Gas Blast (SF6) Circuit Breaker
Compressor Cabinet for the Gas
Low Pressure High Pressure Blast (SF6) Circuit Breaker
SF6 Gauges SF6 Gauges

Air Pressure Gauge

SF6 Gas Compressor

Air Compressor

SF6 Filling Connection

SF6 Filter/Dryer
 Gas Blast (SF6) Circuit Breaker
Resistor Contact
Moving Cross Arm
Resistor

Operating Rod HP Blast Valve

Side View of Gas Blast Breaker Interrupter Head

Gas-Puffer (SF6) Circuit Breaker Interrupter

Area where puffing takes

place to extinguish arc Operating
Rod

Movable Contact
Rod
Tank filled with SF6 Stationary Contact
 Gas-Puffer (SF6) Circuit Breaker
• Interrupts the arc by using:
 Low-Pressure SF6 gas as a dielectric.
 SF6 gas is compressed in a chamber as the main
contacts open. The compressed high-pressure gas is
then directed toward the arc to stretch and cool it.
Gas-Puffer (SF6) Circuit Breaker
115kV CB

Interrupters are located inside

these tanks (these tanks are
referred to as “Dead Tank”
breakers as the outside of the
tank is grounded)

SF6 Tank heaters

Gas-Puffer (SF6) Circuit Breaker

345kV CB as it
is being installed
Gas-Puffer (SF6) Circuit Breaker
New 345kV CB
ABB Puffer CB

Hydraulic Spring Operating

Mechanism

Spring Charging Motor

Gas-Puffer (SF6) Circuit Breaker
SF6 pressure gauge on
115kV CB (Alstom)
Gas-Puffer (SF6) Circuit Breaker
Annunciator Panel located on the breaker.
115kV CB (Alstom)
 Vacuum Circuit Breakers
• Interrupts the arc by using:
The vacuum interrupters use a moving contact and a
stationary contact both housed in a sealed, metal
envelope. An actuator outside the envelope triggers the
movement of the moveable contact. Inside the envelope,
a metal or glass condensing shield surrounds the contacts
to collect the evaporated contact material that is released
when an arc is drawn. Since a vacuum contains no
conducting material, the arc is immediately extinguished.
Vacuum Circuit Breaker
Ratings & Operating Considerations
• The operating voltage and the amount of current
the circuit breaker can interrupt determine a
circuit breaker's rating. A circuit breaker is rated
based on the following parameters:
– maximum voltage
– continuous current
– interrupting current capabilities
• For example:
– A circuit breaker may be rated as 765 kV maximum
voltage, 3 kA continuous current, and current
interrupting capability of 63 kA.
Ratings & Operating Considerations
• Circuit breakers have a maximum continuous
current carrying capability, which is the
highest load current that the circuit breaker is
designed to carry for extended time periods.
• Exceeding this rating may result in
overheating that could damage the circuit
breaker contacts and insulation.
Ratings & Operating Considerations
• Circuit breakers are also rated according to
the maximum fault current that they are
capable of interrupting. This is called
maximum interrupting current.
• Fault currents exceeding the breaker rating
may produce arcs with more energy than the
circuit breaker can extinguish. In this case, the
breaker may fail to interrupt the fault current.
Ratings & Operating Considerations
• Interrupting time is the period from the instant
current begins to flow through the trip coil until
the circuit breaker interrupts the fault.
• Typical interruptions are measured in cycles and
vary in time. On high-voltage transmission lines,
interruptions vary from two to eight cycles.
• Closing time is the time it takes to close a
breaker from the instant the close coil is
energized until current begins to flow through
the breaker.
• Typical closing times vary from two to 40 cycles.
Ratings & Operating Considerations
• Independent pole operation uses a separate
mechanism for each breaker phase. Independent
pole operation allows the tripping of
independent poles (phases) which reduce the
possibility of a three-pole stuck breaker for a
three-phase fault. It also reduces the impact on
the system that occurs when three phases are
interrupted.
• Two types of independent pole operation are:
– single pole
– selective pole
Ratings & Operating Considerations
• Single pole operation trips one pole for each
phase-to-ground fault and trips all poles for
all other types of faults.
• Selective pole operation clears only the
faulted phase or phases for all types of faults.
Ratings & Operating Considerations
• Another use of independent pole operation is realized by
the addition of a Synchronous Control Unit (SCU).
• The SCU is a microprocessor-based control device that
enables synchronized closing or opening of the
independent poles of a circuit breaker.
• For example; when used with a capacitor circuit breaker,
the SCU can be programmed to open or close the poles
when the respective phases’ voltage waveform is at exactly
zero, thereby minimizing potentially damaging transient
overvoltage's caused by capacitor switching operations.
 Load Break Switches
• Load break switches interrupt normal load current but
cannot interrupt fault current. Utilities install load
break switches when they need a method for
disconnecting a device for scheduled maintenance,
but they cannot justify the expense of a circuit breaker.
• For example:
• A utility may install a load break switch on either side
of a transformer. If a fault occurs in the transformer,
isolating the fault requires opening the circuit breakers
for the line feeding the transformer.
 Load Break Switches
• Breaking current with a load break switch forms a
long arc through the air. The arc may rise many
feet and last several seconds before it stretches
out far enough to be cooled and extinguished.
During this time, the switch blade moves far from
the stationary contact. This prevents the arc from
restriking.
• A simple example of a load break switch is the light
switch on a wall in a home.
Load Break Switches
Load Break Switches
 Disconnect Switches
• Disconnect switches are not typically used to
interrupt normal load currents. Disconnect
switches isolate lines and other equipment, such
as transformers or circuit breakers, after circuit
breakers or load break switches have interrupted
the current. They may interrupt charging
currents to the unloaded devices being
disconnected.
• Disconnect switches can be operated manually,
but some may be operated automatically by
remote control or by protective relays.
 Disconnect Switches
• The disconnect switch may be a horizontal- or a
vertical-type switch. Breaking current with this
device forms an arc in the air. The arc may extend
many feet and last several seconds before it
stretches far enough to be extinguished. During
this time, a blade is moving away from a stationary
contact. The blade eventually is moved far enough
away from the stationary contact to prevent the
arc from restriking.
Disconnect Switches
Disconnect Switches
 Disconnect Switches
• A special type of high-voltage disconnect
switch is the ground switch. Ground switches
are disconnect switches that provide a solid
ground to a power line or piece of station
equipment such as a bank or a bus. The
general function of a ground switch is to
provide a safety ground.
 Disconnect Switches
• Ground switches provide a convenient way to apply
a safety ground to a de-energized piece of
equipment. They protect maintenance personnel
from accidental re-energizing of the equipment.
• They also provide some protection from stored
charge in the equipment or the induced charge from
nearby energized equipment. This protection is
generally considered inadequate, however, and
crews use personal grounds at the work site.
 Disconnect Switches
• A circuit switcher is a type of disconnect
switch that has a limited interrupting
capability and is used primarily for switching
capacitors and reactors. It can also be used to
isolate sections of a line.
Circuit Switcher
Circuit Switcher Failure
 Capacitors
• A capacitor is a set of metal plates separated by an
insulating material, called a dielectric. Capacitors
introduce capacitance into a circuit.
 Capacitors
• Recall from reading Module 2: Fundamentals
of Electricity, that capacitance is the ability to
oppose change in voltage by using energy
stored in an electrical field.
– Capacitance, measured in farads, increases as the
plate area increases.
– The capacitance decreases as the plate spacing
increases.
 Remembering
Current leads the Voltage in a capacitive circuit.
V

The current flows immediately to the other side, but the voltage
builds across the capacitor.
 Capacitors
• Vars flowing over a transmission line or distribution
feeder cause voltage drops between the source and
the load. The current associated with the Var flow also
lowers the circuit's capacity to carry watts and
increases the power loss. If there were a way to
generate Vars at each load, we could eliminate
excessive Var flow.
• Generally, utilities use capacitors in banks (groups of
capacitors). Since it is not physically or economically
practical to generate Vars at each load, utilities install
shunt capacitor banks as close to the load as is
practical to generate Vars.
 Capacitors
• Because it takes time to discharge a stored
charge from a capacitor, there is usually an
enforced minimum time between capacitor
switching operations to allow the capacitor to
discharge.
 Capacitors
• Capacitors have many uses on the power
system, including:
– Voltage Regulation — Utilities install capacitors to
maintain voltage within preset limits by
generating Vars.
– Power Factor Correction — Utilities install shunt
capacitors on distribution circuits to improve the
power factor.
 Capacitors
• Inductance Reduction — Utilities install capacitors in
series with long high-voltage transmission lines to
offset the series inductance. This improves stability
and increases power transfer capability. We discuss
stability in Module 9: Principles of Power System
Operation.
• Measuring Devices for Protection System — Coupling
capacitance voltage transformers (CCVTs) are stacks of
capacitors and resistors. CCVTs measure voltage on
transmission lines 100 kV and greater. We discuss
CCVTs in more detail in Module 8: System Protection.
 Capacitors
• Communications for Power Line Carrier — Capacitors are
ideally suited for coupling high-frequency power line
carrier signals to the power line because of the capacitor's
low impedance to high-frequency signals. Recall from
Module 2: Fundamentals of Electricity, that the magnitude
of the impedance of a capacitor is 1/(2 πfC), so the higher
the frequency, the lower the capacitive reactance
(impedance).
• Filters for Undesirable High-Frequency Signals —
Capacitors filter out high-frequency signals from the power
line voltages. This application is particularly important at
high-voltage direct current (HVDC) line converter terminals
where the converters create harmonic frequencies.
 Capacitors
• Utilities install shunt capacitor banks, typically
connected in an either grounded or
ungrounded WYE (star) configuration, with
fuse protection for individual phases, or
individual capacitor units, depending on the
type of installation.
Capacitors
Capacitors
 Reactors
• A shunt reactor is an inductor (or a coil)
connected from conductor to ground. Shunt
reactors absorb Vars, producing the opposite
effect of shunt capacitors.
• Utilities use reactors to perform the following
functions:
– Cancel Effects of Transmission Lines' Shunt
Capacitance — Utilities install shunt reactors at the
terminals of long transmission lines to reduce the
voltage rise effects of the lines' shunt capacitance.
Installing shunt reactors may affect normal switching
procedures.
 Reactors
• Limit Fault Current Magnitude — Utilities may
insert reactors in series with operating bus
sections and often insert reactors in series with
distribution circuits to limit fault current
magnitude. This is particularly useful at
substations that are close to generating stations
and on major transmission facilities, where fault
current magnitude may exceed the circuit
breaker's interrupting rating. Utilities also insert
reactors in the distribution substation
transformer neutral to limit the ground fault
current flow.
 Reactors
• Filter for Undesirable High-Frequency Signals —
Utilities use reactors in conjunction with
capacitors to filter out high-frequency signals
from the power line voltages. This application is
particularly important at HVDC line converter
terminals in filtering the harmonic frequencies
created by the converter equipment.
• Voltage Regulation — Utilities use reactors to
maintain voltage within preset limits by
absorbing Vars.
 Reactors
• Shunt reactor banks for high-voltage applications are
usually immersed in oil-filled tanks similar to power
transformers. The operating considerations
identified for transformers also apply to oil-
immersed reactor banks. (See to Module 6:
Transformers, for more information.)
• For low-voltage applications (e.g., distribution
applications), utilities use dry-type air-cooled units.
These units require little or no maintenance.
Line Reactor
Low Voltage Tertiary Reactor (13.8kV)
Low Voltage Tertiary Reactor
 Synchronous Condenser
• A synchronous condenser changes the power
factor of the system by generating or
absorbing VARs.
• A synchronous condenser is basically a
synchronous motor with no mechanical load
or a synchronous generator with no prime
mover. The condenser has a control circuit
that provides voltage control by controlling
the field excitation.
Synchronous Condenser
 Synchronous Condenser
– If the system voltage decreases below a specified
value, the control circuit increases the field
excitation. This causes the synchronous
condenser to supply Vars to the system, acting
like a capacitor or overexcited generator.
– If the system voltage increases above a specified
value, the control circuit decreases the field
excitation. This causes the synchronous
condenser to absorb VARs from the system,
acting like a reactor or underexcited generator.
 Lightning Arresters
• Lightning arresters protect transformers and other
power system equipment from voltage surges by
shunting over-voltage to ground. Lightning arresters
prevent flashovers and serious damage to equipment.
• Lighting arresters, also called surge arresters, conduct
high-voltage current to ground without producing an
excessive voltage. The arrester begins to conduct
electricity at a specified voltage level well above the
operating voltage. Then, the arrester becomes an
open circuit when the over-voltage subsides and the
current flowing through the arrester drops to a low
value.
 Lightning Arresters

Lightning Arrester
 Lightning Arresters
• A lightning arrester includes the following
elements:
– air gap
– resistive elements
– ground connection
 Lightning Arresters
• The air gap allows a high-voltage surge to jump across the gap to
ground.
• Resistive elements allow high-voltage current to flow, but prevent
current flow at line voltage.
Lightning Arresters

Lightning Arrester
Lightning Arresters
 Wave Traps
• A wave trap, also called a line trap, is a device that
presents:
– a very high impedance to high-frequency signals
– a negligible impedance to power system frequencies
• Wave traps perform the following two functions:
• Prevents the communication system's energy from
flowing into the substation bus. Without wave traps,
the carriers on one line may interfere with power line
carriers on other lines connected to the bus. This
would compromise the integrity of the protection
system. We discuss protection systems in detail in
Module 8: System Protection.
 Wave Traps
• Prevents an external ground fault behind the
protection relays from short circuiting the
carrier signal on the unfaulted line. In Module
8: System Protection, we examine how the
protection system sends a blocking signal to
prevent tripping during such faults. If the
carrier short circuits, false tripping might
occur.
Wave Traps
 Substation Control House
• Recall from reading Section 5-1: Purpose of
Substations, that a substation includes a building that
houses protection, control, metering,
communications, and other equipment. This building
is the substation control house.
• The relays and meters in the control house receive
information from power system equipment in the
substation via cabling in an underground conduit. The
information received includes:
– CT currents
– PT voltages
– circuit breaker statuses
 Substation Control House
• Protection relays, supervisory control,
programmable logic controllers, and/or
manual control switches send control signals
to power equipment in the substation.
 Control Panels
• Utilities mount control house equipment on
vertical panels. The front covers of protection
relays and meters are visible through the
panel. This provides a way for substation
operators to obtain relay targets and read
meters easily. Access to the wiring for each
device is behind the panel.
 Control Panels
• The transformer control panel typically includes
the following elements:
– Protection relays.
– Meters that display the high- and low-side current
and other transformer quantities.
– Control switches that operate load-tap changers.
– Alarm annunciators that provide warnings of
abnormal conditions, such as a transformer overload,
high temperature, or high gas pressure.
(Communications systems send these alarm
indications to control centers.)
Upper Half of Transformer Relay Panel
Bottom Half of Transformer Relay Panel
Relay & Transformer Relay Panel
 Transmission Line Control Panel
• A transmission line control panel typically includes the
following elements:
– control switches that manually operate the circuit
breakers associated with the line
– status lamps that indicate the circuit breaker's status
– status lamps that indicate the circuit breaker's trip coil
status
– status lamps that indicate whether the line is energized
– meters that indicate line voltage, current, and power flow
– communication transmitters and receivers for the
protection systems associated with the line
– alarm annunciators that indicate abnormal conditions,
such as low voltage or low circuit breaker pressure
Transmission Line Relay Panel
 Other Equipment
• In addition to the equipment found on the
control panels, control houses contain the
following equipment:
– station batteries and motor-generator battery
chargers
– EMS/SCADA remote terminal units
– Human-Machine Interface/Programmable Logic
Controller
– fault and sequence-of-events recorders
• We examine each of these separately in the next
few pages, beginning with the station battery.
 Station Battery
• The station battery provides DC power to the station
control circuitry, which operates other equipment such
as a circuit breaker's trip coils.
• The number of cells in the station battery determines
what the appropriate battery voltage will be. For
example, a 60-cell battery system will have a nominal
voltage of 125 V DC.
• The batteries must provide sufficient voltage for
operating circuit breakers and other vital substation
equipment for a limited time period. The substation's
AC maintains the charge on the batteries through the
battery charger.
 Station Battery
• At critical high-voltage substations, utilities
may install two separate batteries: a primary
and a backup. A separate source charges each
battery.
• Utilities periodically check substation
batteries for low voltage or dead cells. They
correct any problems immediately since
circuit breakers need DC power to trip.
Station Battery
 EMS/SCADA RTU’s
• Remote terminal units (RTUs) provide an interface
between the substation equipment and the
EMS/SCADA system at the control center. RTUs receive
signals of important substation quantities (voltages,
currents, equipment statuses, and alarms) and
transmit them to a master station at the control
center.
• Conversely, system operators send control signals to
substation equipment via the RTUs. We discuss EMS
software functions in more detail in Module 9:
Principles of Power System Operation.
Programmable Logic Controller/HMI
• With the advent of affordable microprocessor-based
relays and Programmable Logic Controllers, new
equipment is beginning to populate substations.
• Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) perform all
bank and line reclosing operations in place of a
conventional electro-mechanical recloser. In addition
to standard reclosing operations, the PLC can be
programmed to perform conditional reclosing such as
only reclosing a line circuit breaker upon detection of
an energized line and then only after a predetermined
period of time.
Programmable Logic Controller
Programmable Logic Controller/HMI
• Human-Machine Interfaces (HMI) contain the
database of information collected from the
PLC as well as any electronic protection relays
connected to the HMI and acts as the
intermediary between the PLC and RTU. Most
of the remote and manual switching
operations are performed through the HMI.
HMI Touch-Screen Panel

Orion #1
Orion #2
Hardened PC
Touch-Screen
Display
Keyboard
Ethernet Router
Satellite Clock
 -
Line
HMI Touch-Screen Display
HMI controls and metering screen
 HMI Touch Screen
General Annunciator
 Remember back in the old days?

Control Handles
52CS Breaker Control Switch
79CS Reclosing Relay Control Switch
200CS Supervisory Control Switch
 Push-Buttons have replaced the control handles.

• Push the OPEN button to open the

circuit breaker.
• Push the CLOSE button to close
the circuit breaker.
• Push the Recloser Relay button
ON/OFF.
• Push the Supervisory Control
button ON/OFF.
• Same functions - less wiring.
 All-in-one control box

Panel metering
Open Indication
Close Indication
Recloser Off Indication
Supervisory Off Indication
Hot Line Order Indication
Comm Fail 21P
Fault & Sequence of Events Recorder
• Critical substations typically include
subsystems that gather and store information
needed to analyze abnormal events. Two of
these subsystems are fault recorders and
sequence-of-events recorders. Fault
recorders log, on paper or in computer
memory, critical current and voltage
waveforms at the time of any fault. System
engineers analyze the results.
Fault Recorder
Fault Recorder

Digital Fault Recorder

mounted in a 225kV
station.
Fault & Sequence of Events Recorder
• Sequence-of-Events (SOE) recorders track the
order in which events occur, such as the events in
a relay operation or a circuit breaker opening. If we
observe these events, they would appear to
happen at the same instant. However, SOE
recorders identify the correct order of events
down to one-millisecond resolution. This
information is often useful in determining whether
protection systems operated as expected.
 Substation Bus Configurations
• There are five basic methods for connecting
buses, circuit breakers, and circuits. Utilities
may vary their method to meet their
individual requirements based upon the
following factors: cost, application, and
required degree of service continuity and
reliability.
 Substation Bus Configurations
• The five basic arrangements are:
– Single Bus
– Main and Transfer Bus
– Ring Bus
– Breaker-and-a-Half Arrangement
– Double Bus-Double Breaker Arrangement
• We examine each of these arrangements in
the next few pages.
What is a Bus or Bus Bar?
 How a Bus Works
capacitor
transformer

bus

circuit
breaker

transmission line
Single Bus – Single Breaker

main bus
circuit breaker

transmission line
Each line is protected by a single
circuit breaker. Breaker outage
isolates line
An outage of the bus opens all
lines at this station
 Main and Transfer Bus
main bus
circuit breaker
transmission
switch
line
transfer bus
transfer breaker
(normally open)

Transfer breaker & switch allows either

line to remain energized while its
normal breaker is out for
maintenance…
 Ring Bus

circuit breaker

transmission line
One circuit breaker per element
An outage of any breaker does not
outage any lines.
 Breaker and a Half

circuit breaker
main bus

transmission lines

Each line is protected by “1-1/2” circuit

breakers.
An outage of any bus or any breaker
does not outage any lines.
 Double Bus – Double Breaker

main bus circuit breaker

transmission line

Each line is protected by two

circuit breakers.
An outage of either bus or any
breaker does not outage any lines.
Questions?
QUIZ TIME