LECTURE NOTE

TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING

(BLD 213)

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

YABA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
YABA
 WEEK ONE AND TWO
UNDERSTANDING THE CONTENT OF TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING
Learning outcomes
At the end of the class, students should be able to;
1. Explain the meaning of technical report
2. Identify the purpose of technical reports
3. Explain types and uses of technical reports
TECHNICAL REPORT
Technical report is a conventional format for reporting the results of research, investigations and
design projects. It is a formal report designed to convey technical information in a clear and easily
accessible format.
PURPOSE OF TECHNICAL REPORT
1. To transmit information thoroughly, accurately and objectively.
2. To recommend the efficiency of a new process.
3. To evaluate the efficiency of the new process.
4. To keep track of daily activities.
5. To describe how a technical work/research was carried out.
6. To explain reasons for carrying out a technical work or research.
7. To provide useful information about a work at a later date or in future.
8. To provide sufficient details for result replication by readers.
9. To analyse events and their implications.
10. To persuade and influence decisions.
TYPES OF TECHNICAL REPORT
There are various types of technical report, below are the types;
1. Technical-background report
2. Feasibility, recommendation and evaluation reports
3. Primary research report
4. Instructions
5. Technical specifications

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Another major way of classifying technical report is
1. Formal report
2. Informal report
Technical-background Report
Technical-background report is the most commonly written type of report. It provides background
on a topic. For example, ‘solar energy’. However, the information on the topic is not just for
anybody who might be interested in the topic but for some individual or group that has specific
needs for it and is even willing to pay for that information.
Feasibility, Recommendation and Evaluation Reports
A feasibility report tells whether a project is practicable and technological possible. A
recommendation report studies a problem or opportunity and then makes recommendation. It
compares two or more alternatives and recommends one or if necessary, none. An evaluation or
assessment report studies something in terms of its worth or value.
Instructions
These are probably the most familiar of all the types of reports. Students often write backup
procedure for the jobs they do at their work. Other write short user’s manual for an appliance,
equipment or program.
Primary Research Report
Refers to the actual work done in a laboratory, workshop or in the field, i.e. experimental and
survey research. In this type of report, data are presented and conclusions drawn. There is the need
to explain methodology, describe the equipment and facilities used and give some background on
the problem. Also, summary of the other primary research reports is reported. For example, You
could report on the research that has been done on building collapse in construction industry.
Technical Specifications
In technical specifications report, the focus of discussion is on some mew product design in terms
of its construction, materials, functions, features, operation and market potential. True
specifications are not much on writing- the text is dense. Fragmented tables, lists and graphics
replace regular sentences and paragraphs whenever possible. Thus, specifications are not a good
example of your writing abilities.
Practice Questions
1. What is Technical Report Writing?
2. State the purpose/uses of technical report writing.
3. Explain the types of technical report writing.

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 WEEK THREE-SEVEN
UNDERSTANDING THE METHODOLOGY AND SEQUENCE OF WRITING
TECHNICAL REPORTS.
Lesson Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to;
1. Discuss the following in technical reports:
a) determination of topic and title
b) justification of title
c) abstract or synopsis of the report
d) aim and objectives of the report
e) classification of data
f) scope and limitation of project
g) data analysis (graphical, tabular and
h) descriptive methods)
i) presentation of data (use of appendices).
2. Explain how technical reports should be made clear and correct.
A. Determination of Topic and Title
Topic/title in technical report writing can be determined via,

(i) Students’ Supervisors

(ii) Existing problem in the society
(iii) Area of further research in a technical report
(iv) Organisation/company
Student Supervisor

Students get their topic from supervisors at times. This implies that the supervisors did not give
the students the free hand to choose topic/title. If it is the other way round, then the students will
determine the topic by themselves.

Existing Problem in the Society

In the determination of title for a technical report, student should boldly look around the society to
see what the problem exist and relate to his/her field of study and that deserve insight through a
scientific study.

For example, student attention may be drawn to the incessant building collapse in the country now.
As such, the student may decide to study and write report on the causes of the building collapse or
ways of reducing building collapse.

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Area of Further Research

In situation where student cannot determine a title from problem in the society, the student can
check other past technical report and identify areas for further research.

Organisation (Company)

Some organisations (companies can approach a school with their problem and want students to
carry out a study and find solution to it. In such situation, the company funds the research.

Students can also approach their colleagues and friends for suggestions or check literatures and
materials for ideas to having a suitable topic/title.

Examples: Construction of a convertible chair to bed

Construction of a convertible bookshelf to bed

B. Justification of Title

Justification of title talks about the significance or importance of the title. A title of a technical
report is said to be important or significant if:

(i) It is an original work

(ii) It is researching into fresh problem
(iii) It results can be used in solving an existing problem
In writing justification under technical report student must make sure he/she identifies the
benefactor, who benefits from the study, the benefit and how do they benefit.

In justification of title, students should be able to explain the extent to which the title makes effort
towards addressing the pressing needs in the society, school, construction industry and the world
at large. Students can also justify their title if they can show that their title will fill an existing gap
in research. Justification also explains the practical and theoretical/scientific relevance of the
research.

C. Abstract or Synopsis of the Report

An abstract is the summary of the entire report written in concise form. Although, it is placed at
the beginning of the report after the preliminary pages, it is the last thing students write once they
come to conclusion.

Abstract highlight major points of the research and explain why the research is important, what is
the purpose, how the research was carried out and conclusion. In other words, students should
write abstract using this format; brief introduction, statement of problem, methodology, findings,
conclusion and recommendation.

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D. Aim and Objectives of Report

The aim of a research is the overall intention of the research, i.e. the goal for carrying out the
research. It is the reason why you are doing the research and signals where you hope to be by the
end. When writing an aim, the convention is to use an infinitive verb, i.e. a to + action. This could
be to measure, to investigate, to construct.

The objectives are the specific steps you will take to get there. They are the specific steps students
will take to achieve their aims. These are usually formatted as numbered list to make it easy to see
the main steps of the project.

For example; The aim of this project is to construct a convertible bookshelf to bed.

To achieve this aim, the following objectives are considered;

(i) To design the convertible bookshelf

(ii) To determine the timber type to use for the construction
(iii) To estimate the cost of convertible bookshelf
(iv) To construct the convertible bookshelf to bed.
The objectives should be specific and measurable. Each objective should build on the previous one
and as such guide the reader through the structure of the report.

E. Scope and Limitation

Scope is sometimes referred to as delimitation. Project/ research title are often too wide and if
allow to do it, it may take years to complete. Therefore, scope allows students/researcher to
describe the boundaries of the research. That is, circumscribe the research project within a
manageable limit. Scope allows the student/researcher to focus on just one aspect of a general and
wide problem area.

Also, scope indicates the actual area where the research will be conducted e.g. Lagos state.

Limitation talks about the problem encountered in the event of carrying out the research/study,
which is due to uncontrollable factors.

For example: A study on maintenance of prison facilities in Lagos state. A great limitation that
will be encountered is access to the facilities in the prison as the student/researcher will not be
permitted to enter the prison.

Example: The project is concerned with the construction and production of only one convertible
bookshelf to bed. The dimensions of the bookshelf are 1m in length and 2m in height.

Questions

What are the key points to be considered when writing the following in technical report writing?

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 (i) Justification of title
(ii) Abstract
(iii) Aim
(iv) Objective
(v) Scope and limitation
Multiple Questions

1. The following are the ways of determining project title, tick True or False

a. Problem in the society ☐True ☐ False

b. Area of further research ☐ Yes ☐ No

c. Organisation ☐ True ☐ False

d. Justification of title ☐ True ☐ False

e. Students supervisors ☐True ☐False

f. Abstract ☐ True ☐ False

2. When writing abstract, the following points are considered except

(a.) ☐the purpose of the study

(b.) ☐ methodology

(c.) ☐statement of problem

(d.) ☐findings

(e.) ☐survey research

3. Tick the options that describes an objective of a technical report

☐ specific steps to achieve aims

☐ listed in numeric format

☐ placed at the beginning of a report

☐ summary of a report

4. Scope is sometimes called limitation ☐ True ☐ False

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 GUIDELINES FOR WRITING CHAPTER ONE
Chapter one is very important in project writing because it is the introductory chapter of the project.
It is the chapter that explains in details what the project is all about. It is also the chapter that gives
direction on how to go about the entire projects. It shows the importance and the problem the
research is going to solve.
Writing chapter one requires key elements or there are various formats for presenting chapter one.
The format adopted by your department should be strictly adhere to. Below is the format adopted
by the department for presenting chapter one.
Introduction (Background to the study)
Statement of Problem (Statement of research problem)
Aims and Objectives of the study
Significance of the study
Research Questions
Hypothesis of the study
Scope and Delimitation
Operational definition of key terms
Introduction (Background to the study)
The introduction/background to the study explains in details the definition of the main theme
(subject matter) of the project topic, the importance of the topic, what has been done about the
topic, different points of view of the topic, what is/are the current views on the topic and finally
what has not be done on the topic or what are the major concerns on the topic? This will lead you
to the problem statement of the study. What has not been done is the gap you are trying to identify
which will lead to the problem statement.
Statement of Problem (Statement of Research Problem)
For every research, there is a problem. If there is no problem, then there is no research. Depending
on the problem you want to solve, you can have statement of problem or statement of research
problem. Statement of problem explains in details the problems you want to solve. It answers the
questions ‘what’ and ‘how’. What is the problem and how is it a problem? Statement of problem
must be stated in a concise form, for example, ‘how then will bone binder improve the quality of
sandcrete blocks’? or how will safety strategies prevent accidents on construction site’?
For statement of research problem, the problem is research oriented. The purpose is to identify the
gap in research and to do this, what has been done by other researchers on the topic, what
methodology do they employed and what has not been done by them will be stated. This will lead
to the gap. For example, ‘it seems research on key strategic way of preventing accidents on

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construction site is relatively scarce. How then do safety strategies prevent accidents on
construction sites’? The concise statement will lead to the aim of the study.
Aim and Objectives of the Study
The aim of the study tells your reader your goal for the study. Remember, the aim of the study
emanates from the research problem. For example, ‘the aim of the study is to investigate key safety
strategies for preventing accidents on construction site with the view to (in order to, so as to)
reducing or minimising accidents on construction site’.
Objectives
The objectives of the study will give you direction on how to achieve your goal. Objectives are
stated in a measurable form, that is, objectives are measurable and so such words like, examine,
analyse, investigate, assess, determine, etc are used. The way the objectives are stated will help in
determining the analysis you will employed in your methodology and analysis.
For example, in order to achieve the aim of the study, the following objectives are considered;
1. To investigate the causes of accidents on construction site
2. To determine the rate of accidents on construction site
Another significant thing about objectives is that it will assist you to come up with your subtopic
in literature review. Each of the objective will determine your methods, your analysis and research
instrument.
Research Questions
Ask questions directly in line with the objectives. Research questions are asked in a way that you
don’t have Yes or No answer. This will determine how you frame your statements in your data
collection section.
For example
Are there causes of accidents on construction sites? incorrect
What are the causes of accidents on construction sites? Correct
Significance of the study
Significance of the study is all about the benefits of the study. What are the benefits? Who benefit
from the study? How do they benefit from the study? Note that significance of the study is based
on each objectives of the study.
For example,
Study on the causes of accidents will be of benefit to safety managers, site managers, construction
workers, etc. Knowledge of the causes of accidents will assist construction workers to take into
cognisance the factors that lead to accidents on construction sites and prevent such occurrences.

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This will be achieved when safety managers put in place trainings programmes on causes of
accidents and when the company comes up with a policy on accident prevention.
Hypothesis of the study
Hypotheses are guessed statements and they are stated in null form.
For example;
H0: There is no significant relationship between causes of accidents and accidents prevention
method
H1: There is a significant relationship between causes of accidents and accidents prevention
method
Scope and Delimitation
Scope covers the geographical area of your research while delimitation covers the aspect you are
limiting your research to.
For example;
‘the scope of the study is limited to Lagos state specifically, two local government in Lagos state
namely ……….’. of most import is the fact that you state the reasons for limiting your scope to a
particular area.
Delimitation explains areas of research you are restricting your works to.
For example;
“The study considered accident related to vertical height on construction site and no other types of
accidents”. This is because -------------. You give reasons for restricting your work to a particular
kind of accident.
Another example;
“The study considered only bone from cattle and not bones from other animals like goat, sheep,
etc.”. This is because ---------------.
Operational Definition of Key Terms
When you have some key words in your project topic that is different from the everyday usage of
the words or the actual meaning of the word, then you explain such words under definition of key
terms. Take for example, if the word accident will infer another meaning different from the real
meaning, then explain the meaning you want accident to imply in your word.
For example;
In this study, the following words will mean
Accident: ---------------------------

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 F. CLASSIFICATION OF DATA

Learning Outcome

At the end of this lecture, students should be able to;

1. Define data
2. Explain the types of data
3. Differentiate between primary and secondary data
4. Know the advantages and disadvantages of primary and secondary data

Singh (2006) defines data as observations or evidences. Data (Plural) can also be referred to as
measurement or observations that are typically numeric. A datum (singular) is a singular
measurement or observation, usually referred to as a score or raw score.
Data can be classified as
(i) Primary Data
(ii) Secondary Data

Primary Data
Is the data that has been collected firsthand by the researcher, specifically for addressing the
problem at hand. Primary data may be qualitative or quantitative in nature. Primary data collection
involves greater effort on behalf of the researcher and is time consuming and expensive.

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 Research Data

Secondary Data Primary Data

Objective/Quantitative Subjective/Qualitative

Survey Data Observation Experimental

Data

Focus group Depth Projective

Interview Interview Techniques

Personal Telephone Mail

Interview Interview Survey/Questionnaires

Figure 1: Types of Research Data Collection Techniques

Source: Grupta and Rangi (2010).

Secondary Data

Is the information that has been gathered not for the immediate study but for some other purpose.
It is collected by people or agencies in response to some other problem rather than the problem at
hand. This type of data is available easily and at a relatively low cost, e.g. the information
contained in the central bank of Nigeria. Bulletin is a primary information, however when the same
information contained in used for reference for some other purpose, it is termed as secondary data.

Secondary data can be categorised into two types;

(a) Internal data

(b) External data

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Internal data refers to data that has been generated from within the organisation for which the
research is being done. E.g., a company’s annual reports are internal data for the company.

External data refers to the data that is generated outside the organisation for which the research is
being done, e.g. the census data used by a social researcher, or data taken from a journal or
magazine not published by the organisation.

Secondary Data

Internal Data External Data

Published Data Computerised Syndicated

Databases Services

Figure 2: Types of Secondary Research

Advantages of Secondary Data

(1) It saves time and money. The researcher needs only to access the source which will take no
more than few days and involve little cost. The expenses incurred in collecting the data has been
borne by the original complier and all that a researcher has to pay in secondary data is a usage fee
which is small proportion of the total expense incurred in collecting the data.

(2) The secondary data at times may provide enough information to solve the problem completely.

(3) Secondary data helps the researcher to better state the problem. It helps the researcher to
understand the problem better.

(4) Secondary data helps in interpreting the primary data with more insight. It allows the researcher
to provide comparative data, to set a reference base against which the validity and accuracy of
primary data can be compared.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data

(1) There is a mismatch between the original purpose and the purpose of current study.

(2 Time of data collection is a disadvantage. Since secondary data has been collected in the past,
the findings may not be relevant in the present or the data may be too old.

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(3) The data may have been analysed in different unit of measurement than what is required.

Advantages of Primary Data

(1) Primary data are original and relevant to the topic of the research study, so the degree of
accuracy is very high.

(2) Primary data are current and they give a better realistic view to the researcher about the topic.

(3) Reliability of primary data is very high because the concerned reliable party collects these.

Disadvantages of Primary Data

(1) A lot of time and efforts are required for data collection.

(2) There is problem of survey designs. The questions must be simple to understand.

(3) It is expensive

(4) Some respondents will not give timely responses.

Practice Questions
Multiple Questions

1. A typical numeric measurement is data ☐ True☐ False

2. A singular observation or measurement is datum ☐True ☐False

3. ----------------- is usually referred to as a score (a) ☐Data (b) ☐Datum

4. ------------ and --------- are types of data

(a) ☐Primary and Tertiary data

(b) ☐Secondary and Tertiary data

(c) ☐Primary and Secondary data

5. The following describe primary data except

(a) ☐qualitative and quantitative in nature

(b) ☐collected firsthand by researcher(c) ☐easily available and relatively low cost

(d) ☐time consuming

6. The following describe secondary data except

(a) are collected by people in response to other problem

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(b) collected not for immediate use
(c) easily available
(d) relatively low cost
(e) time consuming
7. Internal data are -------

(a) ☐generated outside the organisation for which the research is being done

(b) ☐generated within the organisation for which the research is being done

Theory Questions

1. Define data
2. Explain the types of data
3. Differentiate between primary and secondary data
4. State the advantages and disadvantages of primary and secondary data

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 G. DATA ANALYSIS (GRAPHICAL, TABULAR AND DESCRIPTIVE METHODS)

Lesson Outcome

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to;

1. Define data analysis

2. State the factors affecting choice of data analysis method
3. Explain the types of data analysis method

Data analysis can be defined as the ordering, the breaking down into constituent parts and the
manipulation of data to obtain answers to the research questions or questions underlying the survey
projects.

Factors affecting choice of Data Analysis Method;

(1) Type of data

(2) Research design
(3) Researcher’s qualifications
(4) Assumptions underlying a technique
Types of Data Analysis Method

(1) Descriptive statistical method

(2) Inferential statistical method
Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics describes the location, spread and shape of distribution. Descriptive statistical
measures reduce a set of data into simple, precise and meaningful figures. The values computed
from these statistics are used to describe the properties of a particular sample.

Descriptive statistics also deal with the presentation of numeric facts or data in either tables or
graphs form and with the methodology of analysing the data.

Graphical Descriptions of Data

A graph is a method of presenting statistical data in visual form. The main purpose of any chart is
to give a quick, easy-to-read-and-interpret pictorial representation of data which is more difficult
to obtain from a table or a complex listing of the data. The type of chart or graphical presentation
used and the format of its construction is incidental to its main purpose. A well-designed graphical
presentation can effectively communicate the data’s message in a language readily understood by
almost everyone.

There are many varieties of graphs. The most commonly used graphs are:

(a) Pie chart

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 (b) Simple bar chart
(c) Two-directional bar chart
(d) Multiple bar chart
(e) Component bar chart
Tables

Tables are a useful way to organise information using rows and columns. Tables are a versatile
organisation tool and can be used to communicate information on their own or they can be used to
accompany another data representation type (like a graph). Tables support a variety of parameters
and can be used to keep track of frequencies, variable associations and more.

Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics test the hypotheses about the data that makes it possible to generalize beyond
data set (Aasland, 2008). Inferential statistics enable a researcher to make generalisation or
inferences about a population from which the samples have been drawn and observed.

H. Presentation of Data (Appendices)

Presentation of Data

The next step after analysing data is to present the data. The purpose of presentation is to highlight
the results and make the result more illustrative.

Functions of data presentation

• Visual or pictorial presentation of data

• Easier comprehension of data

• Helps to understand the nature of distribution

• Assumptions of statistical analysis can be observed.

Graphical presentations of data in behavioural researches are

• Bar diagram and histogram

• Graphical presentation

• Polygons and curve or cumulative frequency curve

• Pie diagrams
Method of presenting data

• Presentation in the form of statistical tables

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 • Presentation in the form of frequency distribution

• Graphical representation of ungrouped data-

(i) Pictographs or Pictograms.
(ii) Bar graphs on Bar Diagrams.
(iii) Circle or pie graphs/diagrams.
(iv) Line graphs.

• Graphical representation of frequency distribution (Grouped data)

1. The Histogram or column diagram
2. The Frequency Polygon.
3. The Cumulative Frequency Graph.
4. The Cumulative Frequency Percentage Curve or Ogive.
Appendices

Information that is not essential to explain your findings but that supports your analysis (especially
repetitive or lengthy information) are placed at the appendix of a report. Also, information that
validates your conclusions or pursues a related point should be placed in an appendix (plural
appendices). Sometimes, excerpts from this supporting information (i.e. part of the data set) will
be included in the appendix.

Example of information that could be included in an appendix include figures/tables/charts/graph

of results, statistics, questionnaires, transcripts of interviews, pictures, length, derivation of
equations, maps, drawings, letter, specification or data sheets, computer program information.

Reference

Aasland, A. (2008). A User Manual for SPSS Analysis: CNAS 2008 Survey Data. Norwegian
Institute for Urban and Regional Research.

Gupta, S. K. & Rangi, P. (2011), Research methodology, (2nd ed.). Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana,
India.

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Multiple Questions

1. Data analysis is ----------

(a) ☐answers to research questions

(b) ☐carrying out the survey

(c) ☐an investigation of constituent parts to arrive at answers

(d) ☐ordering and breaking down of survey projects

2. The following are the factors affecting choice of data analysis method except

(a) ☐Research area

(b) ☐Type of data

(c) ☐Researcher’s qualification

(d) ☐Research design

3. Descriptive statistics

(a) ☐Describe properties of a particular sample

(b) ☐Describe location of the distribution

(c) ☐Reduces data into simple figures

(d) ☐All of the above

4. --------------- and ------------- are the types of data analysis method

(a) ☐Describe and inference statistical method

(b) ☐Descriptive and inferential statistical method

(c) ☐None of the above

5. A graph is a descriptive method of presenting statistical data in --------

(a) ☐Verbal form (b) ☐Written form (c) ☐Visual form (d) ☐None of the above

6. ------------ is an example of a graph

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(a) ☐Bar chart (b) ☐Table (c) ☐Mean (d) ☐Median

7. Tables are ways of organising information using ----------- and -------

(a) ☐rows and rows (b) ☐rows and columns (c) ☐Columns and columns (d) ☐none of the above

8. ----------- are placed at the appendix of a technical report

(a) ☐Repetitive information

(b) ☐Lengthy information

(c) ☐Information that is not essential to explain your findings

(d) ☐All of the above

Answer True or False to the following questions

9. Examples of information in an appendix are figures, tables, charts, graph of results

☐ True ☐ False

10. Information that is essential to explain your findings is placed at the appendix

☐ True ☐ False

Theory Questions

1. Define data analysis

2. State the factors affecting choice of data analysis method
3. Explain the types of data analysis method

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 WEEK EIGHT-FIFTEEN

CONCLUSION

Learning Outcome

After reading the note, you should be able to;

1. Explain the purpose of conclusion

2. State the points to consider when writing conclusion

Conclusions are deductions from the findings and should be drawn from data analysis and review
of literature. Every conclusion must be relevant to the findings of the study and should not be
extraneous (not relevant) to the study itself.

Purpose of Conclusion

The purpose of conclusion is to explain clearly the extent to which the purpose of the report has
been achieved and which findings were made. It is a section where students both summarise and
wrap up their work.

Key points to note when writing conclusion

1. Summarise the purpose of the project

2. Clarify to what extent the purpose was achieved

3. Provide a summary of each section of the report to indicate how that section contributed to the
attainment of the purpose

4. Summarise the most important findings, methods or techniques

5. Discuss the implications of the findings

6. Indicate contributions made by the report

7. Emphasise the most important findings

8. Provide suggestions for further work, if appropriate.

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 CASE STUDIES

Learning Outcome

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to;

1. Understand the meaning of case studies

2. Select criteria required in case studies
3. Determine critical analysis of case studies

Case Study Method

Case study is both method and tool for research. Case study leads to very novel idea and no longer
limited to the particular individual. In case study, investigator tries to collect the bits in support of
proposition. If a case study is specific then prediction value is less while if the case is the
representative sample then it has high prediction value. The methodology of case study is not
longitudinal study but it depends on the methods of information about the individual as far as
possible. Case study as a method means it is a particular procedure for accomplishing or
approaching a research especially a systematic or established one. Case study as a tool or technique
means it is a device or instrument for carrying out a research.

Therefore, case study is conducted only for specific case. It requires personal observation, by or
objective method. Actually, case study means a study in depth. Here depth means to explore all
peculiarities of case. Case study is the intensive study of a phenomenon, but it gives subjective
information rather than objective. It gives a detailed knowledge about the phenomena and not able
to generalise beyond the knowledge. In physical science, every unit is the true representative of
the population, but in education, the units may not be true representative of the population. There
are individual differences as well as intra- individual differences. Therefore, prediction cannot be
made on the basis of knowledge. No statistical inferences can be drawn from the exploration of a
phenomenon. Here case does not necessarily mean an individual. Case means a unit, it may be an
institution or a nation, or religion or may be an individual or a concept.

Thus, case study refers to

• Close study of a unit

• Deep study
• Cumulative study
• Clinical study

In research, case study has entirely different purpose. The main purpose of case study is the
development of case on the basis diagnosis which is done on the post records of the case. It
establishes the cause and effect of relationship.

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Definition of Case Study

Case study is based on intensive study of the comparatively fewer persons, sometimes confined to
a very small number of cases only. Thus, the case study is more intensive in nature, the field of
study is comparatively limited but has more of depth in it and here the unit of study is also
unlimited.

Criteria Required in Case Studies

The essential characteristics of a satisfactory case study include continuity, completeness of data,
validity of data, confidential recording and synthesis that is scientific.

1. Continuity: Case study must have the quality of continuity, that is, unbroken and consistent
existence of information provided through case study.

2. Completeness of Data: Case study must have all the necessary and appropriate data or
information. The information must be whole and accomplish the purpose for which it is collected.

3. Validity of Data: Means the accuracy of a case study to measure what it’s intended to measure.
The data must be logical and factually sound or acceptable.

4. Confidential Recording: Information in a case study must be kept in secret. It is a restricted

information. Case study must be carried out or revealed in the expectation that anything done or
revealed will be kept private.

5. Scientific Synthesis: The inferential process whereby new models are developed from analysis
of multiple data sets to explain observed patterns across a range of time and space scales. This is
an interpretation of the evidence that is more than a mere enumeration of data secured, it embraces
diagnosis in identifying casual factor, and prognosis in looking toward treatment or developmental
procedure.

If a case-study have all these characteristics, it will be an excellent study

Practice Questions

1. Define the term ‘case study’.

2. Indicate the criteria for a good case study. Justify that it is method as well as technique of
research

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Learning Outcome

At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of bibliography and reference

2. Write a bibliography/reference in standard format

A bibliography is any list of references at the end of a text whether cited or not. It includes texts
you made use of, not only texts you referred to in your technical report but your own additional
background reading and any other articles you think the reader might need as background reading.

REFERENCES

References usually come at the end of a text (essay or research report) and should contain only
those works cited within the text. So the term ‘reference’ is used to cover works cited.

Difference between Bibliography and References

Bibliography is listing all the materials that have been consulted while writing an essay or a book.
References, on other, are those that have been referenced in your article or book.

While references are cited directly in the text, bibliography is not cited directly in the text. While
references can be used to support your statement or argument, a bibliography does not have such
roles. As such, references are used for establishing something in a more authoritative way. Readers
could refer your references and evaluate the correctness of your statement. Meanwhile,
bibliography does not support your argument but you only refer them in a personal way.

A bibliography will contain all research materials including textbooks, magazines, periodicals,
websites and scientific papers, which you have referred. References contain source of material like
quotes or texts, which has been actually used when writing an essay or book.

Both bibliography and references appear at the end of a document. But bibliography comes after
the reference list. A bibliography may contain all those that have appeared in the reference list but
it may also contain additional works.

Both bibliography and references are arranged alphabetically. But a reference list can be arranged
in numeric style which means arranging the references according to the numbers in the text.

While writing a bibliography, you should have to include the authors last and first name, year of
publication, name of book, publication place and name of publishers. A reference page can be
called footnote, where you just write the book or website and the year of publication or the date
when you looked at the website.

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Summary

1. Bibliography is listing all material that have been consulted while writing a technical report
or research report. References are those that have been reference (cited) in your article or
report.
2. Bibliography is not directly included in the text. References are those that are directly
included in your actual text.
3. Both bibliography and references are arranged alphabetically. However, reference list can
also be arranged in numeric style.
Types of Referencing Styles

There are different types of referencing style,

1. American Psychological Association (APA)

2. Modern Language Association of America (MLA)
3. Chicago Manual of Style (Chicago)
4. Harvard
5. Kate Turabian
6. Vancouver
7. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
American Psychological Association (APA)

There are different ways of referencing materials in APA referencing style. Examples are given
below.

Book

When referencing book in APA, the following elements are required

1. Author

Surname first, followed by comma and then the initials with full stop. E.g. Akinola, B. O. and
when you have more than one author, use APA sign (&) to separate the name of the last author.
E.g. Akinola, B. O. & Akintola, A. A.

2. Publication year

Publication year should be in brackets, followed by full stop.

3. Title

Capitalize the first word of the title and subtitles and proper nouns have a capital letter

Separate the title and subtitle with colon

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Italicise the title and then add full stop

Add edition

4. Relevant information

Location of publisher: the city and country separated by comma

Name of publisher: You should separate location and publisher with a colon. It is not necessary to
add Ltd, Inc. and so forth but retain the words ‘Books’ and ‘Press’. Add full stop.

Example

Akinola, B. O. & Akintola, A. A. (2019). Management: Perspective for Nigeria (2nd ed.). Lagos,
Nigeria: Pearson.

Periodicals/Journal Articles

When referencing periodicals using APA style, the following elements are required;

1. Author

Surname first, followed by comma and then initials with full stop.

2. Publication Year

Publication year should be in brackets, followed by full stop

3. Title:

Title of article: first word of the title and subtitles and proper nouns has a capital letter. Do not
italicise the title of the article, add full stop.

Title of Journal: all the main words have a capital letter, italicise the title of the journal, then add
comma

4. Retrieval Information

Volume number (italics)

Issue number (brackets, no italics) and comma

Page range of article and full stop

Example:

Akintola, A. A. & Faremi, J. O. (2019). The quest for building maintenance. Building Maintenance
Journal, 8(2), 10-20.

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Conference Proceedings in Book Form

1. Author

Surname first, followed by comma and then the initials with full stop. E.g. Akinola, B. O. and
when you have more than one author, use APA sign (&) to separate the name of the last author.
E.g. Akinola, B. O. & Akintola, A. A.

2. Publication year

Publication year should be in brackets, followed by full stop.

3. Title

Capitalize the first word of the title and subtitles and proper nouns have a capital letter

Separate the title and subtitle with colon

Italicise the title and then add full stop

4. Include editors’ names

5. Title of the conference proceedings

6. Page

7. Location of publisher: the city and country separated by comma

8. DOI

8. Name of publisher: You should separate location and publisher with a colon. It is not necessary
to add Ltd, Inc. and so forth but retain the words ‘Books’ and ‘Press’. Add full stop.

Author, A A, & Author, B. B. (1995). little of chapter or entry. In A Editor, B. Editor, & C. Editor
(Eds.), Title of proceedings (pp. xxx-xxx). Location: Publisher. doi:xxxxxxxx

Katz, I., Gabayan, K., & Aghajan, H. (2007). A multi-touch surface using multiple cameras. In J.
Blanc-Talon, W. Philips, D. Popescu, & P. Scheunders (Eds.), Lecture Notes in Computer Science:
Vol. 4678. Advanced Concepts for Intelligent Vision Systems (pp. 97-108). Berlin, Germany:
Springer-Verlag. doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-74607-2_9

Thesis

For a doctoral dissertation or master's thesis available from a database service use the following
reference template:

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' Author, A. A. (2003). Title of doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis (Doctoral dissertation or
master's thesis). Retrieved from Name of database. (Accession or Order No.)

For an unpublished dissertation or thesis, use the following template:

Author, A. A. (1978). Title of doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis (Unpublished doctoral

dissertation or master's thesis). Name of Institution, Location.

• Italicize the title of a doctoral dissertation or master's thesis.

• Identify the work as a doctoral dissertation or master's thesis in parentheses after the title.

• If the paper is available through a database, give the accession or order number in parentheses at
the end of the reference.

Master's thesis, from a commercial database

McNiel, D. S. (2006). Meaning through narrative: A personal narrative discussing growing up with
an alcoholic mother (Master's thesis). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database.
(UMI No. 1434728)

Doctoral dissertation, from an institutional database

Adams, R. J. (1973). Building a foundation for evaluation of instruction in higher education and
continuing education (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd/

Doctoral dissertation, from the web

Bruckman, A (1997). MOOSE Crossing: Construction, community, and learning in a networked

virtual world for kids (Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology). Retrieved
from http://www-static.cc.gatech.edu /-asb/thesis/

Questions

1. Using APA style of referencing, write reference for material from the following sources; (i)
Textbook (ii) Conference proceedings (iii) Journal article (iv) Thesis

Multiples Questions

1. A list containing texts cited or not cited at the end of your technical report is -------------

(a) ☐Bibliography (b) ☐Reference

2. -------------- is a similarity between bibliography and references

(a) ☐Both can be arranged numerically

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(b) ☐Both can be arranged alphabetically

(c) ☐All of the above

3. --------------- is use to describe a list of works cited in main text

(a) ☐Bibliography (b) ☐Reference

4. A reference page can be referred to as footnote

(a) ☐When you write the book

(b) ☐Write the website

(c) ☐Year of publication

(d) ☐Date when you looked at the website

(e) ☐All of the above

5. The following are the types of referencing style except

(a) ☐American Psychological Association

(b) ☐Chicago Manual of Style

(c) ☐American Psychology Association

(d) ☐Modern Language Association of America

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 TERMS OF REFERENCE

Learning Outcome

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

1. Understand the meaning of terms of reference

2. Understand the terms of reference template

3. Know the difference between facts and opinions

The term of reference provides the reason and/or the purpose for which the report was developed.
This information helps the reader to understand the perspectives and motivation of the author(s)
of the report.

In providing information about the reason/purpose of the report, the terms of reference will state
the scope of the report. The simplest way to think about ‘scope’ is that it defines what is required
to be in the report and in some cases, what is not required to be in the report. Therefore, scope may
be viewed as being the boundaries of the report.

Note the following when writing your terms of reference

1. Start by writing ‘The purpose of the report is to…….. or the scope of this report is……..

2. in your terms of reference, you should provide an overview of the most important guidelines
you were given for writing the report. For example, these guidelines might be about

• the timeframe of the report i.e. monthly, quarterly, progress report, end of project report.
• the specific requirement of the report given.
• the sponsor of the report i.e. the person or organisation that has commissioned the project
or investigation about which the report has been written.
3. if your document is an academic piece of work, it is permissible for you to inform the reader of
this in your terms of reference.

Note: The terms of reference does not need to be lengthy. For a report of 5-6 pages, a single
paragraph of 3-4 sentences will suffice. Terms of reference is usually at the beginning of the report.

Terms of Reference Template

Title ……………… followed by date terms of reference written/revised

Purpose/role of the group: for example

• What is the broad purpose/role of the group?

• When was the group established and by whom?

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 • What are the aims/responsibilities of the group?
Membership: for example

• Who is membership of the group open to?

• Are there any restrictions on numbers?
Accountability

• Are individual group members responsible for reporting back on activities of the group and
if so to whom?
Working methods/ways of working: for example

• What method/approach to working will you adopt (for example a shared learning approach)
• What will your chosen working method involve in practical terms, for example with
reference to
Meetings for example

• How many meetings will be held each year and where will they be held?
• Who will organise and chair the meetings?
• How will topics for the agenda be generated?
Sharing of information and resources (including confidential materials) for example

• How will group members share information and resources?

• How will confidential materials and copyright issues be identified and dealt with?
Definition of terms

• Provide definition of any key terms

FACTS AND OPINIONS

Definition of Fact

Fact is something that has actually taken place or known to have existed, which can be validated
with pieces of evidence. Facts are strictly defined and can be measured, observed and proven. It
refers to something that makes statements true and used in connection with research and study.

A fact can be an event or information, based on real occurrence which can be tested through
verifiability, i.e. they are supported by proofs, statistics, documentation, etc. Therefore, a fact is
nothing but a verifiable truth or reality which are agreed upon by consensus of people.

Definition of Opinion

Opinion is personal view or judgment about a subject that may or may not be substantiated by the
facts or positive knowledge. In other words, an opinion is an inconclusive statement, used in
subjective matters, which cannot be proved true or false. It is what a person thinks or feels about
something or someone. Hence, it is not true but biased information.

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Opinion is highly influenced by a person’s feelings, thoughts, perspective, desires, attitude,
experiences, understanding, beliefs, values, etc. which cannot be tested by concrete evidence.
Therefore, due to individual differences, every person’s opinion on a particular matter is different.

Difference between Fact and Opinion

1. Fact is described as statement that can be verified or proved to be true. Opinion is an expression
of judgment or belief about something.

2. Fact relies on observation or research while opinion is based on assumption

3. Fact is an objective reality whereas opinion is a subjective statement

4. Facts can be verified with the help of evidence or statistic while opinion is not supported by an
evidence

5. Fact explains what actually happens while opinion is a perception about something

6. Fact is universal and does not differ from person to person, while opinion is different and varies
from one person to another

7. Fact is shown with unbiased words; however, opinion is expressed with biased words

8. Fact can change anybody’s opinion but opinion cannot change

9. Facts are real information and so it cannot be challenged or debated, while opinions can be
debated.

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