ITL REVIEWER

*LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS

Definition, Nature, and Macro Skills of Language
Definition and Branches of Linguistics
LANGUAGE
-primarily vocal but official sign languages also exist
ARBITRARINESS OF LANGUAGE
-There is no inherent relation between the words of a language and their meanings or the ideas conveyed
by them.

*Definition of Language by Different Scholars

Aristotle
-Speech is the representation of the experience of the mind.
Ferdinand de Saussure
-Language is an arbitrary system of signs constituted of the signifier and signified
-first a system based on no logic or reason
-system covers both objects and expressions used for objects.
-expressions include sounds and graphemes used by humans for generating speech and writing
respectively for communication.
Noam Chomsky
-language is the inherent capability of native speakers to understand and form grammatical sentences
- set of (finite or infinite) sentences
- considers sentences as the basis of a language (sentence) - limited or unlimited in number and are
made up of only limited components
*LANGUAGE AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
Characteristics of Language
a) primarily vocal - langauge takes up a form
b) system of systems - language is not a disorganized or a chaotic combination of sounds. Sound are arranged
in a certain fixed or established, systematic order to form meaningful units or words.
c) Arbitrary - no inherit relation between the word of a language and their meanings or the ideas conveyed by
them
d) means of communication - language is important for means of communicating
e)  Creative - enables native speakers to pronounce an understand sentences they have not heard nor used
before
f) Universal - all languages must share key features of human languages
g) exclusively human - evolution of particular biological and psychological ablities,and thus explain why
language is unique to humans
MACRO SKILLS IN LANGUAGE

VIEWEING – newest form of macro skills in language

What is the connection between receptive and productive skills?
It’s important for teaching activities to be designed so that learners receive input and modelled language (through
listening and reading activities) before they are expected to produce those modelled structures (in their own
speaking and writing). Listening and reading activities prepare students to be able to speak and write their own
texts.

*THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Behaviorism
-language behavior of the individual is conditioned by sequences of differential rewards in
his/her environment.
Innatism/Cognitivism
Innatists do not see language development as something that is influenced by responses to stimuli as
behaviorists do. Chomsky theorizes that all humans are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that
gives them the innate ability to process linguistic rules (Flynn and O’Neil, 1989; White, 1987). Krashen (1981)
developed Chomsky's linguistic competence concept in his language theory, namely monitor model.
Cognitivists/ innatists
claim that the child is born with an ‘initial’ state’ about language which predisposes him/her to acquire a grammar
of that language. They maintain that the language acquisition device (LAD) is what the child brings to the task of
language acquisition, giving him/her an active role in language learning.
 Krashen’s Monitor Model (1981). Probably this is the most often cited among theories of second
language acquisition; considered the most comprehensive, if not the most ambitious, consisting of five central
hypotheses:

 Acquisition-Learning
Hypothesis  Natural Order Hypothesis  Affective Filter Hypothesis

 Monitor Hypothesis  Input Hypothesis

Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
Acquisition - the subconscious process that results from informal, natural communication between
people where language is a means, not a focus nor an end, in itself.
Learning - the conscious process of knowing about language and being able to talk about it, that occurs
in a more formal situation where the properties or rules of a language are taught.
Monitor Hypothesis
- It claims that conscious learning of grammatical rules has an extremely limited function in language
performance
-monitor or editor that checks output
-monitor is an editing device that may normally operate before language performance
Natural Order Hypothesis
-suggests that grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order

Input Hypothesis
-Krashen proposes that when learners are exposed to grammatical features a little beyond their current
level (i.e., i + 1), those features are ‘acquired
-If learners receive understandable input, language structures will be naturally acquired
-Ability to communicate in a second language ‘emerges’ rather than indirectly put in place by teaching.
Affective Filter Hypothesis
-Filter consists of attitude to language, motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Thus learners with
favorable attitude and self-confidence may have a ‘low filter’ which promotes language learning. Learners with a
low affective filter seek and receive more input, interact with confidence, and are more receptive to the input they
are exposed to. On the other hand, anxious learners have a high affective filter which prevents acquisition from
taking place.

Interactionism
- The third theory about the acquisition of second or foreign language focuses on the use of language in
communicative actions which emphasize more on language functions and their use in various contexts (Hatch,
1978; Long, 1983, 1985; Parker and Chaudron, 1987).

*Communicative Competence
- communicative competence refers to both the tacit knowledge of a language and the ability to use it
effectively.
Linguistic competence
- refers to the unconscious knowledge of grammar that allows a speaker to use and understand a
language.
Canale and Swain's Model of Communicative Competence
Grammatical competence
-knowledge of phonology, orthography, vocabulary, word formation and sentence formation.
Sociolinguistic competence
 - ability to handle for example settings, topics and communicative functions in different sociolinguistic
contexts; use of appropriate grammatical forms for different communicative functions in different sociolinguistic
contexts.
Strategic competence
-compensatory strategies in case of grammatical or sociolinguistic or discourse difficulties, such as the
use of reference sources, grammatical and lexical paraphrase, requests for repetition, clarification, slower speech,
or problems in addressing strangers when unsure of their social status or in finding the right cohesion devices
Discourse competence
-mastery of understanding and producing texts in the modes of listening, speaking, reading and writing;
cohesion and coherence in different types of texts

*INTRODUCTION TO SEGMENTAL PHONEME

Phonology
- branch of linguistics concerned with the study of speech sounds with reference to their distribution and
patterning
Ken Lodge
- observes that phonology "is about differences of meaning signaled by sound.
-Phonology as the study of speech sounds that are made from the mechanical parts used in Phonetics.
- Phonology begins when Phonetics ends, which means that Phonology is a continuation of Phonetics.
Segmental Phonemes
-basic concerns of phonology.
-Segmental phonemes are phonemes that can stand alone to differentiate the meaning and that can be
pronounced. It is consists of vowels, consonants, consonant clusters, diphthongs and triphthongs, voicing and
unvoicing
Phonemes
-smallest unit of sound
-refers to sound, not spelling
Consonant Sounds
-Consonant sounds were produced by delaying the flow of the air through
partially closing the vocal tract.
The International Phonetic Alphabet
-is defined as a system of phonetic symbols used to transcribe specific sounds by set of symbols to
present the different distinctive sounds that exists in the whole world.
-has 44 sounds in English to which 24 of those were consonants.
-The 24 consonant sounds in the IPA are divided into three, easy, scary and confusing. 16
are predictable, six were scary and two were confusing.

Consonant Clusters
-the sequences of two or more consonantal sounds.
Initial Clusters
Medial Clusters
 -The cluster of consonants that is located in the middle position of the word.
Final Clusters
-One being a final consonant preceded by a pre-final consonant and
the other a final consonant followed by a post-final consonant.
Place of Articulation
-refers to where the articulators (tongue, teeth, lips or glottis) make contact in the vocal tract to create
consonant sounds.
8 Places of Articulation
Bilabial -Bilabial consonants occur when you block/constrict airflow out of the
mouth by bringing your lips together. /p/ as in “purse” and “rap“ /b/ as in “back” and “cab“
Labiodental -curling your lower lip back and raising it to touch your upper row of teeth. /f/ as in “fro” and
“calf“ /v/ as in “vine” and “have”
Dental -placing your slimy tongue against your upper teeth. /θ/ as is “thick” and “bath“ /ð/ as in “the” and “rather”
Alveolar -raise your tongue to the alveolar ridge to block or constrict airflow. /n/ as in “no” and “man“ /t/ as in
“tab” and “rat“ /d/ as in “dip” and “bad“
Postalveolar-tongue blocks or constricts airflow at the point just beyond the alveolar ridge. /ʃ/ as in “shot” or
“brash” /ʒ/ as in “vision” or “measure” /tʃ/ as in “chick” or “match” /dʒ/ as in “jam” or“badge“
Palatal - raise the tongue to this point and constrict airflow./j/ as in “yes” and “yell”
Velar -raise the back of your tongue to the velum to block or restrict airflow. /k/ as in “kite” and “back“ /g/ as in
“good” and “bug“ /w/ as in “wet” and “howard”
Glottal -air passing from the windpipe through the vocal cords. /h/ as in “hi” and “Bahamas.”
MANNER OF ARTICULATION
-Manner of articulation is about how sounds are produced by the 'articulators'.Articulators are the organs
in the vocal tract which enable human beings to make sounds.
a) Obstruent- are speech sounds created by obstructing the airflow in the vocal tract. This includes
plosive/stops, fricatives, and affricates.
b) Sonorants-continuous and unobstructed airflow through the vocal tract. In this group, we also find nasal and
approximants.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANT SOUNDS BY MANNER OF ARTICULATION
Plosive/ Stops- total blocking of the airflow then follows by sudden release. The plosive consonants are /p, b, t, d,
k, g/.
Fricatives- airflow passes through the very tight passage. The fricative consonants are /f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/.
Affricates- sequence of plosive and fricative in which it produced by blocking the airflow and making a sudden
release. The affricate consonants are / tʃ, dʒ, /.
Nasals- airflow through mouth is completely blocked. are /m, n, ŋ/.
Approximants- there is no stop, and no friction. /w, l, r, y/.
Three Parts:
a. Lateral- air escaped through the side of a tongue. It includes the approximant consonant sound /l/.
b. Rhotic- where the tongue bends backwards. It includes the approximant consonant /r/.
c. Glide- where we move our mouth constantly from articulation to a vowel sound. It includes the
approximant consonants /w, y/.
VOICING
All consonant sounds can be classified under two categories: voiced or voiceless sound.
 folds are open, air from the lungs passes between them, producing
a voiceless sound.
 When the folds are brought close together, the air is forced between them which causes a vibration,
producing a voiced sound.
  Voiced : / b , d , g , ʤ , ծ , v , z , ʒ , l , r , m , n , ŋ , w , j /
  Voiceless : / p , t , k , ʧ , Ɵ, f , s , ʃ , h/
 /p/ and /b/ - bilabial and plosive category.
 The dental fricative /θ/ (as in think) that is voiceless and the voiced dental fricative /ð/ (as in that).
VOWEL SOUNDS
- produced by the absence of obstruction.
-voiced
-segments of speech produced without any interruption or stoppage of the airstream.
(Lim Kiat Boey 1975: 16).
-There are 12 pure vowels or monophthongs in English – /i:/, /ɪ/, /e/, /æ/, /ʌ /, /ɑ:/, /ɒ/, /ɔ:/, /ʊ/, /u:/, /ɜ:/
and /ǝ/.
The 3 Characteristics of Vowels
High Vowel - pronounce with the tongue arched toward the roof of the mouth
Low Vowel - tongue relatively flat and low in the mouth and with the mouth open a little wider than for
high vowels
Mid Vowel - tongue position between the extremes of high and low
Front Vowels- /i:/, /ɪ/, /e/, /ɛ/, and /æ/, and are made with the front of the tongue arched
Central Vowels- /ə/ and /ʌ/, ə unstressed syllables
Back Vowels - /u:/, /ʊ/, /ɔ: /, and /ɑ:/,
Lip Rounding - Lip Rounding refers to the position of our lips, when we make the vowel
sounds.
Lips - either rounded or unrounded but rounded
*ENGLISH DIPHTHONGS
Diphthongs are a sound that has a combination of two (2) vowels in one syllable.
 It was also known as a "gliding vowel" because one sound glides into another.
 It is also called “Diphthongization” because of the sound changes of a single vowel.
There are eight (8) English diphthongs; ɪə, eə, ʊə, eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ, əʊ and aʊ.
There were two (2) distinct types of diphthongs;
 Closing Diphthongs have five (5) diphthongs that move from a more open position to a closed position. [eɪ],
[aɪ], [ɔɪ], and [aʊ] can be found in British and US English, while [əʊ] is only found in British.
A) Three (3) vowels ending in [ɪ];
/eɪ/ - Vowel (e) front vowel a little lower than the half close position.
/aɪ/ - It is a front-front closing full diphthong.
/ɔɪ/ - It is a back-front closing full diphthong.
B) Two (2) vowels ending in [ʊ];
/əʊ/ - It is a closing half-diphthong.
/aʊ/ - It is a front-back closing full diphthong.
 Centering Diphthongs have three (3) diphthongs that move to the half-close center position.
C) Three (3) vowels ending in [ə];
/ɪə/ - it is a high front centering diphthong.
/eə/ - Low front-centering diphthong.
/ʊə/ - High back centering diphthong.
*TRIPHTHONGS
Triphthongs are single syllables that may have three (3) vowel sounds that
quickly move to another. It can be formed by combining the five (5) closing diphthongs and the schwa sound
[ə]; /eɪə/, /aɪə/, /ɔɪə/, /aʊə/, and /əuə/.
Examples of Triphthongs are;
/eɪə/ - player, mayor, year /aɪə/ - tired, Tyre, choir /ɔɪə/ - loyal, royal /aʊə/ - hour, tower /əuə/ - fewer
The key to pronunciation is physical and diphthongs and triphthongs are a combination of two (2) or
three (3) sounds, so the mouth will change position when making a sound. English Diphthongs and Triphthongs
may be difficult to pronounce and recognize because of the unnoticed vowel sound but it is also important to know
that in each word that was pronounced is important to notice the sounds if there is a difference or not. These
English Diphthongs and Triphthongs are from US English and British, so it has an accent when words are
pronounced.
NSTP REVIEWER
NSTP-CWTS 1
NSTP aims to inculcate civic consciousness and defense preparedness in the Filipino youth.It helps
develop in them the ethics of service and patriotism while they undergo training in any of the programs
The NSTP Law or Republic Act No. 9163, also known as An Act Establishing the NSTP for Tertiary-
Level Students, Amending for the Purpose Republic Act No. 7077 and Presidential Decree No.
1706 and Other Purposes, was signed by Former President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo on January 23, 2002. It is a
consolidation of House Bill No. 3593 and Senate Bill No. 1824 passed by the House of Representatives and the
Senate on December 19, 2001.
Components of the NSTP
*ROTC *CWTS *LTS
Reserve Officer’s Training Corps [ROTC] - Refers to the program component, institutionalized
under Section 38 and 39 of Republic Act No. 7077, designed to provide military training to motivate, train
organize and mobilize them for national defense preparedness.
Civic Welfare Training Service [CWTS] -Refers to the program component or activities contributory to the
general welfare and the betterment of life for the members of the community or the enhancement of its facilities,
especially those devoted to improving health, education, environment,entrepreneurship, safety, recreation and
moral of the citizenry and other social welfare services.
Literacy Training Service [LTS] - Refers to the program component designed to train
the students to teach literacy and numeracy skills to school children, out-of-school youth and other segments of
society in need of their services.
NSTP – CWTS Vision
• To train students to become innovators of social change with a culture of excellence and leaders with integrity,
competence, and commitment to render service to the community.
• To develop in the youth the values of patriotism and national pride, discipline and hardwork, integrity and
accountability for nation-building, and volunteerism as valuable and effective members of the National Service
Corps of CWTS.
NSTP-CWTS Mission
NSTP-CWTS aims to promote and integrate values education, transformational leadership, and sustainable social
mobilization for youth development, community building, national renewal, and global solidarity by:
1. Providing relevant activities that will contribute to the physical, intellectual, spiritual, and social development of
students.
2. Inculcating in students the values of leadership, patriotism, and social responsibility.
3. Training students to become project planners, designers, and managers of innovative and sustainable community
service-oriented projects.
4. Conducting capability enhancements for civic welfare services geared toward preparing the youth to become
results-oriented social entrepreneurs, volunteers, and a socio-economic mobilizing force that
serves communities as value-driven innovators for progress.
5. Working closely with a network for organizations within and outside the higher education institution.
6. Creating opportunities where students can render direct service to the community.
NSTP-CWTS Core Values
NSTP-CWTS fosters the following values:
1. Love of God
2. Human dignity
3. Discipline, truth, goodness and social responsibility.
4. Awareness, innovation and creativity.
5. Respect, synergy, and professionalism.
6. Excellence and indigenous learning.
7. Protection and conservation of the environment.
8. Quality service delivery.
Nationalism,citizenship and nation building
Citizenship - term denoting membership of a citizen in a political society
Citizen - person having the title of citizenship.
Who are the Citizens of the Philippines?
Article IV, Section 1 of the 1987 Constitution identifies the following as citizens
of the Philippines:
1. Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of adoption of said constitution;
2. Those whose fathers and mothers are citizens of the Philippines; those born before January 17, 1973, of Filipino
mothers, who elect Philippine Citizenship upon reaching the age of majority; and
3. Those who are naturalized in accordance with the law .
PREAMBLE
We the Sovereign Filipino people imploring the aid of Almighty God, in order to build a just and humane society
and establish a Government that shall embody our ideals and aspirations, promote the common good, conserve and
develop our patrimony, and secure to ourselves and posterity the blessings of independence and democracy
under the rule of law and a regime of truth, justice, freedom, love, equality and peace, do ordain and promulgate
this constitution.
Human Rights basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled including the right to live, freedom of
thought and expression and equality before the law.
CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
A. Natural/Moral Rights - These are unwritten rights but by prevail as norms of society
B. Legal Rights
a) Constitutional Rights - those rights guaranteed in the constitution (Art III Bill of Rights of 1987
constitution) such as right to life, freedom of speech,etc.
b) Statutory Rights - are those promulgated and passed by the legislative body.
According to Aspect of Life
Civil Rights - are those granted by the state for promotion of common welfare of individual citizen.
Political Rights - rights conferred by the state to the people so that they may participate in government.
Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights - those rights of the people to self-determination, and to pursue
economic, social and cultural development and financial security. These rights ensure a life of dignity to people.
According to Its Derogability
A.Absolute or non-derogable - are rights cannot be suspended, restricted, limited or taken away even in
emergency situation.
B.Non-absolute and derogable - rights can be suspended or taken away and may be limited due to public
morality, welfare and security.
According to Recipient
A.Individual Rights - are those being accorded to individuals.
B.Collective Rights - also called " The Peoples Rights " are rights of the society, those that can be enjoyed only in
company with others.
More facts about the Philippine Flag
❑The flag was first conceptualized by Emilio Aguinaldo
❑ Sewn in Hongkong by Marcela Agoncillo, her daughter Lorenza, and Dona Delfina Herbosa.
❑Picture of Philippine flag
❑The flag should be displayed in all government buildings, official residences, public plazas, and school everyday
throughout the year.
Prohibited Acts
According to Republic Act 8491 itself, the flag cannot be used in the following rationales:
1. Defacing or ridiculing the flag by dipping the flag as a salute, or adding additional marks on the flag.
2. As a drapery, festoon, tablecloth, a covering, or as a part of a costume or a uniform;
3. As a trademark or for commercial or agricultural labels or designs;
4. As a part of merchandise or in any advertisement or infomercial; and
5. As a pennant in the hood, side, back and top of motor vehicles.
Pledge
The Pledge of Allegiance to the Philippine flag, "Panunumpa sa Watawat".
The National Anthem
✓ The National Anthem shall always be sung in the national language.
✓ The rendition of the National Anthem, whether be played or sung, shall be in accordance with the musical
arrangement and composition of Julian Felipe.
✓ When the National Anthem is played at a public gathering the attending public shall sing the anthem. The
singing must be done with fervor.
✓ As a sign of respect, all persons shall stand attention and face the Philippine flag.
The anthem shall not be played and sung for mere recreation, and amusement or entertainment purposes
except on the following occasions:
1. International competitions where the Philippines is the host or has a representative.
2. Local competitions.
3. During the "signing off" and "singing on" of radio broadcasting and televisions stations,
4. Before the initial and last screening of films and before the opening of theater performances , and
5. Other occasions as may be allowed by the Institute.
The Nature of the Human Person

CHAP 2 The Human Person

It is essentially difficult to understand the human person, human nature, and the possibility of achieving a
productive society through the highest potential of a person.
 Estanol (2007) – (Human Person), having physical, spiritual, emotional and
intellectual attributes.
 St. Thomas Aquinas – (Human Person), having physical and spiritual substance
created by a Special Being
 Dictionaries – (Human Person), a “self-conscious animal.”
Characteristics of a Human Person
Babor (2007) in his book, The Human Person: Not Real, But Existing, discusses the several characteristics of a
human person, namely:
 A human person is a rational being. A human person is born free. A human person is unique. Every person is
intrinsically a social being and cannot detach himself/herself from other creatures in the universe. All living
things are sexual by nature, but the uniqueness of expression of a person’s sexuality makes him/her different.
Biblical Views
The human person has superiority and dignity inherited from the Supreme Being. Genesis 1: 26-27 – God created
man and woman in His own image and likeness and made them masters of everything upon the earth.
Agbuya (1997) – “He/She is designated by God to exercise dominion over other creatures in his/her everyday use
of freedom, search for happiness, and openness to the world around him/her.And what makes him/her human is
his/her being a true person which includes the special gifts and talents of thinking, loving, longing for happiness
and making decision. The Human nature is patterned after the image of God.”
Philosophical Views
A human person like other animals has external and internal organs. A human being becomes evident when
he/she starts to share his/her thoughts and ideas with others.
 Protagoras – Human person is the measure of all things that exist and ofall things that do not exist.
 Plato – The perfect human being does not exist in this world because what is in this world is just an imperfect
copy of humanity’s original self in the realm of ideas.
 Parmenides – A person has knowledge of something that exists, for a person who does not exist is nothing.
Maguigad (2006), Philosophy of the Human Being, explains the different philosophical views of the human
person. These are the following:
 Conservatism – Some men contribute more than others to society, and, therefore, must be rewarded and
honoured by society. All human persons may not be of equal value to society: some men
are intended to rule, the rest to obey.
 Liberalism – Reason is common to all human beings and this fact raises them above the level of beasts and
enables them to know the principles of suitable living. According to Mencius, “Every human being can become a
sage king, that is, anyone can gain the wisdom to rule.
Socialism - In socialism, the human being readily engages in cooperative social activities when given the
opportunity.Marx believes that men is driven primarily by desire for economic gains.
Fascism – The human being can prosper only when the nation prosper; his/her fate is merely secondary when it
comes to the country.
Classical Greek Views
The early classical Greeks defined the human person as “a rational animal.” As a vegetative creature, the human
person needs to have food to grow, develop, and reproduce. As a sentient being, he/she needs sensory perceptions
to gain knowledge. As a rational animal, he/she needs the power of thought, reason, and cognition.
Sociological Views
A perspective is a particular way of looking at and seeing something. Salcedo (2004) states that people look at
this social world or at the various ways that human beings behave in a social way.
San Juan (2007) proposes some common ideas about the human person. These are the following:
 Human persons are social animals.
 The human person’s social behaviour is learned , not instinctive.
 To understand the human person’s social behavior, we have to focus our attention on the groups to which
people belong.
 Sociology is a discipline that looks into the totality of relationships in an individual’s life. Sociologist do not
restrict their studies to a single dimension of an individual’s life (economics, politics, history, geography,
psychology, and so forth).

Maslow’s theory points out that a person needs to satisfy first the lower needs before realizing his/her
self-worth and potential. Accordingly, when the lower needs are not met a person cannot completely
devote his/ her time to developing his/her full potential.
Rogers’ person-centered therapy theory, every person has within him/her an inherent desire for a
positive transformation and the development of his/her capacities.
CHAP3 ; Values Development for Citizenship Training
preamble is an introductory and preliminary statement in a document that explains the document’s
purpose and underlying philosophy.
PHILOSOPHY OF VALUES
PHILOSOPHY OF VALUES
 Understanding the philosophy of human values is necessary in understanding Filipino
values such;
 Family closeness and solidarity(pagkamalapit at pagkakaisa ng pamilya)
 Politeness (pagkamagalang)
 Hospitality
 Gratitude (utang na loob)
 Values are both subjective and objective.
The Filipino value system arises from our culture or way of life , our distinctive way of becoming
human in this particular place and time.
 We speak of Filipino values in fourfold sense.
GOOD CITIZENSHIP VALUES
1. LOVE FOR GOD OR PAGKAMAKA-DIYOS
2. LOVE FOR FELLOWMEN OR PAGKAMAKA-TAO
a) St. Paul defines love in a different way:Love ispatient; it never fails;it is eternal. There are
faith, hope, and love, and the greatest of these is love (1 Corinthian 13).
3. LOVE FOR COUNTRY OR PAGKAMAKA-BAYAN
4. LOVE FOR THE ENVIRONMENT OR PAGKAMAKA-KALIKASAN
ROOTS OF THE FILIPINO CHARACTER
Here are some highlights from “ A Moral Recovery Program: Building a People– Building Nation” by
Patricia Licuanan (1988)