Differential Calculus and Sage

William Granville
and David Joyner
Contents

ii
 CONTENTS

0 Preface ix

1 Variables and functions 1

1.1 Variables and constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Interval of a variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Continuous variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.5 Notation of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 Independent and dependent variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.7 The domain of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 Theory of limits 9
2.1 Limit of a variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Division by zero excluded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Infinitesimals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 The concept of infinity (∞) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5 Limiting value of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6 Continuous and discontinuous functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7 Continuity and discontinuity of functions illustrated by their graphs 18
2.8 Fundamental theorems on limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.9 Special limiting values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.10 Show that limx→0 sinx x = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.11 The number e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
∞
2.12 Expressions assuming the form ∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.13 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

iii
CONTENTS

3 Differentiation 41
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Increments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3 Comparison of increments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4 Derivative of a function of one variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.5 Symbols for derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.6 Differentiable functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.7 General rule for differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.9 Applications of the derivative to geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.10 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

4 Rules for differentiating standard elementary forms 59

4.1 Importance of General Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 Differentiation of a constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.3 Differentiation of a variable with respect to itself . . . . . . . . . 63
4.4 Differentiation of a sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.5 Differentiation of the product of a constant and a function . . . . . 64
4.6 Differentiation of the product of two functions . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.7 Differentiation of the product of any finite number of functions . . 65
4.8 Differentiation of a function with a constant exponent . . . . . . . 66
4.9 Differentiation of a quotient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.10 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.11 Differentiation of a function of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.12 Differentiation of inverse functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.13 Differentiation of a logarithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.14 Differentiation of the simple exponential function . . . . . . . . . 78
4.15 Differentiation of the general exponential function . . . . . . . . . 79
4.16 Logarithmic differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.17 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.18 Differentiation of sin v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.19 Differentiation of cos v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.20 Differentiation of tan v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.21 Differentiation of cot v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.22 Differentiation of sec v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.23 Differentiation of csc v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.24 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.25 Differentiation of arcsin v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

iv
 CONTENTS

4.26 Differentiation of arccos v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

4.27 Differentiation of arctan v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.28 Differentiation of arccot v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.29 Differentiation of arcsec v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.30 Differentiation of arccsc v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.31 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.32 Implicit functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.33 Differentiation of implicit functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.34 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.35 Miscellaneous Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

5 Simple applications of the derivative 115

5.1 Direction of a curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.3 Equations of tangent and normal lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.5 Parametric equations of a curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.7 Angle between radius vector and tangent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.8 Lengths of polar subtangent and polar subnormal . . . . . . . . . 144
5.9 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.10 Solution of equations having multiple roots . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.11 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.12 Applications of the derivative in mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.13 Component velocities. Curvilinear motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.14 Acceleration. Rectilinear motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.15 Component accelerations. Curvilinear motion . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.16 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.17 Application: Newton’s method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.17.1 Description of the method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.17.2 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.17.3 Fractals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

6 Successive differentiation 167

6.1 Definition of successive derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.2 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.3 The n-th derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6.4 Leibnitz’s Formula for the n-th derivative of a product . . . . . . . 169

v
CONTENTS

6.5 Successive differentiation of implicit functions . . . . . . . . . . 170

6.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

7 Maxima, minima and inflection points 177

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
7.2 Increasing and decreasing functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.3 Tests for determining when a function is increasing or decreasing . 185
7.4 Maximum and minimum values of a function . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.5 Examining a function for extremal values: first method . . . . . . 189
7.6 Examining a function for extremal values: second method . . . . 191
7.7 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.8 Points of inflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.9 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
7.10 Curve plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.11 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

8 Application to arclength and rates 221

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
8.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
8.3 Derivative of the arclength in rectangular coordinates . . . . . . . 223
8.4 Derivative of the arclength in polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . 225
8.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
8.6 The derivative considered as the ratio of two rates . . . . . . . . . 228
8.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

9 Change of variable 239

9.1 Interchange of dependent and independent variables . . . . . . . . 239
9.2 Change of the dependent variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
9.3 Change of the independent variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
9.4 Change of independent and dependent variables . . . . . . . . . . 243
9.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

10 Applications of higher derivatives 249

10.1 Rolle’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
10.2 The mean value theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
10.3 The extended mean value theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
10.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
10.5 Maxima and minima treated analytically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

vi
 CONTENTS

10.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

10.7 Indeterminate forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
10.8 Evaluation of a function taking on an indeterminate form . . . . . 259
10.9 Evaluation of the indeterminate form 00 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
10.9.1 Rule for evaluating the indeterminate form 00 . . . . . . . 264
10.9.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
10.10Evaluation of the indeterminate form ∞∞
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
10.11Evaluation of the indeterminate form 0 · ∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
10.12Evaluation of the indeterminate form ∞ − ∞ . . . . . . . . . . . 269
10.12.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
10.13Evaluation of the indeterminate forms 00 , 1∞ , ∞0 . . . . . . . . . 272
10.14Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
10.15Application: Using Taylor’s Theorem to approximate functions. . 275
10.16Example/Application: finite difference methods . . . . . . . . . . 281

11 Curvature 285
11.1 Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
11.2 Curvature of a circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
11.3 Curvature at a point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
11.4 Formulas for curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
11.5 Radius of curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
11.6 Circle of curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
11.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
11.8 Circle of curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
11.9 Second method for finding center of curvature . . . . . . . . . . . 304
11.10Center of curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
11.11Evolutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
11.12Properties of the evolute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
11.13Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

12 Appendix: Collection of formulas 317

12.1 Formulas for reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
12.2 Greek alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
12.3 Rules for signs of the trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . 322
12.4 Natural values of the trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . 322

vii
CONTENTS

13 Appendix: A mini-Sage tutorial 325

13.1 Ways to Use Sage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
13.2 Longterm Goals for Sage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
13.3 The Sage command line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
13.4 The Sage notebook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
13.5 A guided tour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
13.5.1 Assignment, Equality, and Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . 333
13.5.2 Getting Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
13.5.3 Basic Algebra and Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
13.5.4 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
13.5.5 Some common issues with functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
13.6 Try it! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347

14 Appendix: GNU Free Documentation License 349

1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
2. VERBATIM COPYING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
3. COPYING IN QUANTITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
4. MODIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS . . . . . . . . . 355
8. TRANSLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
9. TERMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
11. RELICENSING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents . . . . . . 357

viii
 CHAPTER
ZERO

Preface

This is a free and open source differential calculus book. The “free and open
source” part means you, as a student, can give digital versions of this book to any-
one you want (for free). It means that if you are a teacher, you can (a) give or print
or xerox copies for your students, (b) use potions for your own class notes (if they
are published then you might need to add some acknowledgement, depending on
which parts you copied), and you can xerox even very large portions of it to your
hearts content. The “differential calculus” part means it covers derivatives and
applications but not integrals. It is heavily based on the first half of a classic text,
Granville’s “Elements of the Differential and Integral Calculus,” quite possibly a
book your great grandfather might have used when he was college age. Some ma-
terial from Sean Mauch’s excellent public domain text on Applied Mathematics,
http://www.its.caltech.edu/˜sean/book.html
was also included.
Calculus has been around for several hundred years and the teaching of it has not
changed radically. Of course, like any topic which is taught in school, there are
some modifications, but not major ones in this case. If x(t) denotes the distance a
train has traveled in a straight line at time t then the derivative is the velocity. If
q(t) denotes the charge on a capacitor at time t in a simple electrical circuit then
the derivative is the current. If C(t) denotes the concentration of a solvent in a
chemical mixture at time t then the derivative is the reaction rate. If P (t) denotes
the population size of a country at time t then the derivative is the growth rate.
If C(x) denotes the cost to manufacture x units of a production item (such as a
broom, say) then the derivative is the marginal cost.

ix
 Some of these topics, electrical circuits for example, were not studied in calcu-
lus when Granville’s book was first written. However, aside from some changes
in grammar and terminology (which have been updated in this version), the math-
ematical content of the calculus course taught today is basically the same as that
taught a hundred years ago. Terminology has changed, and no one talks about
“versines” any more (they were used in navigation tables before the advent of
computers), but the basic techniques have not. Therefore, to make the book more
useful to current students, some modification and rearrangement of the material
in Granville’s old text is appropriate. Overall, though the rigor and detailed expla-
nations are still at their same high level of quality.
Here is a quote form Granville’s original preface:
The author has tried to write a textbook that is thoroughly modern
and teachable, and the capacity and needs of the student pursuing a
first course in the Calculus have been kept constantly in mind. The
book contains more material than is necessary for the usual course of
one hundred lessons given in our colleges and engineering schools;
but this gives teachers an opportunity to choose such subjects as best
suit the needs of their classes. It is believed that the volume contains
all topics from which a selection naturally would be made in prepar-
ing students either for elementary work in applied science or for more
advanced work in pure mathematics.

WILLIAM A. GRANVILLE
GETTYSBURG COLLEGE
Gettysburg, Pa.

For further information on William Granville, please see the Wikipedia article at
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Anthony_Granville,
which has a short biography and links for further information.
Granville’s book “Elements of the Differential and Integral Calculus” fell into
the public domain (in the United States - other countries may be different) and
then much of it (but not all, at the time of this writing) was scanned into
http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Elements_of_the_Differential_and_Integral_Calculus

primarily by P. J. Hall. This wikisource document uses MathML and LATEX and
some Greek letter fonts.

x
 In keeping with the “free and open source” aspect of this textbook, and the
theme of updating to today’s much more technologically-aware students, a free
and open sourse mathematical software package Sage was used to illustrate ex-
amples throughout. You don’t need to know Sage to read the book (just ignore
the Sage examples if you want) but it certainly won’t hurt to learn a little about
it. Besides, you might find that with some practice Sage is fun to “play with”
and helps you with homework or other mathematical problems in some of your
other classes. It is a general purpose mathematical software program and it may
very likely be the only mathematical software you will ever need.
This LATEX’d version is due to the second-named author, who is responsible for
formatting, the correction of any typos in the scanned version, significant revision
for readability, and some extra material (for example, the Sage examples and
graphics). In particular, the existence of this document owes itself primarily to
three great open source projects: TEX/LATEX, Wikipedia, and Sage . All the fig-
ures were created using Sage and then edited and converted using the excellent
open source image manipulation program GIMP (http://www.gimp.org).
The Sage code for each image can be found in the LATEX source code, available
at

http://sage.math.washington.edu/home/wdj/teaching/calc1-sage/.

More information on Sage can be found at the Sage website (located at

http://www.sagemath.org) or in the Appendix (Chapter 13) below.
Though the original text of Granville is public domain, the extra material added
in this version is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License (repro-
duced in an Appendix below), as is Wikipedia.

Acknowledgements: I thank the following readers for careful proofreading and

reporting typos: Mario Pernici, Jacob Hicks, Georg Muntingh, and Minh Van
Nguyen. I also thank Trevor Lipscombe for excellent stylistic advice on the pre-
sentation of the book. However, any remaining errors are solely my responsibility.
Please send comments, suggestions, proposed changes, or corrections by email to
[email protected].

xi
 CHAPTER
ONE

Variables and functions

1.1 Variables and constants

A variable is a quantity to which an unlimited number of values can be assigned.
Variables are denoted by the later letters of the alphabet. Thus, in the equation of
a straight line,

x y
+ =1
a b
x and y may be considered as the variable coordinates of a point moving along the
line. A quantity whose value remains unchanged is called a constant.
√Numerical or absolute constants retain the same values in all problems, as 2, 5,
7, π, etc.
Arbitrary constants, or parameters, are constants to which any one of an unlim-
ited set of numerical values may be assigned, and they are supposed to have these
assigned values throughout the investigation. They are usually denoted by the ear-
lier letters of the alphabet. Thus, for every pair of values arbitrarily assigned to a
and b, the equation

x y
+ =1
a b
represents some particular straight line.

1
1.2. INTERVAL OF A VARIABLE

1.2 Interval of a variable

Very often we confine ourselves to a portion only of the number system. For
example, we may restrict our variable so that it shall take on only such values as
lie between a and b, where a and b may be included, or either or both excluded.
We shall employ the symbol [a, b], a being less than b, to represent the numbers
a, b, and all the numbers between them, unless otherwise stated. This symbol
[a, b] is read the interval from a to b.

1.3 Continuous variation

A variable x is said to vary continuously through an interval [a, b], when x starts
with the value a and increases until it takes on the value b in such a manner as to
assume the value of every number between a and b in the order of their magni-
tudes. This may be illustrated geometrically as follows:

Figure 1.1: Interval from A to B.

The origin being at O, layoff on the straight line the points A and B corresponding
to the numbers a and b. Also let the point P correspond to a particular value of the
variable x. Evidently the interval [a, b] is represented by the segment AB. Now
as x varies continuously from a to b inclusive, i.e. through the interval [a, b], the
point P generates the segment AB.

1.4 Functions
A function f of the real numbers R is a well-defined rule which associated to each
x ∈ R a unique value f (x). Usually functions are described algebraically using
some formula (such as f (x) = x2 , for all real numbers x) but it doesn’t have to be
so simple. For example,

2
 1.5. NOTATION OF FUNCTIONS

x2 , if x is an integer,

f (x) =
0, otherwise,
is a function on R but it is given by a relatively complicated rule. Namely, the rule
f tells you to associate to a number x the value 0 unless x is an integer, in which
case you are to associate the value x2 . (In particular, f (x) is always an integer, no
matter what x is.) This type of rule defining a function of x is sometimes called
a piecewise-defined function. In this book, we shall usually focus on functions
given by simpler symbolic expressions. However, be aware that piecewise-defined
functions do arise naturally in applications. For example, in electronics, when a
6 volt battery-powered flashlight is powered on or off using a switch, the voltage
to the lightbulb is modeled by a piecewise-defined function which has the value 0
when the device is off and 6 when it is switched on.
When two variables are so related that the value of the first variable depends on
the value of the second variable, then the first variable is said to be a function of
the second variable.
Nearly all scientific problems deal with quantities and relations of this sort, and
in the experiences of everyday life we are continually meeting conditions illus-
trating the dependence of one quantity on another. For instance, the weight a man
is able to lift depends on his strength, other things being equal. Similarly, the dis-
tance a boy can run may be considered as depending on the time. Or, we may say
that the area of a square is a function of the length of a side, and the volume of a
sphere is a function of its diameter.

1.5 Notation of functions

The symbol f (x) is used to denote a function of x, and is read “f of x”. In order
to distinguish between different functions, the prefixed letter is changed, as F (x),
φ(x), f ′ (x), etc.
During any investigation the same functional symbol always indicates the same
law of dependence of the function upon the variable. In the simpler cases this
law takes the form of a series of analytical operations upon that variable. Hence,
in such a case, the same functional symbol will indicate the same operations or
series of operations, even though applied to different quantities. Thus, if

f (x) = x2 − 9x + 14,

3
1.5. NOTATION OF FUNCTIONS

then
f (y) = y 2 − 9y + 14.
Also
f (a) = a2 − 9a + 14,
f (b + 1) = (b + 1)2 − 9(b + 1) + 14 = b2 − 7b + 6,
f (0) = 02 − 9 · 0 + 14 = 14,
f (−1) = (−1)2 − 9(−1) + 14 = 24,
f (3) = 32 − 9 · 3 + 14 = −4,
f (7) = 72 − 9 · 7 + 14 = 0,
etc. Similarly, φ(x, y) denotes a function of x and y, and is read “φ of x and y”.
If
φ(x, y) = sin(x + y),
then
φ(a, b) = sin(a + b),
and π  π
φ , 0 = sin = 1.
2 2
Again, if
F (x, y, z) = 2x + 3y − 12z,
then
F (m, −m, m) = 2m − 3m − 12m = −13m.
and
F (3, 2, 1) = 2 · 3 + 3 · 2 − 12 · 1 = 0.
Evidently this system of notation may be extended indefinitely.
You can define a function in Sage in several ways:
Sage

sage: x,y = var("x,y")

sage: f = log(sqrt(x))
sage: f(4)
log(4)/2
sage: f(4).simplify_log()
log(2)
sage: f = lambda x: (xˆ2+1)/2
sage: f(x)
(xˆ2 + 1)/2
sage: f(1)

4
 1.6. INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES

1
sage: f = lambda x,y: xˆ2+yˆ2
sage: f(3,4)
25
sage: R.<x> = PolynomialRing(CC,"x")
sage: f = xˆ2+2
sage: f.roots()
[(1.41421356237309*I, 1), (2.77555756156289e-17 - 1.41421356237309*I, 1)]

1.6 Independent and dependent variables

The second variable, to which values may be assigned at pleasure within limits
depending on the particular problem, is called the independent variable, or argu-
ment; and the first variable, whose value is determined as soon as the value of the
independent variable is fixed, is called the dependent variable, or function.
Though we shall wait to introduce differentiation later, please keep in mind that
you differentiate the dependent variable with respect to the independent variable.
Example 1.6.1. In the equation of an upper half-circle of radius 1,
√
y= 1 − x2 ,
we typically call x the independent variable and y the dependent variable.
Frequently, when we are considering two related variables, it is in our power
to fix upon whichever we please as the independent variable; but having once
made the choice, no change of independent variable is allowed without certain
precautions and transformations.
One quantity (the dependent variable) may be a function of two or more other
quantities (the independent variables, or arguments). For example, the cost of
cloth is a function of both the quality and quantity; the area of a triangle is a
function of the base and altitude; the volume of a rectangular parallelepiped is a
function of its three dimensions.
In the Sage example below, t is the independent variable and f is the dependent
variable.
Sage
sage: t = var(’t’)
sage: f = function(’f’, t)
sage: f = cos

5
1.7. THE DOMAIN OF A FUNCTION

sage: f(pi/2)
0
sage: (f(-3*pi)-2*f(1))ˆ2
(-2*cos(1) - 1)ˆ2

1.7 The domain of a function

The values of the independent variable for which a function f (x) is defined is
often referred to as the domain of the function, denoted domain(f ).
Consider the functions

x2 − 2x + 5, sin x, arctan x

of the independent variable x. Denoting the dependent variable in each case by y,

we may write

y = x2 − 2x + 5, y = sin x, y = arctan x.
In each case y (the value of the function) is known, or, as we say, defined, for all
values of x. We write in this case, domain(f ) = R. This is not by any means
true of all functions, as the following examples illustrating the more common
exceptions will show.
a
y= (1.1)
x−b
Here the value of y (i.e. the function) is defined for all values of x except x = b.
When x = b the divisor becomes zero and the value of y cannot be computed from
(1.1). We write in this case, domain(y) = R − {b}.
√
y= x. (1.2)
In this case the function is defined only for positive values of x. Negative values
of x give imaginary values for y, and these must be excluded here, where we are
confining ourselves to real numbers only. We write in this case, domain(y) =
{x ∈ R | x ≥ 0}.

y = loga x. a>0 (1.3)

6
 1.8. EXERCISES

Here y is defined only for positive values of x. For negative values of x this
function does not exist (see 2.7).

y = arcsin x, y = arccos x. (1.4)

Since sines, and cosines cannot become greater than +1 nor less than −1, it fol-
lows that the above functions are defined for all values of x ranging from −1 to
+1 inclusive, but for no other values.
Sage

sage: t = var("t’’)
sage: f = function(’f’, t)
sage: g = function(’g’, t)
sage: f = sin
sage: g = asin
sage: f(g(t))
t
sage: g(f(t))
t
sage: g(f(0.2))
0.200000000000000

1.8 Exercises
1. Given f (x) = x3 − 10x2 + 31x − 30; show that

f (0) = −30, f (y) = y 3 − 10y 2 + 31y − 30,

f (2) = 0, f (a) = a3 − 10a2 + 31a − 30,

f (3) = f (5), f (yz) = y 3 z 3 − 10y 2 z 2 + 31yz − 30,

f (1) > f (−3), f (x − 2) = x3 − 16x2 + 83x − 140,

f (−1) = 6f (6).

2. If f (x) = x3 − 3x + 2, find f (0), f (1), f (−1), f − 12 , f 4

3
.

7
1.8. EXERCISES

3. If f (x) = x3 − 10x2 + 31x − 30, and φ(x) = x4 − 55x2 − 210x − 216,

show that
f (2) = φ(−2), f (3) = φ(−3), f (5) = φ(−4), f (0) + φ(0) + 246 = 0.

4. If F (x) = 2x, find F (0), F (−3), F 31 , F (−1).

6) x − 12 x + 45 , show that F (0) = F (1) =

5. Given F (x) = x(x − 1)(x +
F (−6) = F 12 = F − 54 = 0.

m1 −1 f (m1 )−f (m2 ) m1 −m2

6. If f (m1 ) = m1 +1
, show that 1+f (m1 )f (m2 )
= 1+m1 m2
.

7. If φ(x) = ax , show that φ(y) · φ(z) = φ(y + z).

 
1−x x+y
8. Given φ(x) = log 1+x , show that φ(x) + φ(y) = φ 1+xy
.

9. If f (φ) = cos φ, show that f (φ) = f (−φ) = −f (π − φ) = −f (π + φ).

2F (θ)
10. If F (θ) = tan θ, show that F (2θ) = 1−[F (θ)]2
.
Here’s how to use Sage to verify the double angle identity for tan above:
Sage

sage: theta = var("theta")

sage: tan(2*theta).expand_trig()
2*tan(theta)/(1 - tan(theta)ˆ2)

11. Given ψ(x) = x2n + x2m + 1, show that ψ(1) = 3, ψ(0) = 1, and ψ(a) =
ψ(−a), for any real number a (Hint: Use the fact that (−1)2 = 1.)
√
12. If f (x) = 2x−3
x+7
, find f ( 2).

8
 CHAPTER
TWO

Theory of limits

In this book, a variable denotes a quantity which takes values in the real numbers.

2.1 Limit of a variable

If a variable v takes on successively a series of values that approach nearer and
nearer to a constant value L in such a manner that |v − L| becomes and remains
less than any assigned arbitrarily small positive quantity, then v is said to approach
the limit L, or to converge to the limit L. Symbolically this is written limv=L , or
more commonly

lim .
v→L

The following familiar examples illustrate what is meant:

1. As the number of sides of a regular inscribed polygon is indefinitely in-

creased, the limit of the area of the polygon is the area of the circle. In this
case the variable is always less than its limit.

2. Similarly, the limit of the area of the circumscribed polygon is also the area
of the circle, but now the variable is always greater than its limit.

3. Hold a penny exactly 1 meter above the ground and observe its motion as
you release it. First it travels 1/2 the distance from the ground (at this stage
its distance fallen is 1/2 meter), then it travels 1/2 that distance from the

9
2.1. LIMIT OF A VARIABLE

ground (at this stage its distance fallen is 1/2 + 1/4 meter), then it travels
1/2 that distance from the ground (at this stage its distance fallen is 1/2 +
1/4 + 1/8 meter), and so on. This leads us to the series

1 1 1 1
+ = + ··· + k + ··· .
2 4 8 2
Since the penny hits the ground, this infinite sum is 1. (This computational
idea goes back to the Greek scholar Archimedes, c. 287 BC c. 212 BC.)
4. Consider the series
1 1 1 −1
1− + − + · · · + ( )k + · · · . (2.1)
2 4 8 2
The sum of any even number (2n) of the first terms of this series is

S2n = 1 − 12 + 41 − 18 + · · · + 1
22n−2
− 1
22n−1
1
−1
22n
= − 21 −1
(2.2)
2 1
= 3
− 3·22n−1
,
by item 6, Ch. 12, §12.1. Similarly, the sum of any odd number (2n + 1) of
the first terms of the series is

S2n+1 = 1 − 12 + 41 − 18 + · · · − 1
22n−1
+ 1
22n
1
− −1
22n+1
= 1
− 2 −1
(2.3)
2 1
= 3
+ 3·22n
,
again by item 6, Ch. 12, §12.1.
Writing (2.2) and (2.3) in the forms

2 1 2 1
− S2n = , S 2n+1 − =
3 3 · 22n−1 3 3 · 22n
we have  
2 1
lim − S2n = lim = 0,
n→∞ 3 n→∞ 3 · 22n−1

and
 
2 1
lim S2n+1 − = lim = 0.
n→∞ 3 n→∞ 3 · 22n

10
 2.1. LIMIT OF A VARIABLE

Hence, by definition of the limit of a variable, it is seen that both S2n and
S2n+1 are variables approaching 23 as a limit as the number of terms in-
creases without limit.
Summing up the first two, three, four, etc., terms of (2.1), the sums are found
by ((2.2) and ((2.3) to be alternately less and greater than 23 , illustrating
the case when the variable, in this case the sum of the terms of ((2.1), is
alternately less and greater than its limit.
Sage

sage: S = lambda n: add([(-1)ˆi*2ˆ(-i) for i in range(n)])

sage: RR(S(1)); RR(S(2)); RR(S(5)); RR(S(10)); RR(S(20))
1.00000000000000
0.500000000000000
0.687500000000000
0.666015625000000
0.666666030883789

You can see from the Sage example that the limit does indeed seem to
approach 2/3.
In the examples shown the variable never reaches its limit. This is not by any
means always the case, for from the definition of the limit of a variable it is clear
that the essence of the definition is simply that the absolute value of the difference
between the variable and its limit shall ultimately become and remain less than
any positive number we may choose, however small.
Example 2.1.1. As an example illustrating the fact that the variable may reach
its limit, consider the following. Let a series of regular polygons be inscribed in
a circle, the number of sides increasing indefinitely. Choosing anyone of these,
construct. the circumscribed polygon whose sides touch the circle at the vertices
of the inscribed polygon. Let pn and Pn be the perimeters of the inscribed and
circumscribed polygons of n sides, and C the circumference of the circle, and
suppose the values of a variable x to be as follows:

Pn , pn+1 , C, Pn+1 , pn+2 , C, Pn+2 , etc.

Then, evidently,

lim x = C
x→∞
and the limit is reached by the variable, every third value of the variable being C.

11
2.2. DIVISION BY ZERO EXCLUDED

2.2 Division by zero excluded

0
0
is indeterminate. For the quotient of two numbers is that number which multi-
plied by the divisor will give the dividend. But any number whatever multiplied
by zero gives zero, and the quotient is indeterminate; that is, any number whatever
may be considered as the quotient, a result which is of no value.
a
0
has no meaning, a being different from zero, for there exists no number such
that if it be multiplied by zero, the product will equal a.
Therefore division by zero is not an admissible operation.
Care should be taken not to divide by zero inadvertently. The following fallacy
is an illustration. Assume that
a = b.
Then evidently
ab = a2 .
Subtracting b2 ,
ab − b2 = a2 − b2 .
Factoring,
b(a − b) = (a + b)(a − b).
Dividing by a − b,
b = a + b.
But a = b, therefore b = 2b, or, 1 = 2. The result is absurd, and is caused by the
fact that we divided by a − b = 0, which is illegal.

2.3 Infinitesimals
Definition 2.3.1. A variable v whose limit is zero is called an infinitesimal1 .

This is written

lim, or, lim ,

v=0 v→0

and means that the successive absolute values of v ultimately become and remain
less than any positive number however small. Such a variable is said to become
“arbitrarily small.”
1
Hence a constant, no matter how small it may be, is not an infinitesimal.

12
 2.4. THE CONCEPT OF INFINITY (∞)

If lim v = l, then lim(v − l) = 0; that is, the difference between a variable and
its limit is an infinitesimal.
Conversely, if the difference between a variable and a constant is an infinitesi-
mal, then the variable approaches the constant as a limit.

2.4 The concept of infinity (∞)

If a variable v ultimately becomes and remains greater than any assigned positive
number, however large, we say v is “unbounded and positive ” (or “increases
without limit”), and write

lim , or, lim , or, v → +∞.

v=+∞ v→+∞

If a variable v ultimately becomes and remains smaller than any assigned negative
number, we say “unbounded and negative ” (or “v decreases without limit”), and
write

lim , or, lim , or, v → −∞.

v=−∞ v→−∞

If a variable v ultimately becomes and remains in absolute value greater than any
assigned positive number, however large, we say v, in absolute value, “increases
without limit”, or v becomes arbitrarily large2 , and write

lim , or, lim , or, v → ∞.

v=∞ v→∞

Infinity (∞) is not a number; it simply serves to characterize a particular mode of

variation of a variable by virtue of which it becomes arbitrarily large.

Here is a Sage example illustrating limt=∞ 1/t = limt=−∞ 1/t = 0.

Sage

sage: t = var(’t’)
sage: limit(1/t, t = Infinity)
2
On account of the notation used and for the sake of uniformity, the expression v → +∞ is
sometimes read “v approaches the limit plus infinity”. Similarly, v → −∞ is read “v approaches
the limit minus infinity”, and v → ∞ is read “v, in absolute value, approaches the limit infinity”.
While the above notation is convenient to use in this connection, the student must not forget that
infinity is not a limit in the sense in which we defined it in §2.2, for infinity is not a number at all.

13
2.5. LIMITING VALUE OF A FUNCTION

0
sage: limit(1/t, t = -Infinity)
0

2.5 Limiting value of a function

Given a function f (x). If the independent variable x takes on any series of values
such that

lim x = a,
and at the same time the dependent variable f (x) takes on a series of correspond-
ing values such that

lim f (x) = A,
then as a single statement this is written

lim f (x) = A.
x→a

Here is an example of a limit using Sage :

Sage

sage: limit((xˆ2+1)/(2+x+3*xˆ2),x=infinity)
1/3

x2 +1
This tells us that limx→∞ 2+x+3∗x2
= 13 .

2.6 Continuous and discontinuous functions

A function f (x) is said to be continuous for x = a if the limiting value of the
function when x approaches the limit a in any manner is the value assigned to the
function for x = a. In symbols, if

lim f (x) = f (a),

x→a

14
 2.6. CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

then f (x) is continuous for x = a. Roughly speaking, a function y = f (x) is

continuous if you can draw its graph by hand without lifting your pencil off the
paper. In other words, the graph of a continuous function can have no “breaks.”
Example 2.6.1. The piecewise constant function

1, x ≥ 0,
u(x) =
0, x < 0,
is not continuous since its graph has a “break” at x = 0 where it “steps up” from
0 to 1. This function models “on-off” switches in electrical engineering and is
called the unit step function or the Heaviside function (after the brilliant engineer
Oliver Heaviside, 1850 1925).
The function is said to be discontinuous for x = a if this condition is not satis-
fied. For example, if

lim f (x) = ∞,
x→a
the function is discontinuous for x = a.
Sage

sage: t = var(’t’)
sage: P1 = plot(1/t, (t, -5, -0.1))
sage: P2 = plot(1/t, (t, 0.1, 5))
sage: show(P1+P2, aspect_ratio=1)
sage: limit(1/t,t=0,dir="plus")
+Infinity
sage: limit(1/t,t=0,dir="minus")
-Infinity

The graph in Figure 2.1 suggests that limx→0+ 1/x = +∞ and limx→0− 1/x =
−∞, as the above Sage computation confirms.
The attention of the student is now called to the following cases which occur
frequently.
CASE I. As an example illustrating a simple case of a function continuous for a
particular value of the variable, consider the function

x2 − 4
f (x) = .
x−2

15
2.6. CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

Figure 2.1: The limits limx→0+ 1/x = +∞, limx→0− 1/x = −∞.

For x = 1, f (x) = f (1) = 3. Moreover, if x approaches the limit 1 in any manner,

the function f (x) approaches 3 as a limit. Hence the function is continuous for
x = 1.
Sage

sage: x = var(’x’)
sage: limit((xˆ2-4)/(x-2), x = 1)
3

16
 2.6. CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

CASE II. The definition of a continuous function assumes that the function is
already defined for x = a. If this is not the case, however, it is sometimes possible
to assign such a value to the function for x = a that the condition of continuity
shall be satisfied. The following theorem covers these cases.

Theorem 2.6.1. If f (x) is not defined for x = a, and if

lim f (x) = B,
x→a

then f (x) will be continuous for x = a, if B is assumed as the value of f (x) for
x = a.

Thus the function

x2 − 4
x−2
is not defined for x = 2 (since then there would be division by zero). But for
every other value of x,

x2 − 4
= x + 2;
x+2
and
lim (x + 2) = 4
x→2
2
therefore limx→2 xx−2−4
= 4. Although the function is not defined for x = 2, if we
assign it the value 4 for x = 2, it then becomes continuous for this value.
Sage

sage: x = var(’x’)
sage: limit((xˆ2-4)/(x-2), x = 2)
4

A function f (x) is said to be continuous in an interval when it is continuous for

all values of x in this interval3 .
3
In this book we shall deal only with functions which are in general continuous, that is, con-
tinuous for all values of x, with the possible exception of certain isolated values, our results in

17
2.7. CONTINUITY AND DISCONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS
ILLUSTRATED BY THEIR GRAPHS
2.7 Continuity and discontinuity of functions illus-
trated by their graphs
1. Consider the function x2 , and let

y = x2 (2.4)
If we assume values for x and calculate the corresponding values of y, we
can plot a series of points. Drawing a smooth line free-hand through these
points: a good representation of the general behavior of the function may
be obtained. This picture or image of the function is called its graph. It is
evidently the locus of all points satisfying equation (2.4).
It is very easy to create the above plot in Sage , as the example below
shows:
Sage

sage: P = plot(xˆ2,-2,2)
sage: show(P)

Such a series or assemblage of points is also called a curve. Evidently we

may assume values of x so near together as to bring the values of y (and
therefore the points of the curve) as near together as we please. In other
words, there are no breaks in the curve, and the function x2 is continuous
for all values of x.
2. The graph of the continuous function sin x, plotted by drawing the locus of
y = sin x,
It is seen that no break in the curve occurs anywhere.
3. The continuous function exp(x) = ex is of very frequent occurrence in the
Calculus. If we plot its graph from
general being understood as valid only for such values of x for which the function in question is
actually continuous. Unless special attention is called thereto, we shall as a rule pay no attention
to the possibilities of such exceptional values of x for which the function is discontinuous. The
definition of a continuous function f(x) is sometimes roughly (but imperfectly) summed up in the
statement that a small change in x shall produce a small change in f (x). We shall not consider
functions having an infinite number of oscillations in a limited region.

18
 2.7. CONTINUITY AND DISCONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS
ILLUSTRATED BY THEIR GRAPHS

Figure 2.2: The parabola y = x2 .

y = ex , (e = 2.718 · · · ),
we get a smooth curve as shown.
From this it is clearly seen that,

(a) when x = 0, limx→0 y(= limx→0 ex ) = 1;

(b) when x > 0, y(= ex ) is positive and increases as we pass towards the
right from the origin;
(c) when x < 0, y(= ex ) is still positive and decreases as we pass towards
the left from the origin.

19
2.7. CONTINUITY AND DISCONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS
ILLUSTRATED BY THEIR GRAPHS

Figure 2.3: The sine function.

4. The function ln x = loge x is closely related to the last one discussed. In

fact, if we plot its graph from

y = loge x,
it will be seen that its graph is the reflection of the graph of y = ex about
the diagonal (the x = y line). (This is because they are “inverses” of each
other: loge (ex ) = x and eloge x = x.)
Here we see the following facts pictured:

(a) For x = 1, loge x = loge 1 = 0.

(b) For x > 1, loge x is positive and increases as x increases.
(c) For 1 > x > 0, loge x is negative and increases in absolute value as
x, that is, limx→0 log x = −∞.
(d) For x ≤ 0, loge x is not defined; hence the entire graph lies to the right
of OY .

5. Consider the function x1 , and set

20
 2.7. CONTINUITY AND DISCONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS
ILLUSTRATED BY THEIR GRAPHS

Figure 2.4: The exponential function.

1
y=
x
If the graph of this function be plotted, it will be seen that as x approaches
the value zero from the left (negatively), the points of the curve ultimately
drop down an infinitely great distance, and as x approaches the value zero
from the right, the curve extends upward infinitely far.
The curve then does not form a continuous branch from one side to the other
of the axis of y, showing graphically that the function is discontinuous for
x = 0, but continuous for all other values of x.

6. From the graph (see Figure 2.7) of

2x
y=
1 − x2

21
2.7. CONTINUITY AND DISCONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS
ILLUSTRATED BY THEIR GRAPHS

Figure 2.5: The natural logarithm.

2x
it is seen that the function 1−x 2 is discontinuous for the two values x = ±1,

but continuous for all other values of x.

22
 2.7. CONTINUITY AND DISCONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS
ILLUSTRATED BY THEIR GRAPHS

Figure 2.6: The function y = 1/x.

7. The graph of
y = tan x
shows that the function tan x is discontinuous for infinitely many values
of the independent variable x, namely, x = nπ2
, where n denotes any odd
positive or negative integer.

8. The function arctan x has infinitely many values for a given value of x, the
graph of equation
y = arctan x
consisting of infinitely many branches.
If, however, we confine ourselves to any single branch, the function is con-
tinuous. For instance, if we say that y shall be the smallest angle (in radians)
whose tangent is x, that is, y shall take on only values between − π2 and π2 ,
then we are limited to the branch passing through the origin, and the condi-
tion for continuity is satisfied.

23
2.7. CONTINUITY AND DISCONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS
ILLUSTRATED BY THEIR GRAPHS

Figure 2.7: The function y = 2x/(1 − x2 ).

9. Similarly, arctan x1 , is found to be a many-valued function. Confining our-

selves to one branch of the graph of

1
y = arctan ,
x
we see that as x approaches zero from the left, y approaches the limit − π2 ,
and as x approaches zero from the right, y approaches the limit + π2 . Hence
the function is discontinuous when x = 0. Its value for x = 0 can be
assigned at pleasure.

10. As was previously mentioned, a piecewise-defined function is one which is

defined by different rules on different non-overlapping intervals. For exam-
ple,

24
 2.7. CONTINUITY AND DISCONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS
ILLUSTRATED BY THEIR GRAPHS

Figure 2.8: The tangent function.


 −1, x < −π/2,
f (x) = sin(x), π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2,
1, π/2 < x.


is a continuous piecewise-defined function.

For example,

 −1, x < −2,
f (x) = 3, −2 ≤ x ≤ 3,
2, 3 < x.


is a discontinuous piecewise-defined function, with jump discontinuities at

x = −2 and x = 3.
Sage

sage: f = piecewise([[(-5,-2),-1],[(-2,3),3],[(3,5),2]])

25
2.8. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS ON LIMITS

Figure 2.9: The arctangent (or inverse tangent) function.

sage: f
Piecewise defined function with 3 parts,
[[(-5, -2), -1], [(-2, 3), 3], [(3, 5), 2]]

Functions exist which are discontinuous for every value of the independent vari-
able within a certain range. In the ordinary applications of the Calculus, however,
we deal with functions which are discontinuous (if at all) only for certain iso-
lated values of the independent variable; such functions are therefore in general
continuous, and are the only ones considered in this book.

2.8 Fundamental theorems on limits

In problems involving limits the use of one or more of the following theorems is
usually implied. It is assumed that the limit of each variable exists and is finite.

26
 2.8. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS ON LIMITS

Figure 2.10: The function y = arctan(1/x).

Theorem 2.8.1. The limit of the algebraic sum of a finite number of variables is
equal to the algebraic sum of the limits of the several variables.
In particular,
lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x).
x→a x→a x→a

Theorem 2.8.2. The limit of the product of a finite number of variables is equal
to the product of the limits of the several variables.
In particular,
lim [f (x) · g(x)] = lim f (x) · lim g(x).
x→a x→a x→a

Here is a Sage example illustrating these facts in a special case.

Sage

sage: t = var(’t’)
sage: f = exp
sage: g = sin
sage: a = var(’a’)
sage: L1 = limit(f(t)+g(t), t = a)

27
2.8. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS ON LIMITS

Figure 2.11: A piecewise-defined function.

sage: L2 = limit(f(t),t=a)+lim(g(t), t = a)
sage: bool(L1 == L2)
True
sage: L1; L2
sin(a) + eˆa
sin(a) + eˆa
sage: L1 = limit(f(t)*g(t), t = a)
sage: L2 = limit(f(t),t=a)*lim(g(t), t = a)
sage: bool(L1 == L2)
True
sage: L1; L2
eˆa*sin(a)
eˆa*sin(a)

Theorem 2.8.3. The limit of the quotient of two variables is equal to the quotient
of the limits of the separate variables, provided the limit of the denominator is not
zero.

28
 2.8. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS ON LIMITS

Figure 2.12: Another piecewise defined function.

In particular,
limx→a f (x)
lim [f (x)/g(x)] = ,
x→a limx→a g(x)
provided limx→a g(x) 6= 0.

Before proving these theorems it is necessary to establish the following proper-

ties of infinitesimals (Definition 2.3.1).

1. The sum of a finite number of infinitesimals is an infinitesimal. To prove

this we must show that the absolute value of this sum can be made less than
any small positive quantity (as ǫ) that may be assigned (§2.3). That this
is possible is evident, for, the limit of each infinitesimal being zero, each
one can be made less than, in absolute value, nǫ (n being the number of
infinitesimals), and therefore the absolute value of their sum can be made
less than ǫ.

2. The product of a constant c 6= 0 and an infinitesimal is an infinitesimal. For

the absolute value of the product can always be made less than any small

29
2.8. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS ON LIMITS

positive quantity (as ǫ) by making the absolute value of the infinitesimal less
than |c|ǫ .
3. If v is a variable which approaches a limit L different from zero, then the
quotient of an infinitesimal by v is also an infinitesimal. For if v → L,
and k is any number in absolute value less than L, then, by definition of a
limit, v will ultimately become and remain in absolute value greater than
k. Hence the quotient vǫ , where ǫ is an infinitesimal, will ultimately become
and remain in absolute value less than kǫ , and is therefore, by the previous
item, an infinitesimal.
4. The product of any finite number of infinitesimals is an infinitesimal. For
the absolute value of the product may be made less than any small positive
quantity that can be assigned. If the given product contains n factors, then
since each infinitesimal may be assumed less than the n − th root of ǫ, the
product can be made less than ǫ itself.

Proof of Theorem 2.8.1. Let v1 , v2 , v3 , . . . be the variables, and L1 , L2 , L3 , . . .

their respective limits. We may then write

v 1 − L1 = ǫ1 , v 2 − L2 = ǫ2 , v 3 − L3 = ǫ3 ,
where ǫ1 , ǫ2 , ǫ3 , . . . are infinitesimals (i.e. variables having zero for a limit).
Adding

(v1 + v2 + v3 + . . . ) − (L1 + L2 + L3 + ...) = (ǫ1 + ǫ2 + ǫ3 + . . . ).

Since the right-hand member is an infinitesimal by item (1) above (§2.8), we have,
from the converse theorem (§2.3),

lim(v1 + v2 + v3 + . . . ) = L1 + L2 + L3 + . . . ,
or,

lim(v1 + v2 + v3 + . . . ) = lim v1 + lim v2 + lim v3 + . . . ,

which was to be proved.
Proof of Theorem 2.8.2. Let v1 and v2 be the variables, L1 and L2 their respective
limits, and ǫ1 and ǫ2 infinitesimals; then
v 1 = L1 + ǫ1

30
 2.9. SPECIAL LIMITING VALUES

and v2 = L2 + ǫ2 . Multiplying,

v1 v2 = (L1 + ǫ1 )(L2 + ǫ2 )
= L1 L2 + L1 ǫ2 + L2 ǫ1 + ǫ1 ǫ2
or,

v 1 v 2 − L1 L2 = L1 ǫ2 + L2 ǫ1 + ǫ1 ǫ2 .
Since the right-hand member is an infinitesimal by items (1) and (2) above, (§2.8),
we have, as before,

lim(v1 v2 ) = L1 L2 = lim v1 · lim v2 ,

which was to be proved.
Proof of Theorem 2.8.3. Using the same notation as before,
 
v1 L1 + ǫ1 L1 L1 + ǫ1 L1
= = + − ,
v2 L2 + ǫ2 L2 L2 + ǫ2 L2
or,

v 1 L1 L2 ǫ1 − L1 ǫ2
− = .
v 2 L2 L2 (L2 + ǫ2 )
Here again the right-hand member is an infinitesimal by item (3) above, (§2.8), if
L2 6= 0; hence
 
v1 L1 lim v1
lim = = ,
v2 L2 lim v2
which was to be proved.
It is evident that if any of the variables be replaced by constants, our reasoning
still holds, and the above theorems are true.

2.9 Special limiting values

The following examples are of special importance in the study of the Calculus. In
the following examples a > 0 and c 6= 0.

31
 SIN X
2.10. SHOW THAT LIMX→0 X
=1

Eqn number Written in the form of limits Abbreviated form often used
(1) limx→0 xc = ∞ c
0
=∞

(2) limx→∞ cx = ∞ c·∞=∞

x ∞
(3) limx→∞ c
=∞ c
=∞

c c
(4) limx→∞ x
=0 ∞
=0

(5) limx→−∞ ax , = +∞ , when a < 1 a−∞ = +∞

(6) limx→+∞ ax = 0, when a < 1 a+∞ = 0

(7) limx→−∞ ax = 0, when a > 1 a−∞ = 0

(8) limx→+∞ ax = +∞, when a > 1 a+∞ = +∞

(9) limx→0 loga x = +∞, when a < 1 loga 0 = +∞

(10) limx→+∞ loga x = −∞, when a < 1 loga (+∞) = −∞

(11) limx→0 loga x = −∞, when a > 1 loga 0 = −∞

(12) limx→+∞ loga x = +∞, when a > 1 loga (+∞) = +∞

The expressions in the last column are not to be considered as expressing nu-
merical equalities (∞ not being a number); they are merely symbolical equations
implying the relations indicated in the first column, and should be so understood.

2.10 Show that limx→0 sinx x = 1

To motivate the limit computation of this section, using Sage we compute a
number of values of the function sinx x , as x gets closer and closer to 0:

x 0.5000 0.2500 0.1250 0.06250 0.03125

sin(x)
x
0.9589 0.9896 0.9974 0.9994 0.9998

32
 SIN X
2.10. SHOW THAT LIMX→0 X
=1

Indeed, if we refer to the table in §12.4, it will be seen that for all angles less
than 10o the angle in radians and the sine of that angle are equal to three deci-
mal places. To compute the table of values above using Sage , simply use the
following commands.
Sage

sage: f = lambda x: sin(x)/x

sage: R = RealField(15)
sage: L = [1/2ˆi for i in range(1,6)]; L
[1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/32]
sage: [R(x) for x in L]
[0.5000, 0.2500, 0.1250, 0.06250, 0.03125]
sage: [R(f(x)) for x in L]
[0.9589, 0.9896, 0.9974, 0.9994, 0.9998]

From this we may well suspect that limx→0 sinx x = 1.

Let O be the center of a circle whose radius is unity.
Let arc AM = arc AM ′ = x, and let M T and M ′ T be tangents drawn to the
circle at M and M ′ (see Figure 2.13).
Using the geometry in Figure 2.13), we find that

M P M ′ < M AM ′ < M T M ′ ;
or 2 sin x < 2x < 2 tan x. Dividing through by 2 sin x, we get
x 1
1< < .
sin x cos x
If now x approaches the limit zero,
x
lim
x→0 sin x

must lie between the constant 1 and limx→0 cos1 x , which is also 1. Therefore
limx→0 sinx x = 1, or, limx→0 sinx x = 1 Theorem 2.8.3.
It is interesting to note the behavior of this function from its graph, the locus of
equation
sin x
y=
x

33
2.11. THE NUMBER E

Figure 2.13: Comparing x and sin(x) on the unit circle.

Although the function is not defined for x = 0, yet it is not discontinuous when
x = 0 if we define sin0 0 = 1 (see Case II in §2.6).
Finally, we show how to use the Sage command limit to compute the limit
above.
Sage

sage: limit(sin(x)/x,x=0)
1

2.11 The number e

One of the most important limits in the Calculus is
1
lim (1 + x) x = 2.71828 · · · = e
x→0

34
 2.11. THE NUMBER E

sin(x)
Figure 2.14: The function x
.

To prove rigorously that such a limit e exists, is beyond the scope of this book.
For the present we shall content ourselves by plotting the locus of the equation
1
y = (1 + x) x
1
˙ the function (1 + x) x (= y) takes on values in
and show graphically that, as x=0,
the near neighborhood of 2.718 . . . , and therefore e = 2.718 . . . , approximately.
x -.1 -.001 .001 .01 .1 1 5 10
y = (1 + x)1/x 2.8680 2.7195 2.7169 2.7048 2.5937 2.0000 1.4310 1.0096

As x → 0− from the left, y decreases and approaches e as a limit. As x → 0+

from the right, y increases and also approaches e as a limit.
As x → ∞, y approaches the limit 1; and as x → −1+ from the right, y
increases without limit.
Natural logarithms are those which have the number e for base. These loga-
rithms play a very important rle in mathematics. When the base is not indicated
explicitly, the base e is always understood in what follows in this book. Thus
loge v is written simply log v or ln v.
Natural logarithms possess the following characteristic property: If x → 0 in
any way whatever,

35
 ∞
2.12. EXPRESSIONS ASSUMING THE FORM ∞

Figure 2.15: The function (1 + x)1/x .

log(1 + x) 1
lim = lim log(1 + x) x = log e = ln e = 1.
x

∞
2.12 Expressions assuming the form ∞
As ∞ is not a number, the expression ∞ ÷ ∞ is indeterminate. To evaluate
a fraction assuming this form, the numerator and denominator being algebraic
functions, we shall find useful the following
RULE. Divide both numerator and denominator by the highest power of the vari-
able occurring in either. Then substitute the value of the variable.

Example 2.12.1. Evaluate

Solution. Substituting directly, we get

2x3 − 3x2 + 4 ∞
lim 2 3
=
x→∞ 5x − x − 7x ∞
which is indeterminate. Hence, following the above rule, we divide both numera-
tor and denominator by x3 , Then

36
 2.13. EXERCISES

2x3 − 3x2 + 4 2 − x3 + x43 2

lim = lim 5 1 = − .
x→∞ 5x − x2 − 7x3 x→∞ 2 − − 7 7
x x

2.13 Exercises
Prove the following:

1. limx→∞ x+1


x
= 1.
Solution:

x+1
= limx→∞ 1 + x1



limx→∞ x
1


= limx→∞ (1) + lim x → ∞ x
= 1 + 0 = 1,
by Theorem 2.8.1
 2 
2. limx→∞ x5−3x
+2x
2 = − 31 .
Solution:

x2 + 2x 1 + x2
   
lim = lim 5
x→∞ 5 − 3x2 x→∞
x2
−3
[ Dividing both numerator and denominator by x2 .]

limx→∞ 1 + x2


=
limx→∞ x52 − 3

by Theorem 2.8.3

limx→∞ (1) + limx→∞ x2

1+0 1
= 5

= =− ,
limx→∞ x2 − limx→∞ (3) 0−3 3

by Theorem 2.8.1.
x2 −2x+5
3. limx→1 x2 +7
= 21 .
3x3 +6x2
4. limx→0 2x4 −15x2
= − 25 .

37
2.13. EXERCISES

x2 +1
5. limx→−2 x+3
= 5.

6. limh→0 (3ax2 − 2hx + 5h2 ) = 3ax2 .

7. limx→∞ (ax2 + bx + c) = ∞.

(x−k)2 −2kx3
8. limk→0 x(x+k)
= 1.

x2 +1
9. limx→∞ 3x2 +2x−1
= 13 .

3+2x
10. limx→∞ x2 −5x
= 0.

cos(α−a)
11. limα→ π2 cos(2α−a)
= − tan α.

ax2 +bx+c
12. limx→∞ dx2 +ex+f
= ad .
z z
13. limz→0 a2 (e a + e− a ) = a.

2x3 +3x2
14. limx→0 x3
= ∞.

5x2 −2x
15. limx→∞ x
= ∞.
y
16. limy→∞ y+1
= 1.

n(n+1)
17. limn→∞ (n+2)(n+3)
= 1.

s3 −1
18. lims→1 s−1
= 3.

(x+h)n −xn
19. limh→0 h
= nxn−1 .

20. limh=0 cos(θ + h) sinh h = cos θ.

 

4x2 −x
21. limx→∞ 4−3x2
= − 34 .

1−cos θ
22. limθ→0 θ2
= 21 .
Here is an example of the above limit using Sage :

38
 2.13. EXERCISES

Sage

sage: theta = var("theta")

sage: limit((1 - cos(theta))/(thetaˆ2),theta=0)
1/2

This implies that, for small values of θ, cos(θ) ∼= 1 − 21 θ2 . (This is an

approximation accurate to several decimal places for |θ| < 1/4.)
1
23. limx→a x−a
= −∞, if x is increasing as it approaches the value a.
1
24. limx→a x−a
= +∞, if x is decreasing as it approaches the value a.

39
2.13. EXERCISES

40
 CHAPTER

THREE

Differentiation

3.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we investigate the ways in which a function can change in value
as the independent variable changes. For instance, if f (t) is a function of t (time),
we want to quantify what it means to talk about the “rate of change” of f (t).
A fundamental problem of differential calculus is to establish a mathematically
precise measure of this change in the function.
It was while investigating problems of this sort that Newton1 was led to the
discovery of the fundamental principles of calculus. Today, Gottfried Leibniz
(1646-1716) is generally credited with independently discovering calculus around
the same time2 .

1
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), an Englishman, was a man of the most extraordinary genius.
He developed the science of calculus under the name of “Fluxions.” Although Newton had discov-
ered and made use of the new theory as early as 1670, his first published work in which it occurs is
dated 1687, having the title Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. This was Newton’s
principal work. Laplace said of it, “It will always remain preeminent above all other productions
of the human mind.” See frontispiece.
2
However, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton v. Leibniz calculus controversy
and the footnote in §3.9 below.

41
3.2. INCREMENTS

3.2 Increments
The increment of a variable in changing from one numerical value to another is
the difference found by subtracting the first value from the second. An increment
of x is denoted by the symbol ∆x, read “delta x” and typically to be regarded as “a
small change in x.” (The student is warned against reading this symbol as “delta
times x.”) Evidently this increment may be either positive or negative. according
as the variable in changing is increasing or decreasing in value. Similarly,

• ∆y denotes an increment of y,

• ∆φ denotes an increment of φ,

• ∆f (x) denotes an increment f (x), etc.

If in y = f (x) the independent variable x, takes on an increment ∆x, then ∆y

is always understood to denote the For example, if ∆x = x1 − x0 then

∆y = y1 − y0 = f (x1 ) − f (x0 ) = f (x0 + ∆) − f (x0 ).

Example 3.2.1. For instance, consider the function

y = x2 .
Assuming x = 10 for the initial value of x fixes y = 100 as the initial value of y.
Suppose x increases to x = 12, that is, ∆x = 2; then y increases to y = 144, and
∆y = 44. Suppose x decreases to x = 9, that is, ∆x = −1; then y increases to
y = 81, and ∆y = −19.
Sage

sage: x = var("x")
sage: f(x) = xˆ2; y = f(x)
sage: Deltax = 2; x0 = 10
sage: Deltay = f(x0 + Deltax) - f(x0)
sage: Deltay
44

42
 3.3. COMPARISON OF INCREMENTS

3.3 Comparison of increments

Consider the function

y = x2 .
Assuming a fixed initial value for x, let x take on an increment ∆x. Then y will
take on a corresponding increment ∆y, and we have

y + ∆y = (x + ∆x)2 ,
or,

y + ∆y = x2 + 2x · ∆x + (∆x)2 .
Subtracting y = x2 from this,

∆y = 2x · ∆x + (∆x)2 , (3.1)
we get the increment ∆y in terms of x and ∆x. To find the ratio of the increments,
divide (3.1) by ∆x, giving

∆y
= 2x + ∆x.
∆x
If the initial value of x is 4, it is evident that

∆y
lim = 8.
∆x→0 ∆x

Let us carefully note the behavior of the ratio of the increments of x and y as the
increment of x diminishes.

Initial New Increment Initial New Increment

∆y
value of x value of x ∆x value of y value of y ∆y ∆x
4 5.0 1.0 16 25. 9. 9.
4 4.8 0.8 16 23.04 7.04 8.8
4 4.6 0.6 16 21.16 5.16 8.6
4 4.4 0.4 16 19.36 3.36 8.4
4 4.2 0.2 16 17.64 1.64 8.2
4 4.1 0.1 16 16.81 0.81 8.1
4 4.01 0.01 16 16.0801 0.0801 8.01

43
3.4. DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION OF ONE VARIABLE

It is apparent that as ∆ x decreases, ∆ y also diminishes, but their ratio takes on

∆y
the successive values 9, 8.8, 8.6, 8.4, 8.2, 8.1, 8.01; illustrating the fact that ∆x
can be brought as near to 8 in value as we please by making ∆ x small enough.
Therefore3 ,
∆y
lim = 8.
∆x→0 ∆x

3.4 Derivative of a function of one variable

The fundamental definition of the Differential Calculus is:

Definition 3.4.1. The derivative4 of a function is the limit of the ratio of the incre-
ment of the function to the increment of the independent variable, when the latter
increment varies and approaches the limit zero.

When the limit of this ratio exists, the function is said to be differentiable, or to
possess a derivative.
The above definition may be given in a more compact form symbolically as
follows: Given the function

y = f (x), (3.2)
and consider x to have a fixed value. Let x take on an increment ∆ x; then the
function y takes on an increment ∆ y, the new value of the function being

y + ∆ y = f (x + ∆ x). (3.3)
To find the increment of the function, subtract (3.2) from (3.3), giving

∆ y = f (x + ∆ x) − f (x).
Dividing by the increment of the variable, ∆ x, we get

∆y f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
= . (3.4)
∆x ∆x
3
The student should guard against the common error of concluding that because the numerator
and denominator of a fraction are each approaching zero as a limit, the limit of the value of the
fraction (or ratio) is zero. The limit of the ratio may take on any numerical value. In the above
example the limit is 8.
4
Also called the differential coefficient or the derived function.

44
 3.5. SYMBOLS FOR DERIVATIVES

The limit of this ratio when ∆ x approaches the limit zero is, from our definition,
dy
the derivative and is denoted by the symbol dx . Therefore

dy f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
= lim .
dx ∆x→0 ∆x
defines the derivative of y [or f (x)] with respect to x. From (3.3), we also get

dy ∆y
= lim
dx ∆x→0 ∆x
The process of finding the derivative of a function is called differentiation.
It should be carefully noted that the derivative is the limit of the ratio, not the ra-
tio of the limits. The latter ratio would assume the form 00 , which is indeterminate
(§2.2).

3.5 Symbols for derivatives

Since ∆ y and ∆ x are always finite and have definite values, the expression

∆y
∆x
is really a fraction. The symbol

dy
,
dx
however, is to be regarded not as a fraction but as the limiting value of a fraction.
In many cases it will be seen that this symbol does possess fractional properties,
and later on we shall show how meanings may be attached to dy and dx, but for
dy
the present the symbol dx is to be considered as a whole.
Since the derivative of a function of x is in general also a function of x, the
symbol f ′ (x) is also used to denote the derivative of f (x).
dy
Hence, if y = f (x), we may write dx = f ′ (x), which is read “the derivative of
y with respect to x equals f prime of x.” The symbol

d
dx
when considered by itself is called the differentiating operator, and indicates that
any function written after it is to be differentiated with respect to x. Thus

45
3.6. DIFFERENTIABLE FUNCTIONS

dy d
• dx
or dx
y indicates the derivative of y with respect to x;
d
• dx
f (x) indicates the derivative of f (x) with respect to x;
d
• dx
(2x2 + 5) indicates the derivative of 2x2 + 5 with respect to x;
dy
• y ′ is an abbreviated form of dx
.
d
The symbol Dx is used by some writers instead of dx
. If then

y = f (x),

we may write the identities

dy d
y′ = = y = Dx f (x) = f ′ (x).
dx dx

3.6 Differentiable functions

From the theory of limits (Chapter 2), it is clear that if the derivative of a function
exists for a certain value of the independent variable, the function itself must be
continuous for that value of the variable.
However, the converse is not always true. Functions have been constructed that
are continuous and yet possess no derivative. But in this book we only consider
functions f (x) that possess a derivative for all values of the independent variable,
save at most for some isolated (discrete) values of x.

3.7 General rule for differentiation

From the definition of a derivative it is seen that the process of differentiating a
function y = f (x) consists in taking the following distinct steps:
General rule for differentiating5 :

• FIRST STEP. In the function replace x by x + ∆ x, giving a new value of

the function, y + ∆ y.

• SECOND STEP. Subtract the given value of the function from the new value
in order to find ∆ y (the increment of the function).
5
Also called the Four-step Rule.

46
 3.7. GENERAL RULE FOR DIFFERENTIATION

• THIRD STEP. Divide the remainder ∆ y (the increment of the function) by

∆ x (the increment of the independent variable).

• FOURTH STEP. Find the limit of this quotient, when ∆ x (the increment of
the independent variable) varies and approaches the limit zero. This is the
derivative required.

The student should become thoroughly familiar with this rule by applying the
process to a large number of examples. Three such examples will now be worked
out in detail.

Example 3.7.1. Differentiate 3x2 + 5.

Solution. Applying the successive steps in the General Rule, we get, after plac-
ing

y = 3x2 + 5,
First step.

y + ∆ y = 3(x + ∆ x)2 + 5 = 3x2 + 6x · ∆x + 3(∆x)2 + 5.

Second step.
y + ∆ y = 3x2 + 6x · ∆x + 3(∆x)2 + 5
y = 3x2 + 5
∆y = 6x · ∆x + 3(∆x)2 .
∆y
Third step. ∆x = 6x + 3 · ∆x.
dy
Fourth step. dx = 6x. We may also write this

d
(3x2 + 5) = 6x.
dx
Here’s how to use Sage to verify this (for simplicity, we set h = ∆x):
Sage

sage: x = var("x")
sage: h = var("h")
sage: f(x) = 3*xˆ2 + 5
sage: Deltay = f(x+h)-f(x)
sage: (Deltay/h).expand()
6*x + 3*h

47
3.7. GENERAL RULE FOR DIFFERENTIATION

sage: limit((f(x+h)-f(x))/h,h=0)
6*x
sage: diff(f(x),x)
6*x

Example 3.7.2. Differentiate x3 − 2x + 7.

Solution. Place y = x3 − 2x + 7.
First step.

y + ∆y = (x + ∆x)3 − 2(x + ∆x) + 7

= x3 + 3x2 · ∆x + 3x · (∆x)2 + (∆x)3 − 2x − 2 · ∆x + 7

Second step.

y + ∆y = x3 + 3x2 · ∆x + 3x · (∆x)2 + (∆x)3 − 2x − 2 · ∆x + 7

y = x3 − 2x + 7
∆y = 3x2 · ∆x + 3x · (∆x)2 + (∆x)3 − 2 · ∆x

∆y
Third step. ∆x = 3x2 + 3x · ∆x + (∆x)2 − 2.
dy
Fourth step. dx = 3x2 − 2. Or,

d 3
(x − 2x + 7) = 3x2 − 2.
dx
Example 3.7.3. Differentiate xc2 .
Solution. Place y = xc2 .
c
First step. y + ∆y = (x+∆x) 2.

Second step.
c
y + ∆y = (x+∆x) 2

y = xc2
c c −c·∆x(2x+∆x)
∆y = (x+∆x) 2 − x2
= x2 (x+∆x)2
.
∆y
Third step. ∆x
= −c · x22x+∆x
(x+∆x)2
.
dy 2x
step. dx = −c · x2 (x)2 = − x2c3 . d c −2c


Fourth Or, dx x2
= x3
.

48
 3.7. GENERAL RULE FOR DIFFERENTIATION

Example 3.7.4. (“Cubic splines”) Differentiate f (x), where

−2x3 + 3x2 , 0 < x < 1,


f (x) =
0, x ≤ 0 or x ≥ 1.

(The polynomial −2x3 + 3x2 smoothly connects the line y = 0 for x < 0 to the
line y = 1 for x > 1. Such “cubic splines” are used in industry to design roads,
buildings, car bodies, ship hulls, and so on.)
The function is given in parts, so the problem must be solved case-by-case. First,
assume 0 < x < 1.
0 < x < 1: In this case, the derivative can be computed ass in the examples
above to show

f ′ (x) = −6x2 + 6x, 0 < x < 1.

This is not the final answer though! You must also deal with the cases x > 1,
x < 0 and x = 0, 1 (as limits).
x > 1 or x < 0: Here f ′ (x) = 0.
x = 0: Note that for “small” h (by which we really mean |h| < 1),

−2h2 + 3h, 0 < h < 1,


f (0 + h) − f (0)
=
h 0, h ≤ 0.
Taking the limit as h → 0 gives

f (0 + h) − f (0)
f ′ (0) = lim = 0.
h→0 h
Is f ′ (x) continuous at x = 0? Note

lim f ′ (x) = 0
x→0−

and

lim f ′ (x) = lim −6x2 + 6x = 0.

x→0+ x→0+

Therefore, the slope of the graph y = f (x) is zero as you approach 0 form the left
or from the right. This tells us f ′ (x) is continuously differentiable at both ends.
x = 1: This is similar to the case x = 0 and left to the reader.

49
3.8. EXERCISES

3.8 Exercises
Use the General Rule, §3.7 in differentiating the following functions:

1. y = 3x2
dy
Ans: dx
= 6x

2. y = x2 + 2
dy
Ans: dx
= 2x

3. y = 5 − 4x
dy
Ans: dx
= −4

4. s = 2t2 − 4
ds
Ans: dt
= 4t
1
5. y = x
dy
Ans: dx = − x12
x+2
6. y = x
dy
Ans: dx
= − −2
x2

7. y = x3
dy
Ans: dx
= 3x2

8. y = 2x2 − 3
dy
Ans: dx
= 4x

9. y = 1 − 2x3
dy
Ans: dx
= −6x2

10. ρ = aθ2
dρ
Ans: dθ
= 2aθ
2
11. y = x2
dy
Ans: dx
= − x43

50
 3.8. EXERCISES

3
12. y = x2 −1
dy
Ans: dx
= − (x26x
−1)2

Here’s how to use Sage to verify this:

Sage

sage: y = 3/(xˆ2-1)
sage: diff(y,x)
-6*x/(xˆ4 - 2*xˆ2 + 1)

13. y = 7x2 + x

14. s = at2 − 2bt

15. r = 8t + 3t2
3
16. y = x2

a
17. s = − 2t+3

18. y = bx3 − cx

19. ρ = 3θ3 − 2θ2

20. y = 43 x2 − 12 x
x2 −5
21. y = x

θ2
22. ρ = 1+θ

23. y = 21 x2 + 2x

24. z = 4x − 3x2

25. ρ = 3θ + θ2
ax+b
26. y = x2

x3 +2
27. z = x

51
3.9. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE TO GEOMETRY

28. y = x2 − 3x + 6
Ans: y ′ = 2x − 3
29. s = 2t2 + 5t − 8
Ans: s′ = 4t + 5 Here’s how to use Sage to verify this (for simplicity, we
set h = ∆t):
Sage

sage: h = var("h")
sage: t = var("t")
sage: s(t) = 2*tˆ2 + 5*t - 8
sage: Deltas = s(t+h)-s(t)
sage: (Deltas/h).expand()
4*t + 2*h + 5
sage: limit((s(t+h)-s(t))/h,h=0)
4*t + 5
sage: diff(s(t),t)
4*t + 5

30. ρ = 5θ3 − 2θ + 6
Ans: ρ′ = 15θ2 − 2
31. y = ax2 + bx + c
Ans: y ′ = 2ax + b

3.9 Applications of the derivative to geometry

We consider a theorem which is fundamental in all differential calculus to geom-
etry.
Let

y = f (x) (3.5)
be the equation of a curve AB.
Now differentiate (3.5) by the General Rule and interpret each step geometri-
cally.

52
 3.9. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE TO GEOMETRY

Figure 3.1: The geometry of derivatives.

• FIRST STEP. y + ∆y = f (x + ∆x) = N Q

• SECOND STEP.
y + ∆y = f (x + ∆x) = N Q
y = f (x) = M P = N R
∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x) = RQ.

• THIRD STEP.
∆y
∆x
= f (x+∆x)−f
∆x
(x)
=MRQ
N
= RQ
PR
= tan RP Q = tan φ
= slope of secant line P Q.
• FOURTH STEP.
lim∆x→0 ∆y
∆x
= lim∆x→0 f (x+∆x)−f
∆x
(x)
dy
= dx = value of the derivative at P.

53
3.9. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE TO GEOMETRY

But when we let ∆x → 0, the point Q will move along the curve and approach
nearer and nearer to P , the secant will turn about P and approach the tangent as a
limiting position, and we have also
∆y
lim∆x→0 ∆x
= lim∆x→0 tan φ = tan τ
= slope of the tangent at P.
dy
Hence , dx
= slope of the tangent line P T . Therefore

Theorem 3.9.1. The value of the derivative at any point of a curve is equal to the
slope of the line drawn tangent to the curve at that point.

It was this tangent problem that led Leibnitz6 to the discovery of the Differential
Calculus.

Example 3.9.1. Find the slopes of the tangents to the parabola y = x2 at the
vertex, and at the point where x = 21 .
Solution. Differentiating by General Rule, (§3.7), we get

dy
y′ = = 2x = slope of tangent line at any point on curve.
dx
To find slope of tangent at vertex, substitute x = 0 in y ′ = 2x, giving

dy
= 0.
dx
Therefore the tangent at vertex has the slope zero; that is, it is parallel to the axis
of x and in this case coincides with it.
To find slope of tangent at the point P , where x = 21 , substitute in y ′ = 2x,
giving

dy
= 1;
dx
that is, the tangent at the point P makes an angle of 45o with the axis of x.
6
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716) was a native of Leipzig. His remarkable abilities
were shown by original investigations in several branches of learning. He was first to publish his
discoveries in Calculus in a short essay appearing in the periodical Acta Eruditorum at Leipzig
in 1684. It is known, however, that manuscripts on Fluxions written by Newton were already in
existence, and from these some claim Leibnitz got the new ideas. The decision of modern times
seems to be that both Newton and Leibnitz invented the Calculus independently of each other. The
notation used today was introduced by Leibnitz. See frontispiece.

54
 3.10. EXERCISES

Figure 3.2: The geometry of the derivative of y = x2 .

3.10 Exercises
Find by differentiation the slopes of the tangents to the following curves at the
points indicated. Verify each result by drawing the curve and its tangent.

1. y = x2 − 4, where x = 2. (Ans. 4.)

2. y = 6 − 3x2 where x = 1. (Ans. −6.)

3. y = x3 , where x = −1. (Ans. −3.)

4. y = x2 , where x = −1. (Ans. − 12 .)

55
3.10. EXERCISES

5. y = x − x2 , where x = 0. (Ans. 1.)

1
6. y = x−1
, where x = 3. (Ans. − 14 .)

7. y = 21 x2 , where x = 4. (Ans. 4.)

8. y = x2 − 2x + 3, where x = 1. (Ans. 0.)

9. y = 9 − x2 , where x = −3. (Ans. 6.)

10. Find the slope of the tangent to the curve y = 2x3 − 6x + 5, (a) at the point
where x = 1; (b) at the point where x = 0.
(Ans. (a) 0; (b) −6.)

11. (a) Find the slopes of the tangents to the two curves y = 3x2 − 1 and
y = 2x2 + 3 at their points of intersection. (b) At what angle do they
intersect?
4
(Ans. (a) ±12, ±8; (b) arctan 97 .)
Here’s how to use Sage to verify these:
Sage

sage: solve(3*xˆ2 - 1 == 2*xˆ2 + 3,x)

[x == -2, x == 2]
sage: g(x) = diff(3*xˆ2 - 1,x)
sage: h(x) = diff(2*xˆ2 + 3,x)
sage: g(2); g(-2)
12
-12
sage: h(2); h(-2)
8
-8
sage: atan(12)-atan(8)
atan(12) - atan(8)
sage: atan(12.0)-atan(8.0)
0.0412137626583202
sage: RR(atan(4/97))
0.0412137626583202

56
 3.10. EXERCISES

12. The curves on a railway track are often made parabolic in form. Suppose
that a track has the form of the parabola y = x2 (see Figure 3.2 in §3.9),
the directions of the positive x-axis and positive y-axis being east and north
respectively, and the unit of measurement 1 mile. If the train is going east
when passing through the origin, in what direction will it be going

(a) when 12 mi. east of the y-axis?

(Ans. Northeast.)
(b) when 21 mi. west of the y-axis?
(Ans. Southeast.)
√
(c) when 23 mi. east of the y-axis?
(Ans. N. 30o E.)
1
(d) when 12 mi. north of the x-axis?
(Ans. E. 30o S., or E. 30o N.)

13. A street-car track has the form of the cubic y = x3 . Assume the same
directions and unit as in the last example. If a car is going west when passing
through the origin, in what direction will it be going

(a) when √1 mi. east of the y-axis? (Ans. Southwest.)

3

(b) when √1 mi. west of the y-axis? (Ans. Southwest.)

3
1
(c) when 2
mi. north of the x-axis? (Ans. S. 27o 43′ W.)
(d) when 2 mi. south of the x-axis?
(e) when equidistant from the x-axis and the y-axis?

57
3.10. EXERCISES

58
 CHAPTER
FOUR

Rules for differentiating standard elementary forms

4.1 Importance of General Rule

The General Rule for Differentiation, given in §3.7 of the last chapter, is funda-
mental, being a step-by-step procedural implementation of the very definition of
a derivative. It should be stressed that the student should be thoroughly familiar
with this procedure. However, the process of applying the rule to examples in gen-
eral is often either too tedious or too difficult. Consequently, special rules have
been derived from the General Rule for differentiating certain standard forms of
frequently occurring expressionss in order to facilitate process.
It’s convenient to express these special rules by means of formulas, a list of
which follows. The student should not only memorize each formula when de-
duced, but should be able to state the corresponding rule in words. (The extra
time it takes you to memorize the formulas will probably be repaid in the time
saved doing homework and exam problems correctly.) In these formulas u, v, and
w denote differentiable functions of x.

Formulas for differentiation

dc
=0 (4.1)
dx

dx
=1 (4.2)
dx

59
4.1. IMPORTANCE OF GENERAL RULE

d du dv dw
(u + v − w) = + − (4.3)
dx dx dx dx

d dv
(cv) = c (4.4)
dx dx
Product rule:
d dv du
(uv) = u + v (4.5)
dx dx dx

Power rule:
d n dv
(v ) = nv n−1 (4.6)
dx dx

d n
(x ) = nxn−1 (4.7)
dx
Quotient rule:
d  u  v du
dx
dv
− u dx
= (4.8)
dx v v2

du
d u
= dx (4.9)
dx c c
dv
d dx
(loga v) = loga e · (4.10)
dx v
dv
d dx
(ln v) = (4.11)
dx v

Note: Often loge , e = 2.71828... the base of the natural log, is denoted ln (or
sometimes just log).

d v dv
(a ) = av ln a · (4.12)
dx dx

d v dv
(e ) = ev (4.13)
dx dx

60
 4.1. IMPORTANCE OF GENERAL RULE

d v du dv
(u ) = vuv−1 + log u · uv (4.14)
dx dx dx
d dv
(sin v) = cos v (4.15)
dx dx
d dv
(cos v) = − sin v (4.16)
dx dx
d dv
(cos v) = − sin v (4.17)
dx dx
d dv
(cot x) = − csc2 v (4.18)
dx dx
d dv
(sec v) = sec v tan v (4.19)
dx dx
d dv
(csc v) = − csc v cot v (4.20)
dx dx
dv
d
(arcsin v) = √ dx (4.21)
dx 1 − v2
dv
d
(arccos v) = − √ dx (4.22)
dx 1 − v2
dv
d dx
(arctan v) = (4.23)
dx 1 + v2
dv
d
(arccot v) = − dx 2 (4.24)
dx 1+v

Note: Sometimes arcsin, arccos, and so on, are denoted asin, acos, and so on.

dv
d
(arcsec v) = √ dx (4.25)
dx v v2 − 1
dv
d dx
(arccsc v) = − √ (4.26)
dx v v2 − 1

61
4.1. IMPORTANCE OF GENERAL RULE

Chain rule:
dy dy dv
= · , (4.27)
dx dv dx
where y is a function of v, v a function of x.
dy 1
= dx , (4.28)
dx dy
where y is a function of x.
Here’s how to see some of these using Sage :
Sage

sage: t = var("t")
sage: diff(acos(t),t)
-1/sqrt(1 - tˆ2)
sage: v = var("v")
sage: diff(acsc(v),v)
-1/(sqrt(1 - 1/vˆ2)*vˆ2)
sage: x = var("x")
sage: u = function("u",x)
sage: v = function("v",x)
sage: diff(u(x)*v(x),x)
u(x)*diff(v(x), x, 1) + v(x)*diff(u(x), x, 1)

These tell us that d arccos

dt
t 1
= − √1−t2 and
darccsc v
dv
= − v√v12 −1 .
Here are some more examples using Sage :
Sage

sage: x = var("x")
sage: u = function(’u’, x)
sage: v = function(’v’, x)
sage: diff(u/v,x)
diff(u(x), x, 1)/v(x) - u(x)*diff(v(x), x, 1)/v(x)ˆ2
sage: diff(sin(v),x)
cos(v(x))*diff(v(x), x, 1)
sage: diff(arcsin(v),x)
diff(v(x), x, 1)/sqrt(1 - v(x)ˆ2)

62
 4.2. DIFFERENTIATION OF A CONSTANT

dv
d
The last Sage computation verifies that dx
(arcsin v) = √ dx .
1−v 2

4.2 Differentiation of a constant

The simplest type of function is one that is known to have the same value for all
values of the independent variable, i.e., a constant function. Let

y=c
denote a constant function. As x takes on an increment ∆x, the function does not
change in value, that is, ∆y = 0, and so

∆y
= 0.
∆x
But  
∆y dy
lim = = 0.
∆x→0 ∆x dx
dc
Therefore, dx
= 0 (equation (4.1) above). The derivative of a constant is zero.

4.3 Differentiation of a variable with respect to itself

Let y = x.
Following the General Rule, §3.7, we have

• FIRST STEP. y + ∆y = x + ∆x.

• SECOND STEP. ∆y = ∆x
∆y
• THIRD STEP. ∆x
= 1.

dy
• FOURTH STEP. dx
= 1.

dy
Therefore, dx = 1 (equation (4.2) above). The derivative of a variable with respect
to itself is unity.

63
4.4. DIFFERENTIATION OF A SUM

4.4 Differentiation of a sum

Let y = u + v − w. By the General Rule,

• FIRST STEP. y + ∆y = u + ∆u + v + ∆v − w − ∆w.

• SECOND STEP. ∆y = ∆u + ∆v − ∆w.

∆y ∆u ∆v ∆w
• THIRD STEP. ∆x
= ∆x
+ ∆x
− ∆x
.

dy du dv dw
• FOURTH STEP. dx
= dx
+ dx
− dx
. [Applying Theorem 2.8.1]

d
Therefore, dx (u + v − w) = du dx
dv
+ dx − dw
dx
(equation (4.3) above). Similarly, for
the algebraic sum of any finite number of functions.
The derivative of the algebraic sum of a finite number of functions is equal to
the same algebraic sum of their derivatives.

4.5 Differentiation of the product of a constant and

a function
Let y = cv. By the General Rule,

• FIRST STEP. y + ∆y = c(v + ∆v) = cv + c∆v.

• SECOND STEP. ∆y = c · ∆v.

∆y ∆v
• THIRD STEP. ∆x
= c ∆x .

dy dv
• FOURTH STEP. dx
= c dx . [Applying Theorem 2.8.2]

d dv
Therefore, dx (cv) = c dx (equation (4.4) above).
The derivative of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the product
of the constant and the derivative of the function.

64
 4.6. DIFFERENTIATION OF THE PRODUCT OF TWO FUNCTIONS

4.6 Differentiation of the product of two functions

Let y = uv. By the General Rule,

• FIRST STEP. y + ∆y = (u + ∆u)(v + ∆v). Multiplying out this becomes

y + ∆y = uv + u · ∆v + v · ∆u + ∆u · ∆v.

• SECOND STEP. ∆y = u · ∆v + v · ∆u + ∆u · ∆v.

∆y ∆v
• THIRD STEP. ∆x
= u ∆x + v ∆u
∆x
∆v
+ ∆u ∆x .
dy dv
• FOURTH STEP. dx = u dx + v
du
dx
. [Applying Theorem 2.8.1], since when
∆v
∆x → 0, ∆u → 0, and ∆u ∆x → 0.]
d dv
Therefore, dx (uv) = u dx + v du
dx
(equation (4.5) above).
Product rule: The derivative of the product of two functions is equal to the first
function times the derivative of the second, plus the second function times the
derivative of the first.
Here’s how to use Sage to verify this rule in a special case:
Sage

sage: t = var("t")
sage: f = cos(t)
sage: g = exp(2*t)
sage: diff(f*g,t)
2*eˆ(2*t)*cos(t) - eˆ(2*t)*sin(t)
sage: diff(f,t)*g+f*diff(g,t)
2*eˆ(2*t)*cos(t) - eˆ(2*t)*sin(t)

This simply computes dtd (e2t cos(t) in two ways (one: directly, the second: using
the product rule) and checks that they are the same.

4.7 Differentiation of the product of any finite num-

ber of functions
Now in dividing both sides of equation (4.5) by uv, this formula assumes the form
d du dv
dx
(uv) dx dx
= + .
uv u v

65
4.8. DIFFERENTIATION OF A FUNCTION WITH A CONSTANT
EXPONENT
If then we have the product of n functions y = v1 v2 · · · vn , we may write

d dv1 d
(v v ···vn )
dx 1 2
(v v ···vn )
dx 2 3
v1 v2 ···vn
= dx
v1
+ v2 v3 ···vn
dv1 dv2 d
(v v ···vn )
dx 3 4
= dx
v1
+ dx
v2
+ v3 v4 ···vn
dv1 dv2 dv3 dvn
d
= dx
v1
+ dx
v2
+ + · · · + vdxn dx
dx
v3
(v1 v2 · · · vn )
dv1 dv2
= (v2 v3 · · · vn ) dx + (v1 v3 · · · vn ) dx + · · · + (v1 v2 · · · vn−1 ) dvn
dx
.

The derivative of the product of a finite number of functions is equal to the sum of
all the products that can be formed by multiplying the derivative of each function
by all the other functions.

4.8 Differentiation of a function with a constant ex-

ponent
If the n factors in the above result are each equal to v, we get
d dv
dx
(v n ) dx
=n .
vn v
d dv
Therefore, dx (v n ) = nv n−1 dx , (equation (4.6) above).
d
When v = x this becomes dx (xn ) = nxn−1 (equation (4.7) above).
We have so far proven equation (4.6) only for the case when n is a positive
integer. In §4.15, however, it will be shown that this formula holds true for any
value of n, and we shall make use of this general result now.
The derivative of a function with a constant exponent is equal to the product of
the exponent, the function with the exponent diminished by unity, and the deriva-
tive of the function.
Sage

sage: t = var(’t’)
sage: f = function(’f’, t)
sage: g = function(’g’, t)
sage: (f(t)*g(t)).diff(t) # product rule for 2 functions
f(t)*diff(g(t), t, 1) + g(t)*diff(f(t), t, 1)
sage: h = function(’h’, t)
sage: (f(t)*g(t)*h(t)).diff(t) # product rule for 3 functions
f(t)*g(t)*diff(h(t), t, 1) + f(t)*h(t)*diff(g(t), t, 1)

66
 4.9. DIFFERENTIATION OF A QUOTIENT

+ g(t)*h(t)*diff(f(t), t, 1)

4.9 Differentiation of a quotient

Let y = uv v 6= 0. By the General Rule,

u+∆u
• FIRST STEP. y + ∆y = v+∆v
.
u+∆u u v·∆u−u·∆v
• SECOND STEP. ∆y = v∆v
− v
= v(v+∆v)
.

∆y v ∆u ∆v
−u ∆x
• THIRD STEP. ∆x
= ∆x
v(v+∆v)
.

dy v du dv
−u dx
• FOURTH STEP. dx
= dx
v 2 . [Applying Theorems 2.8.2 and 2.8.3]

d

du dv
u v dx −u dx
Therefore, dx v v2
(equation (4.8) above).
The derivative of a fraction is equal to the denominator times the derivative of
the numerator, minus the numerator times the derivative of the denominator, all
divided by the square of the denominator.
Sage

sage: t = var(’t’)
sage: f = function(’f’, t)
sage: g = function(’g’, t)
sage: (f(t)/g(t)).diff(t)
diff(f(t), t, 1)/g(t) - f(t)*diff(g(t), t, 1)/g(t)ˆ2
sage: (1/f(t)).diff(t)
-diff(f(t), t, 1)/f(t)ˆ2

du
d u


When the denominator is constant, set v = c in (4.8), giving (4.9) dx c
= dx
c
.
dv dc
[Since dx = dx = 0.] We may also get (4.9) from (4.4) as follows:
du
d  u  1 du
= = dx .
dx c c dx c

67
4.10. EXAMPLES

The derivative of the quotient of a function by a constant is equal to the derivative

of the function divided by the constant.
All explicit algebraic functions of one independent variable may be differenti-
ated by following the rules we have deduced so far.

4.10 Examples
Differentiate the following1 :

1. y = x3 .
dy d
Solution. dx
= dx
(x3 ) = 3x2 . (By (4.7), n = 3.)

2. y = ax4 − bx2 .
Solution.

dy d
dx
= dx (ax4 − bx2 )
d d
= dx (ax4 ) − dx (bx2 ) by (4.3)
d d
= a dx (x ) − b dx (x2 ) by (4.4)
4

= 4ax3 − 2bx by (4.7).

4
3. y = x 3 + 5.
Solution.
dy d 4 d
dx
= dx (x 3 ) + dx (5) by (4.3)
4 3 1
= 3 x by (4.7) and (4.1)

3x3 7x
√
7
4. y = √
5 2
x
− √
3 4
x
+ 8 x3
Solution.
 13
 1
  3

dy d d d
dx
= dx
3x 5 + dx 7x− 3 + dx
8x 7 by (4.3)
39 85 4 4
= 5
x + 73 x− 3 + 24
7
x− 7 by (4.4) and (4.7).
1
To the student: Though the answers are included below for all of the problems, it may be that
your computation differs from the solution given. You should then try to show algebraically that
your form is that same as that given.

68
 4.10. EXAMPLES

5. y = (x2 − 3)5 .
Solution.
dy d
dx
= 5(x2 − 3)4 dx (x2 − 3) by (4.6), v = x2 − 3 and n = 5
2 4 2 4
5(x − 3) · 2x = 10x(x − 3) .
We might have expanded this function by the Binomial Theorem (see §12.1)
and then applied (4.3), etc., but the above process is much simpler.
√
6. y = a2 − x2 .
Solution.
dy d 1
dx
= dx (a2 − x2 ) 2
1 d
= 12 (a2 − x2 )− 2 dx (a2 − x2 ), by (4.6) (v = a2 − x2 , and n = 5)
1
= 12 (a2 − x2 )− 2 (−2x) = − √a2x−x2 .
√
7. y = (3x2 + 2) 1 + 5x2 .
Solution.

dy d 1 d 1
dx
= (3x2 + 2) dx (1 + 5x2 ) 2 + (1 + 5x2 ) 2 dx (3x2 + 2)
1
(by (4.5) , u = 3x2 + 2, and v = (1 + 5x2 ) 2 )
1 d 1
= (3x2 + 2) 21 (1 + 5x2 )− 2 dx (1 + 5x2 ) + (1 + 5x2 ) 2 6x by (4.6), etc.
1 1
= (3x2 + 2)(1 + 5x2 )− 2 5x + 6x(1 + 5x2 ) 2
2 +2) √
= 5x(3x
√
1+5x2
+ 6x 1 + 5x2
3
= 45x
√ +16x .
1+5x2

2 2
8. y = √a +x .
a2 −x2
Solution. By (4.8), we have

1 d d 1
dy (a2 −x2 ) 2 (a2 −x2 )−(a2 +x2 ) dx (a2 −x2 ) 2
dx
= dx
a2 −x2
2x(a2 −x2 )+x(a2 +x2 )
= 3
(a2 −x2 )− 2
1
(multiplying both numerator and denominator by (a2 − x2 ) 2 )
32
x−x3
= x
3 .
(a2 −x2 ) 2

69
4.10. EXAMPLES

dy
9. 5x4 + 3x2 − 6. (Ans. dx
= 20x3 + 6x)
dy
10. y = 3cx2 − 8dx + 5e. (Ans. dx
= 6cx − 8d)
dy
11. y = xa+b . (Ans. dx
= (a + b)xa+b−1 )
dy
12. y = xn + nx + n. (Ans. dx
= nxn−1 + n)

13. f (x) = 23 x3 − 32 x2 + 5. (Ans. f ′ (x) = 2x2 − 3x)

14. f (x) = (a + b)x2 + cx + d. (Ans. f ′ (x) = 2(a + b)x + c)

d
15. dx
(a + bx + cx2 ) = b + 2cx.
d
16. dy
(5y m − 3y + 6) = 5my m−1 − 3.
d
17. dx
(2x−2 + 3x−3 ) = −4x−3 − 9x−4 .
d
18. ds
(3s−4 − s) = −12s−5 − 1.
d 1 1
19. dx
(4x 2 + x2 ) = 2x− 2 + 2x.
d 1 3
20. dy
(y −2 − 4y − 2 ) = −2y −3 + 2y − 2 .
d
21. dx
(2x3 + 5) = 6x2 .
d
22. dt
(3t5 − 2t2 ) = 15t4 − 4t.
d
23. dθ
(aθ4 + bθ) = 4aθ3 + b.
d 3 1
24. dα
(5 − 2α 2 ) = −3α 2 .
d 5 2
25. dt
(9t 3 + t−1 ) = 15t 3 − t−2 .
d
26. dx
(2x12 − x9 ) = 24x11 − 9x8 .

27. r = cθ3 + dθ2 + eθ. (Ans. r′ = 3cθ2 + 2dθ + e)

7 5 3 5 3 1
28. y = 6x 2 + 4x 2 + 2x 2 . (Ans. y ′ = 21x 2 + 10x 2 + 3x 2 )
√ √
29. y = 3x + 3x + x1 . (Ans. y ′ = √3
2 3x
+ 3
√1
3 2
x
− 1
x2
)

a+bx+cx2 a
30. y = x
. (Ans. y ′ = c − x2
)

70
 4.10. EXAMPLES

(x−1)3 5 2 1 4
31. y = 1 . (Ans. y ′ = 38 x 3 − 5x 3 + 2x− 3 + 13 x− 3 )
x3

32. y = (2x3 + x2 − 5)3 . (Ans. y ′ = 6x(3x + 1)(2x3 + x2 − 5)2 )

33. y = (2x3 + x2 − 5)3 . (Ans. y ′ = 6x(3x + 1)(2x3 + x2 − 5)2 )

5 5bx 1
34. f (x) = (a + bx2 ) 4 . (Ans. f ′ (x) = 2
(a + bx2 ) 4 )

35. f (x) = (1 + 4x3 )(1 + 2x2 ). (Ans. f ′ (x) = 4x(1 + 3x + 10x3 ))

√ a−3x
36. f (x) = (a + x) a − x. (Ans. f ′ (x) = √
2 a−x
)
m n
37. f (x) = (a+x)m (b+x)n . (Ans. f ′ (x) = (a+x)m (b+x)n
 
a+x
+ b+x
)

38. y = 1
xn
. (Ans. xy = − xn+1
n
)
√ dy a4 +a 2 2 4
39. y = x(a2 + x2 ) a2 − x2 . (Ans. = √ x −4x )
dx a2 −x2

40. Differentiate the following functions:

d d 1 d 2 2
(a) dx
(2x3 − 4x + 6) (e) dt
(b + at2 ) 2 (i) dx
(x 3 − a 3 )
d d 3 d 9
(b) dt
(at7 + bt5 − 9) (f ) dx
(x2 − a2 ) 2 (j) dt p
(5 + 2t) 2
d 3 1 d 2 d √
(c) dθ
(3θ 2 − 2θ 2 + 6θ) (g) dφ√
(4 − φ 5 ) (k) ds
a+b s
d 5 d d 1 5
(d) dx
(2x3 + x) 3 (h) dt
1 + 9t2 (l) dx
(2x 3 + 2x 3 )

2x4 dy 8b2 x3 −4x5

41. y = b2 −x2
. (Ans. dx
= (b2 −x2 )2
)
a−x dy 2a
42. y = a+x
. (Ans. dx
= − (a+x) 2)

t3 ds 3t2 +t3
43. s = (1+t)2
. (Ans. dt
= (1+t)3
)
(s+4)2 (s+2)(s+4)
44. f (s) = s+3
. (Ans. f ′ (s) = (s+3)2
)

45. f (θ) = √ θ . (Ans. f ′ (θ) = a

3 )
a−bθ2 (a−bθ2 ) 2
q
1+r
√ √
46. F (r) = 1−r
. (Ans. F ′ (r) = 1(1 − r) 1 − r2 )
 m
y my m−1
47. ψ(y) = 1−y
. (Ans. ψ ′ (y) = (1−y)m+1
)

71
4.11. DIFFERENTIATION OF A FUNCTION OF A FUNCTION

2x 2 1+4x2
48. φ(x) = √ −1 . (Ans. φ′ (x) = 3 )
x 1+x2 x2 (1+x2 ) 2
√
49. y = 2px. (Ans. y ′ = yp )
b
√ 2
50. y = a
a2 − x 2 . (Ans. y ′ = − ab 2xy )
2 2 3
(Ans. y ′ = − 3 xy )
p
51. y = (a 3 − x 3 ) 2 .
√ p √
a+3cφ
52. r = aφ + c φ3 . (Ans. r′ = √
2 φ
)

v c +v d v c−1 v d−1
53. u = cd
. (Ans. u′ = d
+ c
)
3 √
(q+1) 2 (q−2) q+1
54. p = √
q−1
. (Ans. p′ = 3 )
(q−1) 2

55. Differentiate the following functions:

   
d a2 −x2 d ay 2 d √ x2
(a) dx a2 +x2
(d) dy b+y 3
(g) dx 1−x2
   
d x3 d 2
√a −s
2 d 1+x2
(b) dx 1+x4
(e) ds a2 +s2
(h) dx (1−x2 ) 23
  √ q
d √1+x d 4−2x3 d 1+t2
(c) dx 1−x
(f ) dx x
(i) dt 1−t2

4.11 Differentiation of a function of a function

It sometimes happens that y, instead of being defined directly as a function of x,
is given as a function of some other variable, say v, and that v is defined as a
function of x. In that case y is a function of x through v and is called a composite
function. The process of substituting one function into another is sometimes called
composition.
2v 2
For example, if y = 1−v 2 , and v = 1 − x , then y is a composite function. By

eliminating v we may express y directly as a function of x, but in general this is

dy
not the best plan when we wish to find dx .
Sage

sage: t = var(’t’)
sage: f = function(’f’, t)
sage: g = lambda v: 2*v/(1-vˆ2)
sage: g(f(t)).diff(t) # this gives the general form, for any f
2*diff(f(t), t, 1)/(1 - f(t)ˆ2) + 4*f(t)ˆ2*diff(f(t), t, 1)/(1 - f(t)ˆ2)ˆ2
sage: f = lambda x: 1-xˆ2

72
 4.11. DIFFERENTIATION OF A FUNCTION OF A FUNCTION

sage: g(f(t)).diff(t) # this gives the specific answer in this case

-4*t/(1 - (1 - tˆ2)ˆ2) - 8*t*(1 - tˆ2)ˆ2/(1 - (1 - tˆ2)ˆ2)ˆ2

If y = f (v) and v = g(x), then y is a function of x through v. Hence, when we

let x take on an increment ∆x, v will take on an increment ∆v and y will also take
on a corresponding increment ∆y. Keeping this in mind, let us apply the General
Rule simultaneously to the two functions y = f (v) and v = g(x).
• FIRST STEP. y + ∆y = f (v + ∆v), v + ∆v = g(x + ∆x).
• SECOND STEP.
y + ∆y = f (v + ∆v), v + ∆v = g(x + ∆x)
y = f (v), v = g(x)
∆y = f (v + ∆v) − f (v), ∆v = g(x + ∆x) − g(x)
∆y f (v+∆v)−f (v) ∆v g(x+∆x)−g(x)
• THIRD STEP. ∆v
= ∆v
, ∆x = ∆x
.
The left-hand members show one form of the ratio of the increment of each
function to the increment of the corresponding variable, and the right-hand
members exhibit the same ratios in another form. Before passing to the limit
let us form a product of these two ratios, choosing the left-hand forms for
this purpose.
∆y ∆v ∆y
This gives ∆v
· ∆x
, which equals ∆x
. Write this

∆y ∆y ∆v
= · .
∆x ∆v ∆x
• FOURTH STEP. Passing to the limit,

dy dy dv
= · , (4.29)
dx dv dx
by Theorem 2.8.2.This may also be written

dy
= f ′ (v) · g ′ (x),
dx
or

dy
= g ′ (x)f ′ (g(x)). (4.30)
dx

73
4.12. DIFFERENTIATION OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS

The above formula is sometimes referred to as the chain rule for differentiation.
If y = f (v) and v = g(x), the derivative of y with respect to x equals the product
of the derivative of y with respect to v and the derivative of v with respect to x.

4.12 Differentiation of inverse functions

Let y = f (x) be a given function of x.
It is often possible in the case of functions considered in this book to solve this
equation for x, giving

x = φ(y);
that is, to consider y as the independent and x as the dependent variable. In that
case f (x) and φ(y) are said to be inverse functions (and one often writes φ = f −1 ).

When we wish to distinguish between the two it is customary to call the first
one given the direct function and the second one the inverse function. Thus, in the
examples which follow, if the second members in the first column are taken as the
direct functions, then the corresponding members in the second column will be
respectively their inverse functions.
√
Example 4.12.1. • y = x2 + 1, x = ± y − 1.

• y = ax , x = loga y.

• y = sin x, x = arcsin y.

The plot of the inverse function φ(y) is related to the plot of the function f (x) in
a simple manner. The plot of f (x) over an interval (a, b) in which f is increasing
is the same as the plot of φ(y) over (f (a), f (b)). The plot of y = f (x) is the
“mirror image” of the plot of y = φ(x), reflected about the “diagonal line” y = x.
√
Example 4.12.2. If f (x) = x2 , for x > 0, and φ(y) = y, then the graphs are
Now flip this graph about the 45o line:

74
 4.12. DIFFERENTIATION OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Figure 4.1: The function f (x) = x2 .

√
Figure 4.2: The function φ(y) = f −1 (y) = y.

The graph of inverse trig functions, for example, tan(x) and arctan(x), are

75
4.12. DIFFERENTIATION OF INVERSE FUNCTIONS

related in the same way.

Let us now differentiate the inverse functions

y = f (x) and x = φ(y)

simultaneously by the General Rule.

• FIRST STEP. y + ∆y = f (x + ∆x), x + ∆x = φ(y + ∆y)

• SECOND STEP.

y + ∆y = f (x + ∆x), x + ∆x = φ(y + ∆y)

y = f (x), x = φ(y)
∆y = f (x + ∆x) − f (x), ∆x = φ(y + ∆y) − φ(y)

• THIRD STEP.

∆y f (x + ∆x) − f (x) ∆x φ(y + ∆y) − φ(y)

= , = .
∆x ∆x ∆y ∆y
∆y ∆x
Taking the product of the left-hand forms of these ratios, we get ·
∆x ∆y
= 1,
∆y 1
or, ∆x = ∆x .
∆y

• FOURTH STEP. Passing to the limit,

dy 1
= dx , (4.31)
dx dy

or,

1
f ′ (x) = .
φ′ (y)

The derivative of the inverse function is equal to the reciprocal of the derivative
of the direct function.

76
 4.13. DIFFERENTIATION OF A LOGARITHM

4.13 Differentiation of a logarithm

Let2 y = loga v.
Differentiating by the General Rule (§3.7), considering v as the independent
variable, we have

• FIRST STEP. y + ∆y = loga (v + ∆v) .

• SECOND STEP.

∆y = loga (v + ∆v)

− loga v
v+∆v
= loga v
= loga 1 + ∆v


v
.
by item (8), §12.1.

• THIRD STEP.
∆y 1 ∆v


∆x
= ∆v
loga 1 + v
1
= loga 1 + ∆v

∆v
v v
= v1 loga 1 + ∆v

∆v
v
.
[Dividing the logarithm by v and at the same time multiplying the exponent
of the parenthesis by v changes the form of the expression but not its value
(see item (9), §12.1.]
dy 1 ∆v
• FOURTH STEP. = loga e. [When ∆v → 0 → 0. Therefore

dvv
∆v ∆v
v
∆v
v
lim∆v→0 1 + v
= e, from §2.11, placing x = v
.]

Hence

dy d 1
= (loga v) = loga e · . (4.32)
dv dv v
Since v is a function of x and it is required to differentiate loga v with respect to x,
we must use formula (4.29), for differentiating a function of a function, namely,

dy dy dv
= · .
dx dv dx
2
The student must not forget that this function is defined only for positive values of the base a
and the variable v.

77
4.14. DIFFERENTIATION OF THE SIMPLE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

dy
Substituting the value of dv
from (4.32), we get

dy 1 dv
= loga e · · .
dx v dx
dv
d
Therefore, dx
(loga x) = logs e · dx
v
(equation (4.10) above). When a = e, loga e =
dv
d
loge e = 1, and (4.10) becomes dx
(log v) = dx
v
(equation (4.11) above).
Sage

sage: t = var(’t’)
sage: f = function(’f’, t)
sage: log(f(t)).diff(t)
diff(f(t), t, 1)/f(t)
sage: f = 1-tˆ2
sage: log(f(t)).diff(t)
-2*t/(1 - tˆ2)

4.14 Differentiation of the simple exponential func-

tion
Let y = av , a > 0. Taking the logarithm of both sides to the base e, we
log y
get log y = v log a, or v = log a
= log1 a · log y. Differentiate with respect to y by
formula (4.11),

dv 1 1
= · ;
dy log a y
dy
and from (4.31),relating to inverse functions, we get dv
= log a · y, or,

dy
= log a · av .
dv
Since v is a function of x and it is required to differentiate av with respect to x,
we must use formula (4.29), for differentiating a function of a function, namely,

dy dy dv
= · .
dx dv dx

78
4.15. DIFFERENTIATION OF THE GENERAL EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

dy
Substituting the value of dx
from above, we get

dy dv
= log a · av · .
dx dx
d dv
Therefore, dx
(av ) = log a · av · dx
(equation (4.12) in §4.1 above).
Sage

sage: t = var(’t’)
sage: f = function(’f’, t)
sage: (3ˆf(t)).diff(t)
log(3)*3ˆf(t)*diff(f(t), t, 1)
sage: f = tˆ7
sage: (3ˆf(t)).diff(t)
7*log(3)*tˆ6*3ˆtˆ7

d dv
When a = e, log a = log e = 1, and (4.12) becomes dx (ev ) = ev dx (equation
(4.13) in §4.1 above) .
The derivative of a constant with a variable exponent is equal to the product of
the natural logarithm of the constant, the constant with the variable exponent, and
the derivative of the exponent.

4.15 Differentiation of the general exponential func-

tion
Let3 y = uv . Taking the logarithm of both sides to the base e, loge y = v loge u,
or, y = ev log u .
Differentiating by formula (4.13),
dy d
dx
= ev log u dx (v log u)
v log u v du dv


=e u dx
+ log
dx by (4.5)
u
v v du dv
= u u dx + log u dx
d
Therefore, dx
(uv ) = vuv−1 du
dx
dv
+ log u · uv dx (equation (4.14) in §4.1 above).
3
Here u can assume only positive values.

79
4.15. DIFFERENTIATION OF THE GENERAL EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

The derivative of a function with a variable exponent is equal to the sum of the
two results obtained by first differentiating by (4.6), regarding the exponent as
constant, and again differentiating by (4.12), regarding the function as constant.
Let v = n, any constant; then (4.14) reduces to

d n du
(u ) = nun−1 .
dx dx
But this is the form differentiated in §4.8; therefore (4.6) holds true for any value
of n.

Example 4.15.1. Differentiate y = log(x2 + a).

Solution. By (4.11) (with v = x2 + a), we have
d
dy (x2 +a)
dx
= dx
x2 +a
2x
= x2 +a
.
√
Example 4.15.2. Differentiate y = log 1 − x2 .
Solution. By (4.11) and (4.6),
d 1
dy (1−x2 ) 2
dx
= dx
1
(1−x2 ) 2
1 1
(1−x2 )− 2 (−2x)
= 2
1
(1−x2 ) 2
x
= x2 −1
.
2
Example 4.15.3. Differentiate y = a3x .
Solution. By (4.12),
dy d 2
dx
= log a · a3x dx (3x2 )
2
= 6x log a · a3x .

Sage

sage: t,a = var(’t,a’)

sage: f = 3*tˆ2
sage: (aˆf(t)).diff(t)
6*aˆ(3*tˆ2)*log(a)*t

80
 4.16. LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION

2 2
Example 4.15.4. Differentiate y = bec +x .
Solution. By (4.4) and (4.13),
 
dy d c2 +x2
dx
= b dx
e
d 2 2
= bec +x dx (c2 + x2 )
2 2
= 2bxec +x .
x
Example 4.15.5. Differentiate y = xe .
Solution. By (4.14),
dy x d d x
dx
= ex xe −1 dx (x) + xe log x dx (ex )
x ex −1 ex x
=e x + x log
x · e
x
= ex xe x1 + log x

4.16 Logarithmic differentiation

Instead of applying (4.10) and (4.11) at once in differentiating logarithmic func-
tions, we may sometimes simplify the work by first making use of one of the
formulas 7-10 in §12.1. Thus above Illustrative Example 4.15.2 may be solved as
follows:
√
Example 4.16.1. Differentiate y = log 1 − x2 .
Solution. By using 10, in §12.1, we may write this in a form free from radicals
as follows: y = 12 log(1 − x2 ). Then
d
dy 1 (1−x2 )
dx
= 2
dx
1−x2
by (4.11)
1 −2
= 2
· 1−x2
= x2x−1 .
q
2
Example 4.16.2. Differentiate y = log 1+x
1−x2
.
Solution. Simplifying by means of (10) and (8), in §12.1,

y = 12 [log(1 2
h d +2 x ) −d log(1
2
i− x )]
(1+x ) 2
(1−x )
dy
dx
= 21 dx1+x2 − dx1−x2 by (4.11), etc.
x x 2x
= 1+x2 + 1−x2 = 1−x4 .
In differentiating an exponential function, especially a variable with a variable
exponent, the best plan is first to take the logarithm of the function and then dif-
ferentiate. Thus Example 4.15.5 is solved more elegantly as follows:

81
4.16. LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION

x
Example 4.16.3. Differentiate y = xe .
Solution. Taking the logarithm of both sides, log y = ex log x, by Formula 9 in
§12.1. Now differentiate both sides with respect to x:
dy
d d
dx
y
= ex dx (log x) + log x dx (ex ) by (4.10) and (4.5)
= ex · x1 + log x · ex ,
or,
   
dy 1 x ex 1
= ex · y log x =e x + log x .
dx x x
√
x2 −5
Example 4.16.4. Differentiate y = (4x2 − 7)2+ .
Solution. Taking the logarithm of both sides,
√
log y = (2 + x2 − 5) log(4x2 − 7).
Differentiating both sides with respect to x,
1 dy √ 8x x
= (2 + x2 − 5) 2 + log(4x2 − 7) · √ .
y dx 4x − 7 x2 − 5
√
√ x2 − 5) log(4x2 − 7)
 
dy 2 2+ x2 −5 8(2 +
= x(4x − 7) + √ .
dx 4x2 − 7 x2 − 5
In the case of a function consisting of a number of factors it is sometimes con-
venient to take the logarithm before differentiating. Thus,
q
Example 4.16.5. Differentiate y = (x−1)(x−2)
(x−3)(x−4)
.
Solution. Taking the logarithm of both sides,
1
log y = [log(x − 1) + log(x − 2) − log(x − 3) − log(x − 4)].
2
Differentiating both sides with respect to x,
1 dy 1
 1 1 1 1

y dx
= 2 x−1
+ x−2
− x−3
− x−4
2x2 −10x+11
= − (x−1)(x−2)(x−3)(x−4) ,
or,

dy 2x2 − 10x − 11
=− 1 1 3 3 .
dx (x − 1) 2 (x − 2) 2 (x − 3) 2 (x − 4) 2

82
 4.17. EXAMPLES

4.17 Examples
Differentiate the following4 :
dy 1
1. y = log(x + a) Ans: dx
= x+a

dy a
2. y = log(ax + b) Ans: dx
= ax+b

1+x 2 dy 4x
3. y = log 1−x 2 Ans: dx
= 1−x4

2x+1
4. y = log(x2 + x) Ans: y ′ = x2 +x

3x2 −2
5. y = log(x3 − 2x + 5) Ans: y ′ = x3 −2x+5

2+3x2
6. y = loga (2x + x3 ) Ans: y ′ = loga e · 2x+x3

7. y = x log x Ans: y ′ = log x + 1

3
8. f (x) = log(x3 ) Ans: f ′ (x) = x

3 log2 x
9. f (x) = log3 x Ans: f ′ (x) = x
(Hint: log3 x = (log x)3 . Use first (4.6), v = log x, n = 3; and then (4.11).)
a+x 2a
10. f (x) = log a−x Ans: f ′ (x) = a2 −x2
√
11. f (x) = log(x+ 1 + x2 ) Ans: f ′ (x) = √ 1
1+x2

d ax
12. dx
e = aeax
d 4x+5
13. dx
e = 4e4x+5
d 3x
14. dx
a = 3a3x log a
d 4t
15. dt
log(3 − 2t2 ) = 2t2 −3

16. d
dy
log 1+y
1−y
= 2
1−y 2

d b2 +x2 2 +x2
17. dx
e = 2xeb
4
Though the answers are given below, it may be that your computation differs from the solution
given. You should then try to show algebraically that your form is that same as that given.

83
4.17. EXAMPLES

d log a
18. dθ
a = 1θ alog θ log a
d s2 2
19. ds
b = 2x log b · bs
√ √
d v ae√ v
20. dv
ae = 2 v

d ex x
21. dx
a = log a · ae · ex
2 +2x 2 +2x
22. y = 7x Ans: y ′ = 2 log 7 · (x + 1)7x
2 −x2 2 −x2
23. y = ca Ans: y ′ = −2x log c · ca
e x dy 1
24. y = log 1+ex Ans: dx
= 1+ex

d
25. [ex (1 − x2 ] = ex (1 − 2x − x2 )
dx
d ex −1 x
= (ex2e+1)2


26. dx x
e +1

d
27. dx
(x2 eax ) = xeax (ax + 2)
x x dy x x
28. y = a2 (e a − e− a ) Ans: dx
= 21 (e a + e− a )
ex −e−x dy 4
29. y = ex +e−x
Ans: dx
= (ex +e−x ))2

30. y = xn ax Ans: y ′ = ax xn−1 (n + x log a)

31. y = xx Ans: y ′ = xx (log x + 1)

1
1 x x (1−log x)
32. y = x x Ans: y ′ = x2

33. y = xlog x Ans: y ′ = log(x2 ) · xlog x−1

 
34. f (y) = log y · ey Ans: f ′ (y) = ey log y + y1

log s 1−s log s

35. f (s) = es
Ans: f ′ (s) = ses
1
36. f (x) = log(log x) Ans: f ′ (x) = x log x

4 log3 (log x)
37. F (x) = log4 (log x) Ans: F ′ (x) = x log x

38. φ(x) = log(log4 x) Ans: φ′ (x) = 4

x log x

84
 4.17. EXAMPLES
q
1+y 1
39. ψ(y) = log 1−y
Ans: ψ ′ (y) = 1−y 2
√
2
40. f (x) = log √xx1 +1−x
+1+x
2
Ans: f ′ (x) = − √1+x 2

1
dy
41. y = x log x Ans: dx
=0
x dy x
42. y = ex Ans: = ex (1 + log x)xx
dx
cx dy

x
= xc log xc − 1


43. y = xx
Ans: dx
x nx dy

nx
= n nx 1 + log nx



44. y = n
Ans: dx
v ev v 1+v log v
45. w = v e Ans: dw


dv
= v e v

t t
46. z = at Ans: dz = at (log a − log t − 1)


dt
n dy n +n−1
47. y = xx Ans: dx
= xx (n log x + 1)
x dy x
48. y = xx = xx xx log x + log2 x + 1


Ans: dx x
√ 1
dy xy log a
49. y = a a2 −x2 Ans: dx
= 3
(a2 −x2 ) 2

50. Compute the following derivatives:

d 2 d x d
(a) dx
x log x (f) dx
e log x (k) dx log(ax + bx )
d d 3 x d
(b) dx
(e2x − 1)4 (g) dx
x3 (l) dx log1 0(x2 + 5x)
d d 2+x2
(c) dx
log 3x+1
x+3
(h) d 1
dx x log x √
(m) dx e3x
d 1−x2 d d 2 2
(d) log
dx √
√
1+x
(i) dx
log x3 1 + x2 (n) dx (x2 + a2 )ex +a
d x d 1 x d
(x2 + 4)x .


(e) dx
x (j) dx x
(o) dx
(x+1)2 2
51. y = (x+2)3 (x+3)4
Ans: dy
dx
= − (x+1)(5x +14x+5)
(x+2)4 (x+3)5
5 3
((x−1) 2 2 (7x2 +30x−97)
52. y = 3 7 Ans: dy
dx
= − (x−1) 7 10
(x−2) 4 (x−3) 3 12(x−2) 4 (x−3) 3
√ dy 2+x−5x 2
53. y = x 1 − x(1 + x) Ans: dx
= √
2 1−x
3
x(1+x2 ) dy 1+3x2 −2x4 2
54. y = √
1−x2
Ans: dx
= (1−x2

55. y = x5 (a+3x)3 (a−2x)2 Ans: dy

dx
= 5x4 (a+3x)2 (a−2x)(a2 +2ax−12x2 )

85
4.18. DIFFERENTIATION OF SIN V

4.18 Differentiation of sin v

Let y = sin v. By the General Rule for Differentiation in §3.7, considering v as
the independent variable, we have

• FIRST STEP. y + ∆y = sin(v + ∆v).

• SECOND STEP.

 
∆v ∆v
∆y = sin(v + ∆v) − sin v = 2 cos v + · sin .
2 2

• THIRD STEP.

!
sin ∆v
 
∆y ∆v 2
= cos v + ∆v
.
∆v 2 2

dy
• FOURTH STEP. dx = cos v.
 ∆v 
sin ∆v


(Since lim∆v→0 ∆v2 = 1, by §2.10, and lim∆v→0 cos v + 2
= cos v.)
2

Since v is a function of x and it is required to differentiate sin v with respect

to x, we must use formula (A), §4.11, for differentiating a function of a function,
namely,

dy dy dv
= · .
dx dv dx
dy dy dv
Substituting value dx
from Fourth Step, we get dx
= cos v dx . Therefore,

d dv
(sin v) = cos v
dx dx

(equation (4.15) in §4.1 above).

The statement of the corresponding rules will now be left to the student.

86
 4.19. DIFFERENTIATION OF COS V

4.19 Differentiation of cos v

Let y = cos v. By item 29, §12.1, this may be written
π 
y = sin −v .
2
Differentiating by formula (4.15),
dy
= cos π2 − v
dx

d π

dx 2

−v
= cos π2 − v − dx dv
dv
= − sin x dx .
π


(Since cos 2
= sin v, by 29, §12.1.) Therefore,
d dv
(cos v) = − sin v ,
dx dx
(equation (4.16) in §4.1 above).
Sage

sage: t = var(’t’)
sage: f = function(’f’, t)
sage: cos(f(t)).diff(t)
-sin(f(t))*diff(f(t), t, 1)

4.20 Differentiation of tan v

Let y = tan v. By item 27, §12.1, this may be written
d d
dy cos v dx (sin v)−sin v dx (cos v)
dx
= 2
cos v
dv dv
cos2 v dx +sin2 v dx
= cos2 v
dv
dv
= dx
cos2 v
= sec2 v dx .
Therefore,
d dv
(tan x) = sec2 v ,
dx dx
(equation (4.17) in §4.1 above).

87
4.21. DIFFERENTIATION OF COT V

4.21 Differentiation of cot v

1
Let y = cot v. By item 26, §12.1, this may be written y = tan v
. Differentiating
by formula (4.8),
d
dy (tan v)
dx
= − dxtan2 v
dv
sec2
= − tan2dxv
dv
= − csc2 v dx .
Therefore,
d dv
(cot v) = − csc2 v
dx dx
(equation (4.17) in §4.1 above).

4.22 Differentiation of sec v

1
Let y = sec v. By item 26, §12.1, this may be written y = cos v
. Differentiating by
formula (4.8),
d
dy (cos v)
dx
= − dxcos2 v
dv
sin v dx
= 2
cos v
sin v dv
= cos1 v cos v dx
dv
= sec v tan v dx .
Therefore,
d dv
(sec v) = sec v tan v
dx dx
(equation (4.19) in §4.1 above).

4.23 Differentiation of csc v

Let y = csc v. By item 26, §12.1, this may be written

1
y= .
sin v
Differentiating by formula (4.8),

88
 4.24. EXERCISES

d
dy (sin v)
dx
= − dxsin2 v
cos v dv
= − sin2 dx
v
dv
= − csc v cot v dx .

Therefore,

d dv
(csc v) = − csc v cot v
dx dx

(equation (4.20) in §4.1 above).

Sage

sage: t = var(’t’)
sage: f = function(’f’, t)
sage: csc(f(t)).diff(t)
-cot(f(t))*csc(f(t))*diff(f(t), t, 1)
sage: f = tan
sage: csc(f(t)).diff(t)
-sec(t)ˆ2*cot(tan(t))*csc(tan(t))
sage: f = arccos
sage: csc(f(t)).diff(t)
t/(1 - tˆ2)ˆ(3/2)
sage: f = arccsc
sage: csc(f(t)).diff(t)
1

4.24 Exercises

In the derivation of our formulas so far it has been necessary to apply the General
Rule, §3.7, (i.e. the four steps), only for the following:

89
4.24. EXERCISES

d
4.3 dx
(u + v − w) = dudx
+ dxdv
− dw
dx
Algebraic sum.
d dv du
4.5 dx
(uv) = u dx + v dx . Product.
d u

v du −u dv
4.8 dx v
= dx v2 dx . Quotient.
dv
d
4.10 dx
(loga v) = loga e vdx
. Logarithm.
d dv
4.15 dx
(sin v) = cos v dx Sine.
dy
4.27 dx
= dy · dv .
dv dx
Function of a function.
dy 1
4.28 dx
= dx . Inverse functions.
dy

These are very basic formulas for us. Not only do all the other formulas we have
verified so far depend on them, but those formulas we’ll verify later depend on
them as well.

Examples/exercises:
Differentiate the following:

1. y = sin(ax2 ) .

dy d
= cos ax2 (ax2 ), by 4.15 (v = ax2 ).
dx dx
√
2. y = tan 1 − x.

dy
√ d 1 √
= sec2 1 − x dx (1 − x) 2 , by 4.17 )v = 1 − x)
dx √ 1
= sec2 √1 − x · 21 (1 − x)− 2 (−1)
2 1−x
= − sec2√1−x .

3. y = cos3 x.
This may also be written, y = (cos x)3 .

dy d
dx
= 3(cos x)2 dx (cos x) by 4.6 (v = cos x and n = 3)
2
= 3 cos x(− sin x) by 4.16
= −3 sin x cos2 x.

4. y = sin nx sinn x.

90
 4.24. EXERCISES

dy
dx
d
= sin nx dx (sin x)n + sinn x dxd
(sin nx) by (4.5)(v = sin nx and v = sinn x)
= sin nx · n(sin x)n−1 dxd
(sin x) + sinn x cos nx dx
d
(nx) by 4.6 and 4.15
n−1 n
= n sin nx · sin x cos x + n sin x cos nx
= n sinn−1 x(sin nx cos x + cos nx sinx)
= n sinn−1 x sin(n + 1)x.

dy
5. y = sec ax Ans: dx
= a sec ax tan ax
dy
6. y = tan(ax + b) Ans: dx
= a sec2 (ax + b)
ds
7. s = cos 3ax Ans: dx
= −3a sin 3ax
ds
8. s = cot(2t2 + 3) Ans: dt
= −4t csc2 (2t2 + 3)

9. f (y) = sin 2y cos y Ans: f ′ (y) = 2 cos 2y cos y−sin 2y sin y

10. F (x) = cot2 5x Ans: F ′ (x) = −10 cot 5x csc2 5x

11. F (θ) = tan θ − θ Ans: F ′ (θ) = tan2 θ

12. f (φ) = φ sin φ + cos φ Ans: f ′ (φ) = φ cos φ

13. f (t) = sin3 t cos t Ans: f ′ (t) = sin2 t(3 cos t − sin2 t)
dr
14. r = a cos 2θ Ans: dθ
= −2a sin 2θ

15. d
dx
sin2 x = sin 2x
d
16. dx
cos3 (x2 ) = −6x cos2 (x2 ) sin(x2 )
d 2 2 2
17. csc t2 = −t csc t2 cot t2
dt

d
√ a sin 2s
18. ds a cos 2s = − √ cos 2s

d
19. dθ
a(1 − cos θ) = a sin θ
d
20. dx
(log cos x) = − tan x
d 2
21. dx
(log tan x) = sin 2x

22. d
dx
(log sin2 x) = 2 cot x

91
4.24. EXERCISES

d
23. dt
cos at = a
t2
sin at
d
24. dθ
sin θ12 = − θ23 cos θ12
d sin x
25. dx
e = esin x cos x
d cos(log x)
26. dx
sin(log x) = x

d sec2 (log x)
27. dx
tan(log x) = x

28. d
dx
a sin3 3θ = a sin2 3θ cos 3θ
d
29. dα
sin(cos α) = − sin α cos(cos α)
d tan x−1
30. dx sec x
= sin x + cos x
q
1+sin x dy 1
31. y = log 1−sin x
Ans: dx
= cos x

π x dy 1


32. y = log tan 4
+ 2
Ans: dx
= cos x

33. f (x) = sin(x + a) cos(x − a) Ans: f ′ (x) =

cos 2x

34. y = atan nx Ans: y ′ = natan nx sec2 nx log a

35. y = ecos x sin x Ans: y ′ = ecos x (cos x−sin2 x)

36. y = ex log sin x Ans: y ′ = ex (cot x+log sin x)

37. Compute the following derivatives:

d d
(a) dx
sin 5x2 (f ) dx
csc(log x) (k) dtd ea−b cos t
(b) d
dx
cos(a − bx) (g) d
dx
sin3 2x (l) dtd sin 3t cos2 3t
d
(c) tan ax (h) d
cos2 (log
√ x) (m) dθ d
cot θb2
dx
d √b dx
d 2 d
p
(d) dx
cot ax (i) dx
tan 1 − x2 (n) dφ 1 + cos2 φ
p
(e) d
dx
sec e3x
(j) d
dx
log(sin2 ax) (o) ds d
log 1 − 2 sin2 s

d
38. dx
(xn esin x ) = xn−1 esin x (n + x cos x)
d
39. dx
(eax cos mx) = eax (a cos mx − m sin mx)
1+cos θ 2 sin θ
40. f (θ) = 1−cos θ
Ans: f ′ (θ) = − (1−cos θ)2

92
 4.25. DIFFERENTIATION OF ARCSIN V

eaφ (a sin φ−cos φ)

41. f (φ) = a2 +1
Ans: f ′ (φ) = eaφ sin φ
42. f (s) = (s cot s)2 Ans: f ′ (s) = 2s cot s(cot s−s csc2 s)
43. r = 31 tan3 θ − tan θ + θ Ans: dr
dθ
= tan4 θ
dy sin x
44. y = xsin x = xsin x


Ans: dx x
+ log x cos x
45. y = (sin x)x Ans: y ′ = (sin x)x [log sin x +
x cot x]
46. y = (sin x)tan x Ans: y ′ = (sin x)tan x (1+sec2 x log sin x)
d dv
47. Prove dx
cos v = − sin v dx , using the General Rule.
d dv cos v
48. Prove dx
cot v = − csc2 v dx by replacing cot v by sin v
.

4.25 Differentiation of arcsin v

Let y = arcsin v, then v = sin y.
Remember this function is defined only for values of v between −1 and +1
inclusive and that this (inverse) function is many-valued, there being infinitely
many angles (in radians) whose sines will equal v. Thus, Figure 4.4
represents only a piece of the multi-valued inverse function of sin(x), represented
by taking the graph of sin(x) and flipping it about the 45o line. In the above
discussion, in order to make the function single-valued, only values of y between
− π2 and π2 inclusive are considered; that is, the smallest angle (in radians) whose
sine is v.
Differentiating v with respect to y gives, by 4.15, dydv
= cos y. Therefore dydv
=
1 dy
cos y
, by (4.31). But since v is a function of x, this may be substituted into dx =
dy dv
· (see (4.29)),giving
dv dx

dy 1 dv 1 dv
= · =√ .
dx cos y dx 1 − v dx
2
p √
Here we used the fact that cos y = 1 − sin2 y = 1 − v 2 . The positive sign of
the square root is taken since cos y is positive for all values of y between − π2 and
π
2
inclusive. Therefore,
dv
d dx
(arcsin v) = √
dx 1 − v2

93
4.25. DIFFERENTIATION OF ARCSIN V

Figure 4.3: The inverse sine sin−1 x using Sage .

Figure 4.4: A single branch of the function f (x) = arcsin(x).

94
 4.26. DIFFERENTIATION OF ARCCOS V

(equation (4.21) in §4.1 above).

4.26 Differentiation of arccos v

Let5 y = arccos v; then y = cos y.

Figure 4.5: A single branch of the function f (x) = arccos(x).

dv
Differentiating with respect to y by 4.16, dy = − sin y, therefore, dy
dv
= − sin1 y ,
by (4.31). But since v is a function of x, this may be substituted in the formula
dy
dx
= dy · dv , by (4.29), giving
dv dx

dy 1 dv 1 dv
=− · = −√
dx sin y dx 1 − v 2 dx
p √
(sin y = 1 − cos2 y = 1 − v 2 , the plus sign of the radical being taken, since
sin y is positive for all values of y between 0 and π inclusive). Therefore,
dv
d
(arccos v) = − √ dx .
dx 1 − v2
5
This function is defined only for values of v between −1 and +1 inclusive, and is many-
valued. In order to make the function single-valued, only values of y between 0 and π inclusive
are considered; that is, y the smallest angle whose cosine is v.

95
4.27. DIFFERENTIATION OF ARCTAN V

(equation (4.22) in §4.1 above).

Here’s how to use Sage to compute an example of this rule:
Sage

sage: t = var("t")
sage: x = var("x")
sage: solve(x == cos(t),t)
[t == acos(x)]
sage: f = solve(x == cos(t),t)[0].rhs()
sage: f
acos(x)
sage: diff(f,x)
-1/sqrt(1 - xˆ2)

This (a) computes arccos directly as the inverse function of cos (Sage can use
the notation acos in addition to arccos), (b) computes its derivative.

4.27 Differentiation of arctan v

Let6 y = arctan v; then y = tan y.
Differentiating with respect to y by (4.18),
dv
= sec2 y;
dy
therefore dy
dv
= sec12 y , by (4.31). But since v is a function of x, this may be
dy
substituted in the formula dx = dy · dv , by (4.29),giving
dv dx

dy 1 dv 1 dv
= 2
· = ,
dx sec y dx 1 + v 2 dx
(since sec2 y = 1 + tan2 y = 1 + v 2 ). Therefore
dv
d
(arctan v) = dx 2
dx 1+v
(equation (4.23) in §4.1 above).
6
This function is defined for all values of v, and is many-valued. In order to make it single-
valued, only values of y between − π2 and π2 are considered; that is, the smallest angle (in radians)
whose tangent is v.

96
 4.28. DIFFERENTIATION OF ARCCOT V

Figure 4.6: The inverse cosine cos−1 x using Sage .

4.28 Differentiation of arccot v

Let y = arccot v; then y = cot y. This function is defined for all values of v, and
is many-valued.In order to make it single-valued, only values of y between 0 and
π are considered; that is, the smallest angle whose cotangent is v.
Following the method of the last section, we get
dv
d dx
(arccot v) = −
dx 1 + v2
(equation (4.24) in §4.1 above).
Sage

sage: t = var(’t’)
sage: f = function(’f’, t)
sage: acot(f(t)).diff(t)

97
4.29. DIFFERENTIATION OF ARCSEC V

Figure 4.7: The inverse tangent tan−1 x using Sage .

-diff(f(t), t, 1)/(f(t)ˆ2 + 1)
sage: arccot(f(t)).diff(t)
-diff(f(t), t, 1)/(f(t)ˆ2 + 1)
sage: f = tˆ7
sage: arccot(f(t)).diff(t)
-7*tˆ6/(tˆ14 + 1)

4.29 Differentiation of arcsec v

Let y = arcsecv, so v = sec y. This function is defined for all values of v except
those lying between −1 and +1, and is seen to be many-valued. To make the
function single-valued, y is taken as the smallest angle whose secant is v. This
means that if v is positive, we confine ourselves to points on arc AB (Figure 4.9),

98
 4.29. DIFFERENTIATION OF ARCSEC V

Figure 4.8: The standard branch of arctan x using Sage .

y taking on values between 0 and π2 (0 may be included); and if v is negative, we

confine ourselves to points on arc DC, y taking on values between −π and − π2
(−π may be included).
dv
Differentiating with respect to y by (4.4), gives dy = sec y tan y. Therefore
dy 1
dv
= sec y tan y , by (4.31). But since v is a function of x, this may be substituted in
dy
the formula dx = dy · dv , by (4.29).giving
dv dx

dy 1 dv 1 dv
= = √
dx sec y tan y dx v v 2 − 1 dx
√ √
(since sec y = v, and tan y = sec y − 1 = v 2 − 1, the plus sign of the radical
being taken, since tan y is positive for an values of y between 0 and π2 and between
−π and − π2 , including 0 and −π). Therefore,
dv
d dx
(arcsecv) = √
dx v v2 − 1

99
4.30. DIFFERENTIATION OF ARCCSC V

Figure 4.9: The inverse secant sec−1 x using Sage .

(equation (4.25) in §4.1 above).

4.30 Differentiation of arccsc v

Let

y = arccsc v;
then

v = csc y.
This function is defined for all values of v except those lying between −1 and +1,
and is seen to be many-valued. To make the function single-valued, y is taken as
the smallest angle whose cosecant is v. This means that if v is positive, we confine
ourselves to points on the arc AB (Figure 4.11), y taking on values between 0 and

100
 4.31. EXAMPLE

Figure 4.10: The standard branch of arcsec x using Sage .

π
2
( π2 may be included); and if v is negative, we confine ourselves to points on the
arc CD, y taking on values between −π and − π2 (− π2 may be included).
Differentiating with respect to y by 4.20 and following the method of the last
section, we get
dv
d
(arccscv) = − √ dx
dx v v2 − 1
(equation (4.26) in §4.1 above).

4.31 Example
Differentiate the following:

1. y = arctan(ax2 ).

101
4.31. EXAMPLE

Figure 4.11: The inverse secant function arccsc x using Sage .

Solution. By (4.23) (v = ax2 )

d
dy dx
(ax2 ) 2ax
= 2 2
= .
dx 1 + (ax ) 1 + a2 x 4

2. y = arcsin(3x − 4x3 ).
Solution. By 4.21 (v = 3x − 4x3 ),

d
dy dx
(3x − 4x3 ) 3 − 12x2 3
=p =√ =√ .
dx 1 − (3x − 4x ) 3 2 2 4
1 − 9x + 24x − 16x 6 1 − x2

2
3. y = arcsec xx2 +1
−1
.
x2 +1
Solution. By (4.25) (v = x2 −1
),

102
 4.31. EXAMPLE

Figure 4.12: The standard branch of arccsc x using Sage .

 
d x2 +1 (x2 −1)2x−(x2 +1)2x
dy dx x2 −1 (x2 −1)2 2
= = 2 =− .
x +1
· 2x x2
q
dx x2 +1 x2 +1

2 +1
x2 −1 x2 −1
−1 x2 −1 x2 −1

d
4. dx
arcsin xa = √ 1
a2 −x2

d −2x
5. dx
arccot(x2 − 5) = 1+(x2 −5)2

d 2x 2
6. dx
arctan 1−x 2 = 1+x2

d
7. dx
arccsc 2x21−1 = √ 2
1−x2

d √ 2
8. dx
arcvers 2x2 = 1−x2

d
√ 1
9. dx
arctan 1 − x = − 2√1−x(2−x)
d 3 2
10. dx
arccsc 2x = 9−4x2

d 2x2 2
11. dx
arcvers 1+x2
= 1+x2

103
4.31. EXAMPLE

d
12. dx
arctan xa = a
a2 +x2

d
13. dx
arcsin x+1
√ =
2
√ 1
1−2x−x2
√
14. f (x) = x a2 − x2 + a2 arcsin xa Ans: f ′ (x) =
√
2 a2 − x 2
√
12
15. f (x) = a2 − x2 +a arcsin xa Ans: f ′ (x) = a−x
a+x

16. x = rarcvers yr − 2ry − y 2 y

p dx
Ans: dy
=√
2ry−y 2

dθ 3
17. θ = arcsin(3r − 1) Ans: dr
= √
6r−9r 2

r+a dφ 1
18. φ = arctan 1−ar Ans: dr
= 1+r 2

1 ds √ 1
19. s = arcsec √1−t2 Ans: dt
= 1−t2

d √ x
20. dx
(x arcsin x) = arcsin x + 1−x2

d tan θ
21. dθ
(tan θ arctan θ) = sec2 θ arctan θ 1+θ 2

d
22. dt
[log(arccos t)] = − arccos 1t√1−t2
1
23. f (y) = arccos(log y) Ans: f ′ (y) = − √
y 1−(log y)2

√ 1
√
24. f (θ) = arcsin sin θ Ans: f ′ (θ) = 2
1 + csc θ
q
25. f (φ) = arctan 1−cos φ
1+cos φ
Ans: f ′ (φ) = 1
2

dp earctan q
26. p = earctan q Ans: dq
= 1+q 2

v −e−v
27. u = arctan e 2
Ans: du
dv
= 2
ev +e−v

t −t
28. s = arccos eet +e
−e
−t Ans: ds
dt
2
= − ev +e −v

 
29. y = x arcsin x ′
Ans: y = x arcsin x arcsin x
+ √log x
x 1−x2

x x 1
30. y = ex arctan x Ans: y ′ = ex + xx arctan x(1 + log x)
 
1+x2

104
 4.31. EXAMPLE

31. y = arcsin(sin x) Ans: y ′ = 1

4 sin x 4
32. y = arctan 3+5 cos x
Ans: y ′ = 5+3 cos x
q
2ax2
33. y = arccot xa + log x−a
x+a
Ans: y ′ = x4 −a4

1+x

41 x2
34. y = log 1−x
− 12 arctan x Ans: y ′ = 1−x4
√
35. y = 1 − x2 arcsin x−x Ans: y ′ = − x√arcsin
1−x2
x

36. Compute the following derivatives:

d d 3
p
(a) dx
arcsin 2x2 (f ) dt
t arcsin 3t (k) d
dy
arcsin 1 − y2

d d arctan at d
(b) dx
arctan a2 x (g) dt
e (l) dz
arctan(log 3az)

d 1
(c) dx
arcsec xa (h) d
dφ
tan φ2 · arctan φ 2 (m) d
ds
(a2 + s2 )arcsec 2s

d d d
(d) dx
x arccos x (i) dθ
arcsin aθ (n) dα
arccot 2α
3

d 2 d
√ d
√
(e) dx
x arccotax (j) dθ
arctan 1 + θ2 (o) dt
1 − t2 arcsin t

Formulas (4.29) for differentiating a function of a function, and (4.31) for differ-
entiating inverse junctions, have been added to the list of formulas at the beginning
of this chapter as (4.27) and (4.28) respectively.
In the next eight examples, first find dydv
dv
and dx by differentiation and then sub-
dy dy dv dy
stitute the results in dx = dv · dx (by (4.27)) to find dx . (As was pointed out in
§4.11, it might be possible to eliminate v between the two given expressions so as
to find y directly as a function of x, but in most cases the above method is to be
preferred.)
In general our results should be expressed explicitly in terms of the independent
dy
variable; that is, dx in terms of x, dx
dy
in terms of y, dφ
dθ
in terms of θ, etc.

37. y = 2v 2 − 4, v = 3x2 + 1.
dy dv dy
dv
= 4v; dx
= 6x; substituting in (4.27), dx
= 4v · 6x = 24x(3x2 + 1).

105
4.31. EXAMPLE

38. y = tan 2v, v = arctan(2x − 1).

dy dv 1
dv
= 2 sec2 2v; dx
= 2x2 −2x+1
; substituting in (4.27),

dy 2 sec2 2v tan2 2v + 1 2x2 − 2x + 1

= 2 =2 2 =
dx 2x − 2x + 1 2x − 2x + 1 2(x − x2 )2
2x−1
(since v = arctan(2x − 1), tan v = 2x − 1, tan 2v = 2x−2x2
).
dy
39. y = 3v 2 − 4v + 5, v = 2x3 − 5 Ans: dx
=
72x5 − 204x2
2v x dy 4
40. y = 3v−2
,v = 2x−1
Ans: dx
= (x−2)2

dy
41. y = log(a2 − v 2 ) Ans: dx
= −2 tan x
dy ex
42. y = arctan(a+v), v = ex Ans: dx
= 1+(a+ex )2

dr
43. r = e2s + es , s = log(t − t2 ) Ans: dt
= 4t3 −
6t2 + 1
dx
In the following examples first find dy
by differentiation and then substitute in
dy 1
= dx by (4.28)
dx dy
dy
to find dx
.
√ dy
√
2 1+y 2x
44. x = y 1 + y Ans: dx
= 2+3y
= 2y+3y 2
√ √
45. x = 1 + cos y Ans: dy
dx
= −2 1+cos y
sin y
=
2
− √2−x 2

y dy (1+log y)2
46. x = 1+log y
Ans: dx
= log y
√ √
a+ a2 −y 2 dy y a2 −y 2
47. x = a log y
Ans: dx
= − a2
q
48. x = rarcvers yr − 2ry − y 2 dy 2r−y
p
Ans: dx
= y

49. Show that the geometrical significance of (4.28) is that the tangent makes
complementary angles with the two coordinate axes.

106
 4.32. IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS

4.32 Implicit functions

When a relation between x and y is given by means of an equation not solved for
y, then y is called an implicit function of x. For example, the equation

x2 − 4y = 0
defines y as an implicit function of x. Evidently x is also defined by means of this
equation as an implicit function of y. Similarly,

x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − a2 = 0
defines anyone of the three variables as an implicit function of the other two.
It is sometimes possible to solve the equation defining an implicit function for
one of the variables and thus change it into an explicit function. For instance,
2
the above two implicit functions may be solved for y, giving y = x4 and y =
√
± a2 − x2 − z 2 ; the first showing y as an explicit function of x, and the second
as an explicit function of x and z. In a given case, however, such a solution may
be either impossible or too complicated for convenient use.
The two implicit functions used in this section for illustration may be respec-
tively denoted by f (x, y) = 0 and F (x, y, z) = 0.

4.33 Differentiation of implicit functions

When y is defined as an implicit function of x by means of an equation in the form

f (x, y) = 0, (4.33)
it was explained in the last section how it might be inconvenient to solve for y in
terms of x; that is, to find y as an explicit function of x so that the formulas we
have deduced in this chapter may be applied directly. Such, for instance, would
be the case for the equation

ax6 + 2x3 y − y 7 x − 10 = 0. (4.34)

We then follow the rule:
Differentiate, regarding y as a function of x, and put the result equal to zero 7 .
That is,
7
Only corresponding values of x and y which satisfy the given equation may be substituted in
the derivative.

107
4.34. EXERCISES

d
f (x, y) = 0. (4.35)
dx
dy
Let us apply this rule in finding dx
from (4.34): by (4.35),
d
(ax6 + 2x3 y − y 7 x − 10) = 0,
dx
d d d d
(ax6 ) + (2x3 y) − (y 7 x) − (10) = 0;
dx dx dx dx
dy dy
6ax5 + 2x3 + 6x2 y − y 7 − 7xy 6 = 0;
dx dx
dy
(2x3 − 7xy 6 ) = y 7 − 6ax5 − 6x2 y;
dx
dy y 7 − 6ax5 − 6x2 y
= .
dx 2x3 − 7xy 6
This is the final answer.
The student should observe that in general the result will contain both x and y.

4.34 Exercises
Differentiate the following by the above rule:
dy 2p
1. y 2 = 4px Ans: dx
= y

dy
2. x2 + y 2 = r2 Ans: dx
= − xy
dy 2
3. b2 x2 + a2 y 2 = a2 b2 Ans: dx
= − ab 2xy
dy 2a
4. y 3 − 3y + 2ax = 0 Ans: dx
= 3(1−y 2 )

1 1 1 dy
= − xy
p
5. x 2 + y 2 = a 2 Ans: dx
2 2 2 dy
= − 3 xy
p
6. x 3 + y 3 = a 3 Ans: dx

23 2 1
x 2 y dy
= − 3b axy
3 3


7. a
+ b
=1 Ans: dx 2

dy y
8. y 2 − 2xy + b2 = 0 Ans: dx
= y−x

108
 4.34. EXERCISES

dy ay−x2
9. x3 + y 3 − 3axy = 0 Ans: dx
= y 2 −ax

dy y 2 −xy log y
10. xy = y x Ans: dx
= x2 −xy log x

dρ 2
11. ρ2 = a2 cos 2θ Ans: dθ
= −a sin 2θ
ρ

dρ 3a2 cos 3θ+ρ2 sin θ

12. ρ2 cos θ = a2 sin 3θ Ans: dθ
= 2ρ cos θ

du c+u sin(uv)
13. cos(uv) = cv Ans: dv
= −v sin(uv)

dθ sin(θ+φ)
14. θ = cos(θ + φ) Ans: dφ
= − 1+sin(θ+φ)

dy
15. Find dx
from the following equations:

(a) x2 = ay (f ) xy + y 2 + 4x = 0 (k) tan x + y 3 = 0

(b) x2 + 4y 2 = 16 (g) yx2 − y 3 = 5 (l) cos y + 3x2 = 0
(c) b 2 x 2 − a2 y 2 = a2 b 2 (h) x2 − 2x3 = y 3 (m) x cot y + y = 0
(d) y 2 = x3 + a (i) x2 y 3 + 4y = 0 (n) y 2 = log x
2
(e) x2 − y 2 = 16 (j) y 2 = sin 2x (o) ex + 2y 3 = 0

16. A race track has the form of the circle x2 + y 2 = 12500. The x-axis and
y-axis are east and north respectively, and the unit is 1 meter. If a runner
starts east at the extreme north point, in what direction will he be going
√
(a) when 25 √10 m east of OY? Ans. Southeast or southwest.
(b) when 25 10 m north of OX? Ans. Southeast or northeast.
(c) when 30 rods west of OY? Ans. E. 36o 52’ 12” N. or W. 36o 52’ 12” N.
(d) when 200 m south of OX?
(e) when 50 m east of OY?

17. An automobile course is elliptic in form, the major axis being 6 miles long
and running east and west, while the minor axis is 2 miles long. If a car
starts north at the extreme east point of the course, in what direction will the
car be going
(a) when 2 miles west of the starting point?
(b) when 1/2 mile north of the starting point?

109
4.35. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES

4.35 Miscellaneous Exercises

Differentiate the following functions:
√
1. arcsin 1 − 4x2 Ans: √ −2
1−4x2
2 2
2. xex Ans: ex (2x2 + 1)

3. log sin v2 Ans: 1

2
cot v2

4. arccos ay Ans: √ a2
y y −a2

√ x a2
5. a2 −x2
Ans: 3
(a2 −x2 ) 2

x log x
6. 1+log x
Ans: (1+log x)2

7. log sec(1 − 2x) Ans: −2 tan(1 − 2x)

8. x2 e2−3x Ans: xe2−3x (2 − 3x)

q
9. log 1−cos t
1+cos t
Ans: csc t

Here’s how Sage tackles this one:

Sage

sage: t = var("t")
sage: diff(log(sqrt((1-cos(t))/(1+cos(t)))),t)
(cos(t) + 1)*(sin(t)/(cos(t) + 1)
+ (1 - cos(t))*sin(t)/(cos(t) + 1)ˆ2)/(2*(1 - cos(t)))
sage: diff(log(sqrt((1-cos(t))/(1+cos(t)))),t).simplify_trig()
-sin(t)/(cos(t)ˆ2 - 1)

Since cos(t)2 − 1 = − sin(t)2 , the result returned by Sage agrees with the
answer given.
q
10. arcsin 12 (1 − cos x) Ans: 21 , for x > 0; − 21 , for x < 0.

Here’s how Sage tackles this one:

110
 4.35. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES

Sage

sage: diff(arcsin(sqrt((1-cos(x))/2)),x)
sin(x)/(2*sqrt(2)*sqrt(1 - (1 - cos(x))/2)*sqrt(1 - cos(x)))
sage: diff(arcsin(sqrt((1-cos(x))/2)),x).simplify_trig()
sin(x)/(2*sqrt(1 - cos(x))*sqrt(cos(x) + 1))
sage: diff(arcsin(sqrt((1-cos(x))/2)),x).simplify_radical()
sin(x)/(2*sqrt(1 - cos(x))*sqrt(cos(x) + 1))

Here we see again that Sage does not simplify the result down to the final
answer. Nonetheless, simplify trig is useful. Since

p p p p
1 − cos(x) cos(x) + 1 = 1 − cos(x)2 = sin(x)2 = ± sin(x),

we see the answer given is correct (at least for the interval −π < x < π).

11. arctan √s2s

2 −1 Ans: 2√
(1−5s2 ) s2 −1
q q
2 7+4x 2
12. (2x − 1) 3
1+x
Ans: 3(1+x)
3
1+x
√
x3 arcsin x (x2 +2) 1−x2
13. 3
+ 9
Ans: x2 arcsin x

14. tan2 3θ + log sec2 θ

3

15. arctan 12 (e2x + e−2x )

2x
16. x3

17. xtan x
1 2
(x+2) 3 (x2 −1) 5
18. 3
x2

19. esec(1−3x)
√
20. arctan 1 − x2
z2
21. cos z
2
22. etan x

23. log sin2 12 θ

111
4.35. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES

24. eax log sin ax

Here’s how Sage tackles this Exercise:

Sage

sage: a = var("a")
sage: diff(exp(a*x)*log(sin(a*x)),x)
a*eˆ(a*x)*log(sin(a*x)) + a*eˆ(a*x)*cos(a*x)/sin(a*x)

25. sin 3φ cos φ

a
26. √
2 (b−cxn )m

m+x em arctan x
27. 1+m2
· √
1+x2

28. tan2 x − log sec2 x

3 log(2 cos x+3 sin x)+2x
29. 13
q
30. arccot xa + log x−a
x+a

31. (log tan(3 − x2 )3

1 1
2−3t 2 +4t 3 +t2
32. t

(1+x)(1−2x)(2+x)
33. (3+x)(2−3x)

34. arctan(log 3x)

Here’s how Sage tackles this one:

Sage

sage: diff(arctan(log(3*x)),x)
1/(x*(log(3*x)ˆ2 + 1))

112
 4.35. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES
p
35. 3
(b − axm )n
Here’s how Sage tackles this one:
Sage

sage: a,b,m,n = var("a,b,m,n")

sage: diff((b-a*xˆm)ˆ(n/3),x)
-a*m*n*xˆ(m - 1)*(b - a*xˆm)ˆ(n/3 - 1)/3

p
36. log (a2 − bx2 )m
q
y 2 +1
37. log y 2 −1

38. earcsec 2θ
q
(2−3x)3
39. 1+4x
√
3
a2 −x2
40. cos x

41. ex log sin x

x
42. arcsin √1+x 2

43. arctan ax
2
44. asin mx

Here’s how Sage solves this one:

Sage

sage: a,m = var("a,m")

sage: diff(aˆ(sin(m*x)ˆ2),x)
2*aˆsin(m*x)ˆ2*log(a)*m*cos(m*x)*sin(m*x)

45. cot3 (log ax)

1
46. (1 − 3x2 )e x
√
1−x2
47. log √
3
1+x3

113
4.35. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES

114
 CHAPTER
FIVE

Simple applications of the derivative

5.1 Direction of a curve

It was shown in §3.9, that if

y = f (x)
is the equation of a curve (see Figure 5.2), then

dy
= tan τ = slope of line tangent to the curve at any point P.
dx
Example 5.1.1. A group of hikers are climbing a hill whose height is described
by the graph of

h(x) = −x4 + 29x3 − 290x2 + 1200x.

Show that the hikers are climbing downhill when x = 5.
This can be verified “by hand” by computing h′ (5) and checking that it is nega-
tive (see also the plot in Figure 5.1), or using Sage :
Sage

sage: x = var("x")
sage: h = -xˆ4 + 29*xˆ3 - 290*xˆ2 + 1200*x
sage: Dh = h.diff(); Dh
-4*xˆ3 + 87*xˆ2 - 580*x + 1200

115
5.1. DIRECTION OF A CURVE

sage: Dh(5)
-25
sage: plot(h,0,15)

The output of the above plot command is in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: The graph of y = −x4 + 29x3 − 290x2 + 1200x.

The direction of a curve at any point is defined to be the same as the direction of
the line tangent to the curve at that point. From this it follows at once that
dy
= tan τ = slope of the curve at any point P.
dx
At a particular point whose coordinates are known we write

 
dy
= slope of the curve (or tangent) at point (x1 , y1 ).
dx x=x1 ,y=y1

At points such as D or F or H where the curve (or tangent) is parallel to the x-axis,
dy
τ = 0o , therefore dx = 0 (see Figure 5.2 for the notation).

116
 5.1. DIRECTION OF A CURVE

Figure 5.2: The derivative = slope of line tangent to the curve.

At points such as A, B, G, where the curve (or tangent) is perpendicular to the

dy
x-axis, τ = 90o , therefore dx = ∞.
At points such as E, where the curve is rising (moving from left to right on
curve),

dy
τ = an acute angle; therefore = a positive number.
dx
The curve (or tangent) has a positive slope

• to the left of B,

• between D and F, and

• to the right of G,

in Figure 5.2. At points such as C, where the curve is falling,

117
5.1. DIRECTION OF A CURVE

dy
τ = an obtuse angle; therefore = a negative number.
dx
The curve (or tangent) has a negative slope between B and D, and also between F
and G.
3
Example 5.1.2. Given the curve y = x3 − x2 + 2 (see Figure 5.3).
(a) Find τ when x = 1.
(b) Find τ when x = 3.
(c) Find the points where the curve is parallel to the x-axis.
(d) Find the points where τ = 45o .
(e) Find the points where the curve is parallel to the line 2x − 3y = 6.

x3
Figure 5.3: The graph of y = 3
− x2 + 2.

dy
Differentiating, dx = x2 − 2x = slope at any point.
 dy 
(a) tan τ = dx x=1 = 1 − 2 = −1; therefore τ = 135o = 3π/4.
 dy 
(b) tan τ = dx x=3
= 9 − 6 = 3; therefore τ = arctan 3 = 1.249....
o dy
(c) τ = 0 , tan τ = dx = 0; therefore x2 − 2x = 0. Solving this equation, we
find that x = 0 or 2, giving points C and D where the curve (or tangent) is parallel
to the x-axis.

118
 5.1. DIRECTION OF A CURVE

dy
√
(d) τ = 45o , tan τ = dx = 1; therefore x2 −2x = 1. Solving, we get x = 1± 2,
giving two points where the slope of the curve (or tangent) is unity. q
(e) Slope of line = 23 ; therefore x2 − 2x = 32 . Solving, we get x = 1 ± 5
3
,
giving points E and F where curve (or tangent) is parallel to 2x − 3y = 6.

The angle between two curves at a common point will be the angle between their
tangents at that point. This definition is analogous to the fact that the direction of
curve at any point is defined to be the direction of its tangent at that point.

Example 5.1.3. Find the angle of intersection of the circles

(A) x2 + y 2 − 4x = 1,
(B) x2 + y 2 − 2y = 9.
Solution. Solving simultaneously, we find the points of intersection to be (3, 2)
and (1, −2). This can be verified “by hand” or using the Sage solve command:
Sage

sage: x = var("x")
sage: y = var("y")
sage: F = xˆ2 + yˆ2 - 4*x - 1
sage: G = xˆ2 + yˆ2 - 2*y - 9
sage: solve([F == 0,G == 0],x,y)
[[x == 1, y == -2], [x == 3, y == 2]]

dy 2−x
Using (A), formulas in §4.33 give dx
= y
. Using (B), formulas in §4.33 give
dy x
dx
= 1−y . Therefore,
 
2−x 1
= − = slope of tangent to (A) at (3, 2).
y x=3,y=2 2
 
x
= −3 = slope of tangent to (B) at (3, 2).
1−y x=3,y=2

We can check this using the commands

Sage

sage: x = var("x")
sage: y = function("y",x)

119
5.1. DIRECTION OF A CURVE

Figure 5.4: The graphs of x2 + y 2 − 4x = 1, x2 + y 2 − 2y = 9.

sage: F = xˆ2 + yˆ2 - 4*x - 1

sage: F.diff(x)
2*y(x)*diff(y(x), x, 1) + 2*x - 4
sage: solve(F.diff(x) == 0, diff(y(x), x, 1))
[diff(y(x), x, 1) == (2 - x)/y(x)]
sage: G = xˆ2 + yˆ2 - 2*y - 9
sage: G.diff(x)
2*y(x)*diff(y(x), x, 1) - 2*diff(y(x), x, 1) + 2*x
sage: solve(G.diff(x) == 0, diff(y(x), x, 1))
[diff(y(x), x, 1) == -x/(y(x) - 1)]

The formula for finding the angle between two lines whose slopes are m1 and
m2 is

120
 5.2. EXERCISES

m1 − m2
tan θ = ,
1 + m1 m2
− 1 +3
by item 55, §12.1. Substituting, tan θ = 1+ 2
3 = 1; therefore θ = π/4 = 45o .
2
This is also the angle of intersection at the point (1, −2).

5.2 Exercises
The corresponding figure should be drawn in each of the following examples:
x
1. Find the slope of y = 1+x2
at the origin.
Ans. 1 = tan τ .

2. What angle does the tangent to the curve x2 y 2 = a3 (x + y) at the origin

make with the x-axis?
Ans. τ = 135o = 3π/4.

3. What is the direction in which the point generating the graph of y = 3x2 −x
tends to move at the instant when x = 1?
Ans. Parallel to a line whose slope is 5.
dy
4. Show that dx
(or slope) is constant for a straight line.

5. Find the points where the curve y = x3 − 3x2 − 9x + 5 is parallel to the

x-axis.
Ans. x = 3, x = −1.

6. At what point on y 2 = 2x3 is the slope equal to 3?

Ans. (2, 4).

7. At what points on the circle x2 + y 2 = r2 is the slope of the tangent line

equal to − 34 ?
Ans. ± 3r 4r


5
, ± 5

8. Where will a point moving on the parabola y = x2 − 7x + 3 be moving

parallel to the line y = 5x + 2?
Ans. (6, −3).

121
5.2. EXERCISES

9. Find the points where a particle moving on the circle x2 + y 2 = 169 moves
perpendicular to the line 5x + 12y = 60.
Ans. (±12, ∓5).

10. Show that all the curves of the system y = log kx have the same slope; i.e.
the slope is independent of k.

11. The path of the projectile from a mortar cannon lies on the parabola y =
2x−x2 ; the unit is 1 mile, the x-axis being horizontal and the y-axis vertical,
and the origin being the point of projection. Find the direction of motion of
the projectile
(a) at instant of projection;
3
(b) when it strikes a vertical cliff 2
miles distant.
(c) Where will the path make an inclination of 45o = π/4 with the horizon-
tal?
(d) Where will the projectile travel horizontally?
Ans. (a) arctan 2; (b) 135o = 3π/4; (c) ( 21 , 34 ); (d) (1, 1).

12. If the cannon in the preceding example was situated on a hillside of inclina-
tion 45o = π/4, at what angle would a shot fired up strike the hillside?
Ans. 45o = π/4.

13. At what angles does a road following the line 3y − 2x − 8 = 0 intersect a

railway track following the parabola y 2 = 8x?
Ans. arctan 51 , and arctan 18 .

14. Find the angle of intersection between the parabola y 2 = 6x and the circle
x2 + y 2 = 16.
√
Ans. arctan 53 3.
x2 y2
15. Show that the hyperbola x2 − y 2 = 5 and the ellipse 18
+ 8
= 1 intersect
at right angles.
x3
16. Show that the circle x2 + y 2 = 8ax and the cissoid y 2 = 2a−x
(a) are perpendicular at the origin;
(b) intersect at an angle of 45o = π/4 at two other points.

122
 5.3. EQUATIONS OF TANGENT AND NORMAL LINES

17. Find the angle of intersection of the parabola x2 = 4ay and the Witch of
3
Agnesi, y = x28a
+4a2
.
Ans. arctan 3 = 71o 33′ = 1.249....
For the interesting history of this curve, see for example
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witch_of_Agnesi.

18. Show that the tangents to the Folium of Descartes, x3 + y 3 = 3axy at the
points where it meets the parabola y 2 = ax are parallel to the y-axis.
For some history of this curve, see for example
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folium_of_Descartes.

19. At how many points will a particle moving on the curve y = x3 −2x2 +x−4
be moving parallel to the x-axis? What are the points?
Ans. Two; at (1, −4) and ( 31 , − 104
27
).

20. Find the angle at which the parabolas y = 3x2 −1 and y = 2x2 +3 intersect.
4
Ans. arctan 97 .

21. Find the relation between the coefficients of the conics a1 x2 + b1 y 2 = 1 and
a2 x2 + b2 y 2 = 1 when they intersect at right angles.
1 1 1 1
Ans. a1
− b1
= b2
− b2
.

5.3 Equations of tangent and normal lines

This section will discuss equations of tangent and normal lines, lengths of subtan-
gent and subnormal, and rectangular coordinates.
The equation of a straight line passing through the point (x1 , y1 ) and having the
slope m is

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
(this is item 54, §12.1).

If this line is tangent to the curve y = f (x) at the point P = (x1 , y1 ) (see Figure
5.5 to visualize how these can be situated in relationship to the graph of the curve),
then from §5.1,

123
5.3. EQUATIONS OF TANGENT AND NORMAL LINES

Figure 5.5: The tangent and normal line to a curve.

 
dy
m = tan τ = .
dx x=x1 ,y=y1

Therefore at a point P = (x1 , y1 ) on the curve, the equation of the tangent line
(containing the segment T P ) is
 
dy
y − y1 = ( )(x − x1 ). (5.1)
dx x=x1 ,y=y1
The normal being perpendicular to tangent, its slope is
   
1 dx dy
− =− = −( )−1
m dy x=x1 ,y=y1 dx x=x1 ,y=y1
(item 55 in §12.1). And since it also passes through the point P = (x1 , y1 ), we
have for the equation of the normal line (containing the segment P N )
 
dx
y − y1 = −( )(x − x1 ). (5.2)
dy x=x1 ,y=y1

124
 5.3. EQUATIONS OF TANGENT AND NORMAL LINES

The length of the segment on the tangent line which is between P = (x1 , y1 ) and
the point of contact with the x-axis is called the length of the tangent ( = T P ), and
the projection of this segment on the x-axis is called the length of the subtangent1
(= T M ). Similarly, we have the length of the normal ( = P N ) and the length of
the subnormal (= M N ).
In the triangle T P M , tan τ = M
TM
P
; therefore2
 
MP dx
TM = = y1 = length of subtangent. (5.3)
tan τ dy x=x1 ,y=y1
MN
In the triangle M P N , tan τ = MP
; therefore3

 
dy
M N = M P tan τ = y1 = length of subnormal. (5.4)
dx x=x1 ,y=y1

The length of tangent ( = T P ) and the length of normal ( = P N ) may then

be found directly from Figure 5.5, each being the hypotenuse of a right triangle
having the two legs known. Thus
p
2 2
T P = sT ¯M + M¯P
 h i 2
dx
= y1 dy + (y1 )2
x=x1 ,y=y1
s 2 (5.5)
h i
dx
= y1 dy
+1
x=x1 ,y=y1
= length of tangent.
Likewise,
p
2 2
P N = rM¯N + M¯P
  2
dy
= dx x=x1 ,y=y1
+ (y1 )2
r 2 (5.6)
 dy 
= y1 dx x=x1 ,y=y1
+1
= length of normal.
1
The subtangent is the segment obtained by projecting the portion T P of the tangent line onto
the x-axis).
2
If subtangent extends to the right of T, we consider it positive; if to the left, negative.
3
If subnormal extends to the right of M, we consider it positive; if to the left, negative.

125
5.4. EXERCISES

The student is advised to get the lengths of the tangent and of the normal directly
from the figure rather than by using these equations.
When the length of subtangent or subnormal at a point on a curve is determined,
the tangent and normal may be easily constructed.

5.4 Exercises
1. Find the equations of tangent and normal, lengths of subtangent, subnormal
x3
tangent, and normal at the point (a, a) on the cissoid y 2 = 2a−x .

x3
Figure 5.6: Graph of cissoid y 2 = 2a−x
with a = 1.

dy 3ax2 −x3
Solution. dx
= y(2a−x)2
. Hence

3a3 − a3
 
dy1 dy
= = =2
dx1 dx x=a,y=a a(2a − a)2

126
 5.4. EXERCISES

is the slope of tangent. Substituting in (5.1) gives

y = 2x − a,

the equation of the tangent line. Substituting in (5.2) gives

2y + x = 3a,

the equation of the normal line. Substituting in (5.3) gives

a
TM = ,
2
the length of subtangent. Substituting in (5.4) gives

M N = 2a,
the length of subnormal. Also
r
p a2 a√
P T = (T M )2 + (M P )2 = + a2 = 5,
4 2
which is the length of tangent, and
p √ √
PN = (M N )2 + (M P )2 = 4a2 + a2 = a 5,
the length of normal.

2. Find equations of tangent and normal to the ellipse x2 + 2y 2 − 2xy − x = 0

at the points where x = 1.
Ans. At (1, 0), 2y = x − 1, y + 2x = 2. At (1, 1), 2y = x + 1, y + 2x = 3.

3. Find equations of tangent and normal, lengths of subtangent and subnormal

at the point (x1 , y1 ) on the circle4 x2 + y 2 = r2 .
2
Ans. xl x + y1 y = r2 , x1 y − y1 x = 0, −x1 , − yx11 .

4. Show that the subtangent to the parabola y 2 = 4px is bisected at the vertex,
and that the subnormal is constant and equal to 2p.
4
In Exs. 3 and 5 the student should notice that if we drop the subscripts in equations of tangents,
they reduce to the equations of the curves themselves.

127
5.4. EXERCISES

x2 y2
5. Find the equation of the tangent at (x1 , y1 ) to the ellipse a2
+ b2
= 1.
x1 x y1 y
Ans. a2
+ b2
= 1.
Here’s how to find the length of tangent, normal, subtangent and subnormal
2
of this in Sage using the values a = 1, b = 2 (so x2 + y4 = 1) and
x1 = 4/5, y1 = 6/5.
Sage

sage: x = var("x")
sage: y = var("y")
sage: F = xˆ2 + yˆ2/4 - 1
sage: Dx = -diff(F,y)/diff(F,x); Dx; Dx(4/5,6/5)
-y/(4*x)
-3/8
sage: Dy = -diff(F,x)/diff(F,y); Dy; Dy(4/5,6/5)
-4*x/y
-8/3

(For this Sage calculation, we have used the fact that F (x, y) = 0 im-
dy
plies Fx (x, y) + dx Fy (x, y) = 0, where y is regarded as a function of x.)
Therefore, we have (using (5.3))

 
dx
length of subtangent = y1 = (6/5)(−3/8) = −9/20,
dy x=x1 ,y=y1

(using (5.4))
 
dy
length of subnormal = y1 = (6/5)(−8/3) = −16/5,
dx x=x1 ,y=y1

(using (5.5))
s 2
h i q
dx 9
length of tangent = y1 dy
+ 1 = (6/5) 1 + 64
x=x1 ,y=y1
√
= 3 73/20 = 1.2816... ,

128
 5.4. EXERCISES

and (using (5.6))

r 2 q
 dy 
length of normal = y1 dx x=x1 ,y=y1
+ 1 = (6/5) 1 + 64
9
√
= 2 73/5 = 3.4176... .

8a3
6. Find equations of tangent and normal to the Witch of Agnesi y = 4a2 +x2
as
at the point where x = 2a.
Ans. x + 2y = 4a, y = 2x − 3a.
a x x
7. Prove that at any point on the catenary y = 2
(e a + e− a ) the lengths of
2x 2x y2
subnormal and normal are a4 (e a − e− a ) and a
respectively.
8. Find equations of tangent and normal, lengths of subtangent and subnormal,
to each of the following curves at the points indicated:

(a) y = x3 at ( 21 , 81 ) (e) y = 9 − x2 at (−3, 0)

(b) y 2 = 4x at (9, −6) (f ) x2 = 6y where x = −6

(c) x2 + 5y 2 = 14 where y = 1 (g) x2 − xy + 2x − 9 = 0 at (3, 2)

(d) x2 + y 2 = 25at(−3, −4) (h) 2x2 − y 2 = 14 at (3, −2)

1
9. Prove that the length of subtangent to y = ax is constant and equal to log a
.

10. Get the equation of tangent to the parabola y 2 = 20x which makes an angle
of 45o = π/4 with the x-axis.
Ans. y = x + 5. (Hint: First find point of contact by method of Example
5.1.2.)
11. Find equations of tangents to the circle x2 + y 2 = 52 which are parallel to
the line 2x + 3y = 6.
Ans. 2x + 3y ± 26 = 0
12. Find equations of tangents to the hyperbola 4x2 − 9y 2 + 36 = 0 which are
perpendicular to the line 2y + 5x = 10.
Ans. 2x − 5y ± 8 = 0.

129
5.5. PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF A CURVE

13. Show that in the equilateral hyperbola 2xy = a2 the area of the triangle
formed by a tangent and the coordinate axes is constant and equal to a2 .

14. Find equations of tangents and normals to the curve y 2 = 2x2 − x3 at the
points where x = 1.
Ans. At (1, 1), 2y = x + 1, y + 2x = 3. At (1, −1), 2y = −x − 1,
y − 2x = −3.
1 1
15. Show that the sum of the intercepts of the tangent to the parabola x 2 + y 2 =
1
a2 .

16. Find the equation of tangent to the curve x2 (x+y) = a2 (x−y) at the origin.
2 2 2
17. Show that for the hypocycloid x 3 + y 3 = a 3 that portion of the tangent
included between the coordinate axes is constant and equal to a.
(This curve is parameterized by x = a cos(t)3 , y = a sin(t)3 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
Parametric equations shall be discussed in the next section.)
x
18. Show that the curve y = ae c has a constant subtangent.

5.5 Parametric equations of a curve

Let the equation of a curve be

F (x, y) = 0. (5.7)
If x is given as a function of a third variable, t say, called a parameter, then by
virtue of (5.7) y is also a function of t, and the same functional relation (5.7)
between x and y may generally be expressed by means of equations in the form
(
x = f (t),
(5.8)
y = g(t)
each value of t giving a value of x and a value of y. Equations (5.8) are called
parametric equations of the curve. If we eliminate t between equations (5.8), it is
evident that the relation (5.7) must result.

Example 5.5.1. For example, take equation of circle

130
 5.5. PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF A CURVE

√
x2 + y 2 = r2 or y = r 2 − x2 .
We have
(
x = r cos t
(5.9)
y = r sin t
as parametric equations of the circle, t being the parameter5 .
If we eliminate t between equations (5.9) by squaring and adding the results, we
have

x2 + y 2 = r2 (cos2 t + sin2 t) = r2 ,
the rectangular equation of the circle. It is evident that if t varies from 0 to 2π, the
point P = (x, y) will describe a complete circumference.

In §5.13 we shall discuss the motion of a point P , which motion is defined by

equations such as
(
x = f (t),
y = g(t)
We call these the parametric equations of the path, the time t being the parameter.

Example 5.5.2. Newtonian physics tells us that

(
x = v0 cos α · t,
y = − 21 gt2 + v0 sin α · t
are really the parametric equations of the trajectory of a projectile6 , the time t
being the parameter. The elimination of t gives the rectangular equation of the
trajectory

gx2
y = x tan α − 2 .
2v0 cos2 α
5
Parameterizations are not
√
unique. Another set of parametric equations of the first quadrant of
2t
the circle is given by x = 1+t2 , y = √1−t
√
1+t2
, for example.
6
Subject to (downward) gravitational force but no wind resistance or other external forces.

131
5.5. PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF A CURVE

Since from (5.8) y is given as a function of t, and t as a function of x, we have

dy dy dt
dx
= dt
· dx
by (4.27)
dy 1
= dt
· dx by (4.28)
dt

that is,
dy
dy dt g ′ (t)
= dx
= . (5.10)
dx dt
f ′ (t)
Hence, if the parametric equations of a curve are given, we can find equations of
tangent and normal, lengths of subtangent and subnormal at a given point on the
dy
curve, by first finding the value of dx at that point from (5.10) and then substituting
in formulas (5.1), (5.2), (5.3), (5.4) of the last section.
Example 5.5.3. Find equations of tangent and normal, lengths of subtangent and
subnormal to the ellipse
(
x = a cos φ,
(5.11)
y = b sin φ,
at the point where φ = π4 .
As in Figure 5.7 draw the major and minor auxiliary circles of the ellipse.
Through two points B and C on the same radius draw lines parallel to the axes
of coordinates. These lines will intersect in a point P = (x, y) on the ellipse, be-
cause x = OA = OB cos φ = a cos φ and y = AP = OD = OC sin φ = b sin φ,
or, xa = cos φ and yb = sin φ. Now squaring and adding, we get

x2 y 2
2
+ 2 = cos2 φ + sin2 φ = 1,
a b
the rectangular equation of the ellipse. φ is sometimes called the eccentric angle
of the ellipse at the point P.
dx dy
Solution. The parameter being φ, dφ = −a sin φ, dφ = b cos φ.
 
π a √b
Substituting φ = 4 in the given equations (5.11), we get √
2
, 2 as the point
 dy  b
of contact. Hence dx x=x1 ,y=y1 = − a . Substituting in (5.1),
 
b b a
y−√ =− x− √ ,
2 a 2
√
or, bx + ay = 2ab, the equation of tangent. Substituting in (5.2),

132
 5.5. PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF A CURVE

Figure 5.7: Auxiliary circles of an ellipse.

 
b a a
y−√ = x− √ ,
2 b 2
√
or, 2(ax − by) = a2 − b2 , the equation of normal. Substituting in (5.3) and (5.4),
we find

b2
 
b b
√ − =− √ ,
2 a a 2

the length of subnormal, and

133
5.5. PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF A CURVE

b  a a
√ − = −√ ,
2 b 2
the length of subtangent.

Example 5.5.4. Given equation of the cycloid in parametric form

(
x = a(θ − sin θ),
y = a(1 − cos θ),
θ being the variable parameter; find lengths of subtangent, subnormal, tangent,
and normal at the point where θ = π2 .
The path described by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls with-
out sliding on a fixed straight line is called the cycloid. Let the radius of the rolling
circle be a, P the generating point, and M the point of contact with the fixed line
OX, which is called the base. If arc PM equals OM in length, then P will touch at
O if the circle is rolled to the left. We have, denoting angle POM by θ,

x = OM − N M = aθ − a sin θ = a(θ − sin θ),

y = P N = M C − AC = a − a cos θ = a(1 − cos θ),
the parametric equations of the cycloid, the angle θ through which the rolling
circle turns being the parameter. OD = 2πa is called the base of one arch of the
cycloid, and the point V is called the vertex. Eliminating θ, we get the rectangular
equation
  p
a−y
x = a arccos − 2ay − y 2 .
a
The Sage commands for creating this plot are as follows:
Sage

sage: t = var("t")
sage: f1 = lambda t: [t-sin(t),1-cos(t)]
sage: p1 = parametric_plot(f1(t), 0.0, 2*pi, rgbcolor=(1,0,0))
sage: f2 = lambda t: [t+RR(pi)/2-1,t+1]
sage: p2 = parametric_plot(f2(t), -1, 1, rgbcolor=(1,0,0))
sage: f3 = lambda t: [-t+RR(pi)/2,t]
sage: p3 = parametric_plot(f3(t), -1, 1, rgbcolor=(1,0,0))
sage: t1 = text("P", (RR(pi)/2-1+0.1,1-0.1))
sage: t2 = text("T", (-0.4,0.1))

134
 5.5. PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF A CURVE

Figure 5.8: Tangent line of a cycloid.

sage: t3 = text("N", (RR(pi)/2,0))

sage: show(p1+p2+p3+t1+t2+t3)

Solution:
dx dy
= a(1 − cos θ), = a sin θ.
dθ dθ
Substituting in (5.10),

dy sin θ
= ,
dx 1 − cos θ
the slope at any point. Since θ = π2 , the point of contact is πa


2
− a, a , and
 dy 
dx x=x1 ,y=y1
= 1.
Substituting in (5.3), (5.4), (5.5), (5.6) of the last section, we get
length of subtangent = a,
length of subnormal = √a,
length of tangent = a√ 2,
length of normal = a 2.

135
5.6. EXERCISES

5.6 Exercises
Find equations of tangent and normal, lengths of subtangent and subnormal to
each of the following curves at the point indicated:

1. Curve: x = t2 , 2y = t;
Point: t = 1.
Tangent line: x − 4y + 1 = 0;
Normal line: 8x + 2y − 9 = 0;
Subtangent: 2;
Subnormal: 18 .

2. Curve: x = t, y = t3 ;
Point: t = 2.
Tangent line: 12x − y − 16 = 0;
Normal line: x + 12y − 98 = 0;
Subtangent: 23 ;
Subnormal: 96.

3. Curve: x = t2 , y = t3 ;
Point: t = 1.
Tangent line: 3x − 2y − 1 = 0;
Normal line: 2x + 3y − 5 = 0;
Subtangent: 23 ;
Subnormal: 32 .

4. Curve: x = 2et , y = e−t ;

Point: t = 0.
Tangent line: x + 2y − 4 = 0;
Normal line: 2x − y − 3 = 0;
Subtangent: −2;
Subnormal: − 12 .

136
 5.6. EXERCISES

5. Curve: x = sin t, y = cos 2t;

Point: t = π6 .
Tangent line: 2y + 4x − 3 = 0;
Normal line: 4y − 2x − 1 = 0;
Subtangent: − 14 ;
Subnormal: −1.

Sage can help with the computations here:

Sage

sage: t = var("t")
sage: x = sin(t)
sage: y = cos(2*t)
sage: t0 = pi/6
sage: y_x = diff(y,t)/diff(x,t)
sage: y_x
-2*sin(2*t)/cos(t)
sage: y_x(t0)
-2
sage: m = y_x(t0); x0 = x(t0); y0 = y(t0)
sage: X,Y = var("X,Y")
sage: Y - y0 == m*(X - x0)
Y - 1/2 == -2*(X - 1/2)

The last line is the point-slope form of the tangent line of the paramet-
ric curve at that point t0 = π/6 (so, (x0 , y0 ) = (sin(t0 ), cos(2t0 )) =
(1/2, 1/2)). We use X and Y in place of x and y so as to not over-ride
the entries that Sage has stored for them. Continuing the above Sage
computations:
Sage

sage: x_y = diff(x,t)/diff(y,t)

sage: len_subtan = y(t0)*x_y(t0); len_subtan
-1/4
sage:

137
5.6. EXERCISES

sage: len_subnor = y(t0)*y_x(t0); len_subnor

-1
sage: len_tan = y(t0)*sqrt(x_y(t0)ˆ2+1); len_tan
sqrt(5)/4
sage: len_nor = y(t0)*sqrt(y_x(t0)ˆ2+1); len_nor
sqrt(5)/2

These tell us the length of the subtangent is − 14 (as expected), as well as the
lengths of the subnormal, tangent and normal, using formulas (5.10), (5.3),
(5.4), (5.5), (5.6) of the last section.
6. Curve: x = 1 − t, y = t2 ;
Point: t = 3.
7. Curve: x = 3t; y = 6t − t2 ;
Point: t = 0.
8. Curve: x = t3 ; y = t;
Point: t = 2.
9. Curve: x = t3 , y = t2 ;
Point: t = −1.
10. Curve: x = 2 − t; y = 3t2 ;
Point: t = 1.
11. Curve: x = cos t, y = sin 2t;
Point: t = π3 .
12. Curve: x = 3e−t , y = 2et ;
Point: t = 0.
13. Curve: x = sin t, y = 2 cos t;
Point: t = π4 .
14. Curve: x = 4 cos t, y = 3 sin t;
Point: t = π2 .

138
 5.6. EXERCISES

15. Curve:
Point:

In the following curves find lengths of (a) subtangent, (b) subnormal, (c) tangent,
(d) normal, at any point:

16. The curve

(
x = a(cos t + t sin t),
y = a(sin t − t cos t).
y y
Ans. (a) y cot t, (b) y tan t, (c) sin t
, (d) cos t
.

17. The hypocycloid (astroid)

(
x = 4a cos3 t,
y = 4a sin3 t.
y y
Ans. (a) −y cot t, (b) −y tan t, (c) sin t
, (d) cos t
.

18. The circle

(
x = r cos t,
y = r sin t.

19. The cardioid

(
x = a(2 cos t − cos 2t),
y = a(2 sin t − sin 2t).

20. The folium

(
3t
x= 1+t3
3t2
y= 1+t3
.

139
5.7. ANGLE BETWEEN RADIUS VECTOR AND TANGENT

21. The hyperbolic spiral

(
x = at cos t
y = at sin t

5.7 Angle between radius vector and tangent

Angle between the radius vector drawn to a point on a curve and the tangent to the
curve at that point. Let the equation of the curve in polar coordinates be ρ = f (θ).
Let P be any fixed point (ρ, θ) on the curve. If θ, which we assume as the inde-
pendent variable, takes on an increment ∆θ, then ρ will take on a corresponding
increment ∆ρ.

Figure 5.9: Angle between the radius vector drawn to a point on a curve and the
tangent to the curve at that point.

Denote by Q the point (ρ+∆ρ, θ+∆θ), as in Figure 5.9, Draw PR perpendicular

to OQ where R is a point at a distance of ρ cos ∆θ from the origin. Then OQ =
ρ + ∆ρ, P R = ρ sin ∆θ, and OR = ρ cos ∆θ. Also,

140
 5.7. ANGLE BETWEEN RADIUS VECTOR AND TANGENT

PR PR ρ sin ∆θ
tan P QR = = = .
RQ OQ − OR ρ + ∆ρ − ρ cos ∆θ
Denote by ψ the angle between the radius vector OP and the tangent PT. If we
now let ∆θ approach the limit zero, then

(a) the point Q will approach indefinitely near P;

(b) the secant PQ will approach the tangent PT as a limiting position; and

(c) the angle PQR will approach ψ as a limit.

Hence

ρ∆θ ρ∆θ
tan ψ = lim = lim 2
∆θ→0 ρ + ∆ρ − ρ cos ∆θ ∆θ→0 2ρ sin ∆θ + ∆ρ
2

(since, from 39, §12.1, ρ − ρ cos ∆θ = ρ(1 − cos ∆θ) = 2ρ sin2 ∆θ

2
). Dividing
both numerator and denominator by ∆θ, this is
ρ sin ∆θ sin ∆θ
∆θ
ρ· ∆θ
= lim 2 ∆θ
= lim .
∆θ→0 2ρ sin 2 ∆→0 sin ∆θ
∆θ
+ ∆ρ
∆θ
ρ sin ∆θ
2
· ∆θ
2
+ ∆ρ
∆θ
2

Since
   
∆ρ dρ ∆θ
lim = and lim sin = 0,
∆θ→0 ∆θ dθ ∆θ→0 2
also
 
sin ∆θ
lim =1
∆θ→0 ∆θ
and

sin ∆θ
2
lim ∆θ
=1
∆θ→0
2

by §2.10, we have
ρ
tan ψ = dρ
(5.12)
dθ

141
5.7. ANGLE BETWEEN RADIUS VECTOR AND TANGENT

From the triangle OPT we get

τ = θ + ψ. (5.13)
Having found τ , we may then find tan τ , the slope of the tangent to the curve at
P. Or since, from (5.13),

tan θ + tan ψ
tan τ = tan(θ + ψ) =
1 − tan θ tan ψ
we may calculate tan ψ from (5.12) and substitute in the formula

tan θ + tan ψ
slope of tangent = tan τ = . (5.14)
1 − tan θ tan ψ

Example 5.7.1. Find ψ and τ in the cardioid ψ = a(1 − cos θ). Also find the
slope at θ = π6 .
Solution. dψ
dθ
= a sin θ. Substituting in (5.12) gives

ρ a(1 − cos θ) 2a sin2 2θ θ

tan ψ = dρ
= = θ θ
= tan ,
dθ
a sin θ 2a sin 2 cos 2 2

by items 39 and 37, §12.1. Since tan ψ = tan 2θ , we have ψ = 2θ .

Substituting in (5.13), τ = θ + 2θ = 3θ
2
. so
π
tan τ = tan = 1.
4
To find the angle of intersection φ of two curves C and C ′ whose equations are
given in polar coordinates, we may proceed as follows:

angle TPT′ = angle OPT′ - angle OPT,

or, φ = ψ ′ − ψ. Hence

tan ψ ′ − tan ψ
tan φ = , (5.15)
1 + tan ψ ′ tan ψ
where tan ψ ′ and tan ψ are calculated by (5.12) from the two curves and evalu-
ated for the point of intersection.

142
 5.7. ANGLE BETWEEN RADIUS VECTOR AND TANGENT

Figure 5.10: The angle between two curves.

Example 5.7.2. Find the angle of of intersection of the curves ρ = a sin 2θ,
ρ = a cos 2θ.
Solution. Solving the two equations simultaneously, we get at the point of inter-
section
45 o
tan 2θ = 1, 2θ = 45o = π/4, θ = = π/8.
2
From the first curve, using (5.12),
1 1
tan ψ ′ =tan 2θ = ,
2 2
45 o
for θ = 2
= π/8. From the second curve,
1 1
tan ψ = − cot 2θ = − ,
2 2
o
for θ = 45
2
= π/8.
Substituting in ((5.15),
1
+ 12
2 4
tan ψ = 1 = .
1− 4 3
therefore ψ = arctan 34 .

143
5.8. LENGTHS OF POLAR SUBTANGENT AND POLAR SUBNORMAL

5.8 Lengths of polar subtangent and polar subnor-

mal
Draw a line NT through the origin perpendicular to the radius vector of the point
P on the curve. If PT is the tangent and PN the normal to the curve at P, then7

Figure 5.11: The polar subtangent and polar subnormal.

OT = length of polar subtangent,

and

ON = length of polar subnormal

7 dθ
When θ increases with ρ, dρ is positive and ρ is an acute angle, as in Figure 5.11. Then the
subtangent OT is positive and is measured to the right of an observer placed at O and looking along
dθ
OP. When dρ is negative, the subtangent is negative and is measured to the left of the observer.

144
 5.9. EXAMPLES

of the curve at P.
OT
In the triangle OPT, tan ψ = ρ
. Therefore

dθ
OT = ρ tan ψ = ρ2 = length of polar subtangent. (5.16)
dρ
ρ
In the triangle OPN, tan ψ = ON
. Therefore

ρ dρ
ON = = = length of polar subnormal. (5.17)
tan ψ dθ
The length of the polar tangent (= PT) and the length of the polar normal (= PN)
may be found from the figure, each being the hypotenuse of a right triangle.

Example 5.8.1. Find lengths of polar subtangent and subnormal to the lemniscate
ρ2 = a2 cos 2θ.
Solution. Differentiating the equation of the curve as an implicit function with
2
respect to θ, or, 2ρ dρ
dθ
= −2a2 sin 2θ, dρ
dθ
= − a sin
ρ
2θ
.
Substituting in (5.16) and (5.17), we get
ρ 3
length of polar subtangent = − a2 sin 2θ
,
a2 sin 2θ
length of polar subnormal = − ρ .

If we wish to express the results in terms of θ, find ρ√in terms of θ from the given
equation and substitute. Thus, in the above, ρ = ±a cos 2θ; therefore
√
length of polar subtangent = ±a cot 2θ cos 2θ.

5.9 Examples
1. In the circle ρ = r sin θ, find ψ and τ in terms of θ.
Solution: ψ = θ, τ = 2θ.
θ
2. In the parabola ρ = a sec 2 , show that τ + ψ = π.

3. In the curve ρ2 = a2 cos 2θ, show that 2ψ = π + 4θ.

4. Show that ψ is constant in the logarithmic spiral ρ = eaθ . Since the tangent
makes a constant angle with the radius vector, this curve is also called the
equiangular spiral.

145
5.9. EXAMPLES

5. Given the curve ρ = a sin3 3θ , prove that τ = 4ψ.

Sage can help with this problem. Using (5.12) but with t in place of θ for
typographical simplicity, we have

Sage

sage: a,t = var("a,t")

sage: r = a*sin(t/3)ˆ3
sage: tanpsi = r/diff(r,t); tanpsi
sin(t/3)/cos(t/3)

Therefore, tan(ψ) = tan(θ/3), so θ = 3ψ. Therefore, according to (5.13),

we have τ = θ + ψ = 3ψ + ψ = 4ψ, as expected.

6. Show that tan ψ = θ in the spiral of Archimedes ρ = aθ. Find values of ψ

when θ = 2π and 4π.

Solution: ψ = 80o 57′ = 1.4128... and 85o 27′ = 1.4913....

7. Find the angle between the straight line ρ cos θ = 2a and the circle ρ =
5a sin θ.

Solution: arctan 43 .

θ θ
8. Show that the parabolas ρ = a sec2 2
and ρ = b csc2 2
intersect at right
angles.

9. Find the angle of intersection of ρ = a sin θ and ρ = a sin 2θ.

√
Solution: At origin 0o ; at two other points arctan 3 3.

10. Find the slopes of the following curves at the points designated:

146
 5.9. EXAMPLES

curve point solution (if given)

(a) ρ = a(l − cos, θ) θ = π2 −1

(b) ρ = a sec2 θ ρ = 2a 3
(c) ρ = a sin 4θ origin 0, 1, ∞, −1
(d) ρ2 = a2 sin 4θ origin 0, √
1, ∞, −1
√
(e) ρ = a sin 3θ origin 0, 3, − 3
(f) ρ = a cos 3θ origin
(g) ρ = a cos 2θ origin
(h) ρ = a sin 2θ θ = π4
(i) ρ = a sin 3θ θ = pi6
(j) ρ = aθ θ = π2
(k) ρθ = a θ = π2
(l) ρ = eθ θ=0
11. Prove that the spiral of Archimedes ρ = aθ, and the reciprocal spiral ρ = aθ ,
intersect at right angles.
12. Find the angle between the parabola ρ = asec2 2θ and the straight line
ρ sin θ = 2a.
Solution: 45o = π/4.
13. Show that the two cardioids ρ = a(1 + cos θ) and ρ = a(1 − cos θ) cut each
other perpendicularly.
14. Find lengths of subtangent, subnormal, tangent, and normal of the spiral of
Archimedes ρ = aθ.
2
Solution: subt. = ρa , tan. = aρ a2 + ρ2 , subn. = a, nor. = a2 + ρ2 . The
p p

student should note the fact that the subnormal is constant.

15. Get lengths of subtangent, subnormal, tangent, and normal in the logarith-
mic spiral ρ = aθ .
q
Solution: subt. = logρ a , tan. = ρ 1 + log12 a , subn. = ρ log a, nor. =
p
ρ 1 + log2 a.
When a = e, we notice that subt. = subn., and tan. = nor.
16. Find the angles between the curves ρ = a(1 + cos θ) and ρ = b(1 − cos θ).
Solution: 0 and π2 .

147
5.10. SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS HAVING MULTIPLE ROOTS

a
17. Show that the reciprocal spiral ρ = θ
has a constant subtangent.

18. Show that the equilateral hyperbolas ρ2 sin 2θ = a2 , ρ2 cos 2θ = b2 inter-

sect at right angles.

5.10 Solution of equations having multiple roots

Any root which occurs more than once in an equation is called a multiple root.
Thus 3, 3, 3, −2 are the roots of

x4 − 7x3 + 9x2 + 27x − 54 = 0;

hence 3 is a multiple root occurring three times. Evidently this equation may also
be written in the form
(x − 3)3 (x + 2) = 0.
Let f (x) denote an integral rational function of x having a multiple root a, and
suppose it occurs m times. Then we may write

f (x) = (x − a)m φ(x), (5.18)

where φ(x) is the product of the factors corresponding to all the roots of f (x)
differing from a. Differentiating (5.18),

f ′ (x) = (x − a)m φ′ (x) + mφ(x)(x − a)m−1 ,

or,

f ′ (x) = (x − a)m−1 [(x − a)φ′ (x) + mφ(x)]. (5.19)

Therefore f ′ (x) contains the factor (x − a) repeated m − 1 times and no more;
that is, the greatest common divisor (G.C.D.) of f (x) and f ′ (x) has m − 1 roots
equal to a.
In case f (x) has a second multiple root β occurring r times, it is evident that
the G.C.D. would also contain the factor (x − β)r−1 and so on for any number of
different multiple roots, each occurring once more in f (x) than in the G.C.D.
We may then state a rule for finding the multiple roots of an equation f (x) = 0
as follows:

• FIRST STEP. Find f ′ (x).

148
 5.11. EXAMPLES

• SECOND STEP. Find the G.C.D.of f (x) and f ′ (x).

• THIRD STEP. Find the roots of the G.C.D.Each different root of the G.C.D.will
occur once more in f (x) than it does in the G.C.D.

If it turns out that the G.C.D.does not involve x, then f (x) has no multiple roots
and the above process is of no assistance in the solution of the equation, but it may
be of interest to know that the equation has no equal, i.e. multiple, roots.

Example 5.10.1. Solve the equation x3 − 8x2 + 13x − 6 = 0.

Solution. Place f (x) = x3 − 8x2 + 13x − 6.
First step. f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 16x + 13.
Second step. G.C.D. = x − 1.
Third step. x − 1 = 0, therefore x = 1.
Since 1 occurs once as a root in the G.C.D.,it will occur twice in the given
equation; that is, (x − 1)2 will occur there as a factor. Dividing x3 − 8x2 + 13x − 6
by (x − 1)2 gives the only remaining factor (x − 6), yielding the root 6. The roots
of our equation are then 1, 1, 6. Drawing the graph of the function, we see that at
the double root x = 1 the graph touches the x-axis but does not cross it.
Note: Since the first derivative vanishes for every multiple root, it follows that
the x-axis is tangent to the graph at all points corresponding to multiple roots. If a
multiple root occurs an even number of times, the graph will not cross the x-axis
at such a point (see Figure 5.12); if it occurs an odd number of times, the graph
will cross.

5.11 Examples
1. x3 − 7x2 + 16x − 12 = 0.
Ans. 2, 2, 3.

2. x4 − 6x2 − 8x − 3 = 0.

3. x4 − 7x3 + 9x2 + 27x − 64 = 0.

Ans. 3, 3, 3, −2.

4. x4 − 5x3 − 9x2 + 81x − 108 = 0.

Ans. 3, 3, 3, −4.

149
5.11. EXAMPLES

Figure 5.12: plot of f (x) = (x − 1)2 (x − 6) illustrating a multiple root.

5. x4 + 6x3 + x2 − 24x + 16 = 0.
Ans. 1, 1, −4, −4.

6. x4 − 9x3 + 23x2 − 3x − 36 = 0.
Ans. 3, 3, −1, 4.

7. x4 − 6x3 + 10x2 − 8 = 0.
√
Ans. 2, 2, 1 ± 3.

Sage can help with this problem.

Sage

sage: x = var("x")
sage: solve(xˆ4 - 6*xˆ3 + 10*xˆ2 - 8 == 0,x)
[x == 1 - sqrt(3), x == sqrt(3) + 1, x == 2]

150
 5.11. EXAMPLES

sage: factor(xˆ4 - 6*xˆ3 + 10*xˆ2 - 8)

(x - 2)ˆ2*(xˆ2 - 2*x - 2)

This tells use that the root 2 occurs with multiplicity 2.

8. x5 − x4 − 5x3 + x2 + 8x + 4 = 0.

Sage can help with this problem.

Sage

sage: x = var("x")
sage: solve(xˆ5 - 15*xˆ3 + 10*xˆ2 + 60*x - 72 == 0,x)
[x == -3, x == 2]
sage: factor(xˆ5 - 15*xˆ3 + 10*xˆ2 + 60*x - 72)
(x - 2)ˆ3*(x + 3)ˆ2

This tells use that the root 2 occurs with multiplicity 3 amd the root −3
occurs with multiplicity 2, as expected.

9. x5 − 15x3 + 10x2 + 60x − 72 = 0.

Ans. 2, 2, 2, −3, −3.

10. x5 − 3x4 − 5x3 + 13x2 + 24x + l0 = 0.

Show that the following four equations have no multiple (equal) roots:

11. x3 + 9x2 + 2x − 48 = 0.

12. x4 − 15x2 − 10x + 24 = 0.

13. x4 − 3x3 − 6x2 + 14x + 12 = 0.

14. xn − an = 0.

151
5.12. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE IN MECHANICS

15. Show that the condition that the equation

x3 + 3qx + r = 0
shall have a double root is 4q 3 + r2 = 0.

16. Show that the condition that the equation

x3 + 3px2 + r = 0
shall have a double root is r(4p3 + r) = 0.

5.12 Applications of the derivative in mechanics

Included also are applications to velocity and rectilinear motion.
Consider the motion of a point P on the straight line AB.

Figure 5.13: Illustration of rectilinear motion.

Let s be the distance measured from some fixed point as A to any position of
P, and let t be the corresponding elapsed time. To each value of t corresponds a
position of P and therefore a distance (or space) s. Hence s will be a function of
t, and we may write

s = f (t)
Now let t take on an increment ∆t; then s takes on an increment8 ∆s, and
8
s being the space or distance passed over in the time ∆t.

152
 5.12. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE IN MECHANICS

∆s
= the average velocity (5.20)
∆t
of P during the time interval ∆t. If P moves with uniform motion, the above
ratio will have the same value for every interval of time and is the velocity at any
instant.
For the general case of any kind of motion, uniform or not, we define the velocity
(or, time rate of change of s) at any instant as the limit of the ratio ∆s∆t
as ∆t
approaches the limit zero; that is,

∆s
v = lim ,
∆t→0 ∆t
or

ds
v= (5.21)
dt
The velocity is the derivative of the distance (= space) with respect to the time.
To show that this agrees with the conception we already have of velocity, let us
find the velocity of a falling body at the end of two seconds.
By experiment it has been found that a body falling freely from rest in a vacuum
near the earth’s surface follows approximately the law

s = 16.1t2 (5.22)
where s = space fallen in feet, t = time in seconds. Apply the General Rule, §3.7,
to (5.22).
FIRST STEP. s + ∆s = 16.1(t + ∆t)2 = 16.1t2 + 32.2t · ∆t + 16.1(∆t)2 .
SECOND STEP. ∆s = 32.2t · ∆t + 16.1(∆t)2 .
THIRD STEP. ∆s ∆t
= 32.2t + 16.1∆t = average velocity throughout the time
interval ∆t.
Placing t = 2,

∆s
= 64.4 + 16.1∆t (5.23)
∆t
which equals the average velocity throughout the time interval ∆t after two sec-
onds of falling. Our notion of velocity tells us at once that (5.23) does not give us
the actual velocity at the end of two seconds; for even if we take ∆t very small,
1 1
say 100 or 1000 of a second, (5.23) still gives only the average velocity during the
corresponding small interval of time. But what we do mean by the velocity at

153
5.13. COMPONENT VELOCITIES. CURVILINEAR MOTION

the end of two seconds is the limit of the average velocity when ∆t diminishes
towards zero; that is, the velocity at the end of two seconds is from (5.23), 64.4 ft.
per second.
Thus even the everyday notion of velocity which we get from experience in-
volves the idea of a limit, or in our notation
 
∆s
v = lim = 64.4 f t./sec.
∆t→0 ∆t
The above example illustrates well the notion of a limiting value. The student
should be impressed with the idea that a limiting value is a definite, fixed value, not
something that is only approximated. Observe that it does not make any difference
how small 16.1∆t may be taken; it is only the limiting value of 64.4 + 16.1∆t,
when ∆t diminishes towards zero, that is of importance, and that value is exactly
64.4.

5.13 Component velocities. Curvilinear motion

The coordinates x and y of a point P moving in the xy-plane are also functions
of time, and the motion may be defined by means of two equations9 , x = f (t),
y = g(t). These are the parametric equations of the path (see §5.5).
The horizontal component10 vx of v is the velocity along the x-axis of the pro-
jection M of P, and is therefore the time rate of change of x. Hence, from (5.21),
when s is replaced by x, we get

dx
vx =
. (5.24)
dt
In the same way we get the vertical component, or time rate of change of y,

dy
vy =
. (5.25)
dt
Representing the velocity and its components by vectors, we have at once from
the figure

v 2 = vx 2 + vy 2 ,
9
The equation of the path in rectangular coordinates may often be found by eliminating t
between their equations.
10
The direction of v is along the tangent to the path.

154
 5.13. COMPONENT VELOCITIES. CURVILINEAR MOTION

Figure 5.14: The components of velocity.

or,

s 2  2
ds dx dy
v= = + , (5.26)
dt dt dt

giving the magnitude of the velocity at any instant.

If τ be the angle which the direction of the velocity makes with the x-axis; we
have from the figure, using (5.21), (5.24), (5.25),

dy dx dy
vy dt vx dt vy dt
sin τ = = ds
; cos τ = = ds
; tan τ = = dx
. (5.27)
v dt
v ds
vx dt

155
5.14. ACCELERATION. RECTILINEAR MOTION

5.14 Acceleration. Rectilinear motion

In general, v will be a function of t. Now let t take on an increment ∆t, then v
takes on an increment ∆v, and ∆v∆t
is the average acceleration of P during the time
interval ∆t. We define the acceleration a at any instant as the limit of the ratio ∆v
∆t
as ∆t approaches the limit zero; that is,
 
∆v
a = lim ,
∆t→0 ∆t
or,

dv
a= (5.28)
dt
The acceleration is the derivative of the velocity with respect to time.

5.15 Component accelerations. Curvilinear motion

In treatises on Mechanics it is shown that in curvilinear motion the acceleration
is not, like the velocity, directed along the tangent, but toward the concave side,
of the path of motion. It may be resolved into a tangential component, at , and a
normal component, an where

dv v2
at = ; an = . (5.29)
dt R
(R is the radius of curvature. See §11.5.)
The acceleration may also be resolved into components parallel to the axes of
the path of motion. Following the same plan used in §5.13 for finding component
velocities, we define the component accelerations parallel to the x-axis and y-axis,

dvx dvy
ax = ; ay = . (5.30)
dt dt
Also, s 2  2
dvx dvy
a= + , (5.31)
dt dt
which gives the magnitude of the acceleration at any instant.

156
 5.16. EXAMPLES

5.16 Examples
1. By experiment it has been found that a body falling freely from rest in a
vacuum near the earth’s surface follows approximately the law s = 16.1t2 ,
where s = space (height) in feet, t = time in seconds. Find the velocity and
acceleration

(a) at any instant;

(b) at end of the first second;
(c) at end of the fifth second.

Solution. We have s = 16.1t2 .

(a) Differentiating, ds
dt
= 32.2t, or, from (5.21), v = 32.2t ft./sec. Differen-
tiating again, dt = 32.2, or, from (5.28), a = 32.2 ft./(sec.)2 , which tells
dv

us that the acceleration of a falling body is constant; in other words, the

velocity increases 32.2 ft./sec. every second it keeps on falling.
(b) To find v and a at the end of the first second, substitute t = 1 to get
v = 32.2 ft./sec., a = 32.2 ft./(sec.)2 .
(c) To find v and a at the end of the fifth second, substitute t = 5 to get
v = 161 ft./sec., a = 32.2 ft./(sec.)2 .

2. Neglecting the resistance of the air, the equations of motion for a projectile
are

x = v0 cos φ · t, y = v0 sin φ · t − 16.1t2 ;

where v0 = initial velocity, φ = angle of projection with horizon, t = time
of flight in seconds, x and y being measured in feet. Find the velocity,
acceleration, component velocities, and component accelerations

(a) at any instant;

(b) at the end of the first second, having given v0 = 100 ft. per sec.,
φ = 300 = π/6;
(c) find direction of motion at the end of the first second.

157
5.16. EXAMPLES

p (5.25), (a) vx = v0 cos φ; vy = v0 sin φ − 32.2t.

Solution. From (5.24) and
Also, from (5.26), v = v0 2 − 64.4tv0 sin φ + 1036.8t2 . From (5.30) and
(5.31), ax = 0; ay = 32.2; a = 32.2.
(b) Substituting t = 1, v0 = 100, φ = 300 = π/6 in these results, we
get vx = 86.6 ft./sec., ax = 0; vy = 17.8 ft./sec., ay = −32.2 ft./(sec.)2 ;
v = 88.4 ft./sec., a = 32.2 ft./(sec.)2 .
(c) τ = arctan vvxy = arctan 17.8
86.6
= 0.2027... ≈ 11o , which is the angle of
direction of motion with the horizontal.

3. Given the following equations of rectilinear motion. Find the distance, ve-
locity, and acceleration at the instant indicated:

(a) s = t3 + 2t2 ; t = 2.
Ans. s = 16, v = 20, a = 16.
(b) s = t2 + 2t; t = 3.
Ans. s = 15, v = 8, a = 2.
(c) s = 3 − 4t; t = 4.
Ans. s = −13, v = −4, a = 0.
(d) x = 2t − t2 ; t = 1.
Ans. x = 1, v = 0, a = −2.
(e) y = 2t − t3 ; t = 0.
Ans. y = 0, v = 2, a = 0.
(f) h = 20t + 16t2 ; t = 10.
Ans. h = 1800, v = 340, a = 32.
(g) s = 2 sin t; t = π4 .
√ √ √
Ans. s = 2, v = 2, a = − 2.
(h) y = a cos πt
3
; t = 1.
√ 2
Ans. y = a2 , v = − πa6 3 , a = − π18a .
(i) s = 2e3t ; t = 0.
Ans. s = 2, v = 6, a = 18.
(j) s = 2t2 − 3t; t = 2.
(k) x = 4 + t3 ; t = 3.

158
 5.16. EXAMPLES

(l) y = 5 cos 2t; t = π6 .

(m) s = b sin πt
4
; t = 2.
(n) x = ae−2t ; t = 1.
a
(o) s = t
+ bt2 ; t = t0 .
4
(p) s = 10 log 4+t ; t = 1.

4. If a projectile be given an initial velocity of 200 ft. per sec. in a direction

inclined 45o = π/4 with the horizontal, find

(a) the velocity and direction of motion at the end of the third and sixth
seconds;
(b) the component velocities at the same instants.

Conditions are the same as for Exercise 2.

Ans.
(a) When t = 3, v = 148.3 ft. per sec., τ = 0.3068... = 17o 35′ ; when t = 6,
v = 150.5 ft. per sec., τ = 2.79049... = 159o 53′ ;
(b) When t = 3, vx = 141.4 ft. per sec., vy = 44.8 ft. per sec.; when t = 6,
vx = 141.4 ft. per sec., vy = −51.8 ft. per sec.

5. The height (= s) in feet reached in t seconds by a body projected vertically

upwards with a velocity of v0 ft. per sec. is given by the formula s =
v0 t − 16.1t2 . Find
(a) velocity and acceleration at any instant; and, if v0 = 300 ft. per sec.,
find velocity and acceleration
(b) at end of 2 seconds;
(c) at end of 15 seconds. Resistance of air is neglected.
Ans. (a) v = v0 − 32.2t, a = −32.2; (b) v = 235.6 ft. per sec. Upwards,
a = 32.2 ft. per (sec.)2 downwards; (c) v = 183 ft. per sec. Downwards,
a = 32.2 ft. per (sec.)2 downwards.

6. A cannon ball is fired vertically upwards with a muzzle velocity of 644 ft.
per sec. Find (a) its velocity at the end of 10 seconds; (b) for how long it
will continue to rise. Conditions same as for Exercise 5.
Ans. (a) 322 ft. per sec. Upwards; (b) 20 seconds.

159
5.16. EXAMPLES

7. A train left a station and in t hours was at a distance (space) of

s = t3 + 2t2 + 3t
miles from the starting point. Find its acceleration (a) at the end of t hours;
(b) at the end of 2 hours.
Ans. (a) a = 6t + 4; (b) a = 16 miles/(hour)2 .

8. In t hours a train had reached a point at the distance of 14 t4 − 4t3 + 16t2

miles from the starting point.

(a) Find its velocity and acceleration.

(b) When will the train stop to change the direction of its motion?
(c) Describe the motion during the first 10 hours.

Ans. (a) v = t3 − 12t2 + 32t, a = 3t2 − 24t + 32;

(b) at end of fourth and eighth hours;
(c) forward first 4 hours, backward the next 4 hours, forward again after 8
hours.

9. The space in feet described in t seconds by a point is expressed by the

formula

s = 48t − 16t2 .
3
Find the velocity and acceleration at the end of 2
seconds.
Ans. v = 0,a = −32 ft./(sec.)2 .

10. Find the acceleration, having given

(a) v = t2 + 2t; t = 3.
Ans. a = 8.
(b) v = 3t − t3 ; t = 2.
Ans. a = −9.
(c) v = 4 sin 2t ; t = π3 .
√
Ans. a = 3.

160
 5.16. EXAMPLES

(d) v = r cos 3t; t = π6 .

Ans. a = −3r.
(e) v = 5e2t ; t = 1.
Ans. a = 10e2 .

11. At the end of t seconds a body has a velocity of 3t2 + 2t ft. per sec.; find its
acceleration (a) in general; (b) at the end of 4 seconds.
Ans. (a) a = 6t + 2 ft./(sec.)2 ; (b) a = 26 ft./(sec.)2

12. The vertical component of velocity of a point at the end of t seconds is

vy = 3t2 − 2t + 6
in ft. per sec. Find the vertical component of acceleration (a) at any instant;
(b) at the end of 2 seconds.
Ans. (a) ay = 6t − 2; (b) 10 ft./(sec.)2 .

13. If a point moves in a fixed path so that

√
s= t,
show that the acceleration is negative and proportional to the cube of the
velocity.

14. If the distance travelled at time t is given by

s = c1 et + c2 e−t ,
for some constants c1 and c2 , show that the acceleration is always equal in
magnitude to the space passed over.

15. If a point referred to rectangular coordinates moves so that

x = a1 + a2 cos t, y = b1 + b2 sin t,
for some constants ai and bi ,show that its velocity has a constant magnitude.

161
5.16. EXAMPLES

16. If the path of a moving point is the sine curve

(
x = at,
y = b sin at

show (a) that the x-component of the velocity is constant; (b) that the ac-
celeration of the point at any instant is proportional to its distance from the
x-axis.

17. Given the following equations of curvilinear motion, find at the given instant

• vx , vy , v;
• ax , ay , a;
• position of point (coordinates);
• direction of motion.
• the equation of the path in rectangular coordinates.

(a) x = t2 , y = t; t = 2.
(g) x = 2 sin t, y = 3 cos t; t = π.
(b) x = t, y = t3 ; t = 1.
(h) x = sin t, y = cos 2t; t = π4 .
(c) x = t2 , y = t3 ; t = 3.
(i) x = 2t, y = 3et ; t = 0.
(d) x = 2t, y = t2 + 3; t = 0.
(e) x = 1 − t2 , y = 2t; t = 2.
(j) x = 3t, y = log t; t = 1.
3π
(f) x = r sin t, y = r cos t; t = 4
.
(k) x = t, y = 12/t; t = 3.

162
 5.17. APPLICATION: NEWTON’S METHOD

5.17 Application: Newton’s method

11

Newton’s method (also known as the Newton-Raphson method) is an efficient

algorithm for finding approximations to the zeros (or roots) of a real-valued func-
tion. As such, it is an example of a root-finding algorithm. It produces iteratively
a sequence of approximations to the root. It can also be used to find a minimum
or maximum of such a function, by finding a zero in the function’s first derivative.

5.17.1 Description of the method

The idea of the method is as follows: one starts with an initial guess which is
reasonably close to the true root, then the function is approximated by its tangent
line (which can be computed using the tools of calculus), and one computes the x-
intercept of this tangent line (which is easily done with elementary algebra). This
x-intercept will typically be a better approximation to the function’s root than the
original guess, and the method can be iterated.
Suppose f : [a, b] → R is a differentiable function defined on the interval [a, b]
with values in the real numbers R. The formula for converging on the root can be
easily derived. Suppose we have some current approximation xn . Then we can
derive the formula for a better approximation, xn+1 by referring to the diagram on
the right. We know from the definition of the derivative at a given point that it is
the slope of a tangent at that point.
That is

rise ∆y f (xn ) − 0 0 − f (xn )

f ′ (xn ) = = = = .
run ∆x xn − xn+1 (xn+1 − xn )
Here, f ′ denotes the derivative of the function f . Then by simple algebra we can
derive

f (xn )
xn+1 = xn − .
f ′ (xn )
We start the process off with some arbitrary initial value x0 . (The closer to the
zero, the better. But, in the absence of any intuition about where the zero might
lie, a ”guess and check” method might narrow the possibilities to a reasonably
small interval by appealing to the intermediate value theorem.) The method will
11
This section uses material modified from Wikipedia [N].

163
5.17. APPLICATION: NEWTON’S METHOD

usually converge, provided this initial guess is close enough to the unknown zero,
and that f ′ (x0 ) 6= 0. Furthermore, for a zero of multiplicity 1, the convergence
is at least quadratic (see rate of convergence) in a neighbourhood of the zero,
which intuitively means that the number of correct digits roughly at least doubles
in every step. More details can be found in the analysis section below.

Example 5.17.1. Consider the problem of finding the positive number x with
cos(x) = x3 . We can rephrase that as finding the zero of f (x) = cos(x) − x3 . We
have f ′ (x) = − sin(x) − 3x2 . Since cos(x) ≤ 1 for all x and x3 > 1 for x > 1,
we know that our zero lies between 0 and 1. We try a starting value of x0 = 0.5.

f (x0 ) 3
cos(0.5)−0.5
x1 = x0 − f ′ (x0 )
= 0.5 − − sin(0.5)−3×0.52 = 1.112141637097
f (x1 )
x2 = x1 − f ′ (x1 )
= 0.909672693736
f (x2 )
x3 = x2 − f ′ (x2 )
= 0.867263818209
f (x3 )
x4 = x3 − f ′ (x3 )
= 0.865477135298
f (x4 )
x5 = x4 − f ′ (x4 )
= 0.865474033111
f (x5 )
x6 = x5 − f ′ (x5 )
= 0.865474033102

The correct digits are underlined in the above example. In particular, x6 is cor-
rect to the number of decimal places given. We see that the number of correct
digits after the decimal point increases from 2 (for x3 ) to 5 and 10, illustrating the
quadratic convergence.

5.17.2 Analysis
Suppose that the function f has a zero at a, i.e., f (a) = 0.
If f is continuously differentiable and its derivative does not vanish at a, then
there exists a neighborhood of a such that for all starting values x0 in that neigh-
borhood, the sequence {xn } will converge to a.
In practice this result is “local” and the neighborhood of convergence is not
known a priori, but there are also some results on “global convergence.” For
instance, given a right neighborhood U of a, if f is twice differentiable in U and
if f ′ 6= 0, f · f ′′ > 0 in U , then, for each x0 ∈ U the sequence xk is monotonically
decreasing to a.

164
 5.17. APPLICATION: NEWTON’S METHOD

5.17.3 Fractals
For complex functions f : C → C, however, Newton’s method can be directly
applied to find their zeros. For many complex functions, the boundary of the set
(also known as the basin of attraction) of all starting values that cause the method
to converge to a particular zero is a fractal12
For example, the function f (x) = x5 − 1, x ∈ C, has five roots, equally spaced
around the unit circle in the complex plane. If x0 is a starting point which con-
verges to the root at x = 1, color x0 yellow. Repeat this using four other colors
(blue, red, green, purple) for the other four roots of f . The resulting image is in
Figure 5.15.

Figure 5.15: Basins of attraction for x5 − 1 = 0; darker means more iterations to

converge.

12
The definition of a fractal would take us too far afield. Roughly speaking, it is a geometrical
object with certain self-similarity properties [F].

165
5.17. APPLICATION: NEWTON’S METHOD

166
 CHAPTER
SIX

Successive differentiation

6.1 Definition of successive derivatives

We have seen that the derivative, if it exists, of a function of x is also a function
of x. This new function may itself be differentiable, in which case the derivative
of the first derivative is called the second derivative of the original function. Sim-
ilarly, the derivative of the second derivative is called the third derivative; and so
on. Thus, if

y = 3x4 ,
dy

=
dx
12x3 ,
d dy
 ddx dx

= 36x2 ,
d dy
dx dx dx
= 72x,
and so on.

6.2 Notation
The symbols for the successive derivatives are usually abbreviated as follows:
d dy d2 y


dx dx
= dx 2, 
d2 y d3 y
d
 d dy
 d
dx dx dx
= dx dx 2 = dx 3,

 ...
 ...
d dn−1 y dn y
dx dxn−1
= dxn
.

167
6.3. THE N -TH DERIVATIVE

If y = f (x), the successive derivatives are also denoted by

f ′ (x), f ′′ (x), f ′′′ (x), f (4) (x), ..., f (n) (x);

or
y ′ , y ′′ , y ′′′ , y (4) , ..., y (n) ;
or,
d d2 d3 d4 dn
f (x), f (x), f (x), f (x), ..., f (x).
dx dx2 dx3 dx4 dxn

6.3 The n-th derivative

For certain functions a general formula involving n may be found in the expres-
sion for the n-th derivative. To discsover this formula, the usual plan is to find
a number of successive derivatives, as many as may be necessary to discover by
induction the formula. This formula can then (hopefully) be proven by the method
of mathematical induction1 .
d y n
Example 6.3.1. Given y = eax , find dx n.
dy ax d2 y 2 ax dn y n ax
Solution. dx = ae , dx2 = a e , . . . , dx n = a e .
d y n
Example 6.3.2. Given y = log x, find dx n.
2y 3y 4 n
dy d d n−1 (n−1)!
Solution. dx = x1 , dx2 = − x12 , dx3 = 1·2 ,dy =
x3 dx4
1·2·3
x4
, d y
. . . dx n = (−1) xn
.
dn y
Example 6.3.3. Given y = sin x, find dxn
.
dy
= cos x = sin x + π2 ,


Solution. dx

d2 y
 
d  π  π 2π
= sin x + = cos x + = sin x + ,
dx2 dx 2 2 2
d3 y
     
d 2π 2π 3π
= sin x + = cos x + = sin x +
dx3 dx 2 2 2
...
n
d y  nπ 
= sin x + .
dxn 2
1
The mathod of inductin is usually taught in a course after calculus. For
the curious reader, we recommend the discussion and references in Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical induction as a good start.

168
 6.4. LEIBNITZ’S FORMULA FOR THE N -TH DERIVATIVE OF A
PRODUCT
6.4 Leibnitz’s Formula for the n-th derivative of a
product
This formula expresses the n-th derivative of the product of two variables in terms
of the variables themselves and their successive derivatives.
If u and v are functions of x, we have, from equation (4.5) in §4.1 above,
d du dv
(uv) = v+u .
dx dx dx
Differentiating again with respect to x,

d2 d2 u du dv du dv d2 v d2 u du dv d2 v
(uv) = v + + + u = v + 2 + u .
dx2 dx2 dx dx dx dx dx2 dx2 dx dx dx2
Similarly,
d3 3 2 2 2 2 3
dx3
= ddxu3 + ddxu2 dx
(uv) dv
+ 2 ddxu2 dx
dv
+ 2 du d v
dx dx2
+ du d v
dx dx2
d v
+ u dx 3
3 2 2 3
= ddxu3 v + 3 ddxu2 dx
dv
+ 3 du d v
dx dx 2 + u d v
dx 3 .
However far this process may be continued, it will be seen that the numerical co-
efficients follow the same law as those of the Binomial Theorem, and the indices
of the derivatives correspond2 to the exponents of the Binomial Theorem. Rea-
soning then by mathematical induction from the m-th to the (m + 1)-st derivative
of the product, we can prove Leibnitz’s Formula

dn dn u dn−1 u dv n(n − 1) dn−2 u d2 v du dn−1 v dn v

(uv) = v +n + +· · ·+n +u ,
dxn dxn dxn−1 dx 2! dxn−2 dx2 dx dxn−1 dxn
(6.1)
for all n > 0.
d y 3
Example 6.4.1. Given y = ex log x, find dx 3 by Leibnitz’s Formula.
2
Solution. Let u = e , and v = log x; then du
x
dx
dv
= ex , dx = x1 , ddxu2 = ex ,
d2 v 3 d3 v
dx2
= − x12 , ddxu3 = ex , dx 2
3 = x3 .

Substituting in (6.1), we get

d3 y 3ex 3ex
 
x x 3 3 2
= e log x + − 2 = e log x + − 2 + 3 .
dx3 x x x x x
This can be verified using the Sage commands:
2 d0 u d0 v
To make this correspondence complete, u and v are considered as dx0 and dx0 .

169
6.5. SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION OF IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS

Sage

sage: x = var("x")
sage: f = exp(x)*log(x)
sage: diff(f,x,1); diff(f,x,2); diff(f,x,3)
eˆx*log(x) + eˆx/x
eˆx*log(x) + 2*eˆx/x - eˆx/xˆ2
eˆx*log(x) + 3*eˆx/x - 3*eˆx/xˆ2 + 2*eˆx/xˆ3
sage: diff(f*g,x,1)
f(x)*diff(g(x), x, 1) + g(x)*diff(f(x), x, 1)
sage: diff(f*g,x,2)
f(x)*diff(g(x), x, 2)+2*diff(f(x), x, 1)*diff(g(x), x, 1)\
+ g(x)*diff(f(x), x, 2)

n
d y
Example 6.4.2. Given y = x2 eax , find dx n by Leibnitz’s Formula.
2
Solution. Let u = x , and v = e ; then du
2 ax
dx
= 2x, dxdv
= aeax , ddxu2 = 2x,
d2 v 3 d3 v n dn v
dx2
= a2 eax , ddxu3 = 0, dx 3 ax
3 = a e , . . . , ddxnu = 0, dx n ax
n = a e . Substituting in
(6.1), we get

dn y
n
= x2 an eax +2nan−1 xeax +n(n−1)an−2 eax = an−2 eax [x2 a2 +2nax+n(n−1)].
dx

6.5 Successive differentiation of implicit functions

d2 y
To illustrate the process we shall find dx2
from the equation of the hyperbola

b 2 x 2 − a2 y 2 = a2 b 2 .
Differentiating with respect to x, as in §4.33,

dy
2b2 x − 2a2 y = 0,
dx
or,

dy b2 x
= 2 . (6.2)
dx ay

170
 6.5. SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION OF IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS

Differentiating again, remembering that y is a function of x,

dy
d2 y a2 yb2 − b2 xa2 dx
= .
dx2 a4 y 2
dy
Substituting for its value from (6.2),
dx
 2 
2 2 2 2 b y
2
dy a b y − a b x a2 y b2 (b2 x2 − a2 y 2 )
= = − .
dx2 a4 y 2 a4 y 3
The given equation, b2 x2 − a2 y 2 = a2 b2 , therefore gives,

d2 y b4
= − .
dx2 a2 y 3
Sage can be made to do a lot of this work for you (though the notation doesn’t
get any prettier):
Sage

sage: x = var("x")
sage: y = function("y",x)
sage: a = var("a")
sage: b = var("b")
sage: F = xˆ2/aˆ2 - yˆ2/bˆ2 - 1
sage: F.diff(x)
2*x/aˆ2 - 2*y(x)*diff(y(x), x, 1)/bˆ2
sage: F.diff(x,2)
-2*y(x)*diff(y(x), x, 2)/bˆ2 - 2*diff(y(x), x, 1)ˆ2/bˆ2 + 2/aˆ2
sage: solve(F.diff(x) == 0, diff(y(x), x, 1))
[diff(y(x), x, 1) == bˆ2*x/(aˆ2*y(x))]
sage: solve(F.diff(x,2) == 0, diff(y(x), x, 2))
[diff(y(x), x, 2) == (bˆ2 - aˆ2*diff(y(x), x, 1)ˆ2)/(aˆ2*y(x))]

This basically says

dy b2 x
y′ = = 2 ,
dx ay
and
d2 y b2 − a2 (y ′ )2
y ′′ = = − .
dx2 a2 y

171
6.6. EXERCISES

−2 2 2 2
Now simply plug the first equation into the second, obtaining y ′′ = −b2 1−a ab2 yx /y .
Next, use the given equation in the form a−2 b2 x2 /y 2 − 1 = b2 /y 2 to get the result
above.

6.6 Exercises
Verify the following derivatives:

1. y = 4x3 − 6x2 + 4x + 7.
d2 y
Ans. dx2
= 12(2x − 1).
x3
2. f (x) = 1−x
.
4!
Ans. f (4) (x) = (1−x)5
.

3. f (y) = y 6 .
Ans. f (6) (y) = 6!.

4. y = x3 log x.
d4 y
Ans. dx4
= x6 .
c n(n+1)c
5. y = xn
. y ′′ = xn+2
.

6. y = (x − 3)e2x + 4xex + x.
Ans. y ′′ = 4ex [(x − 2)ex + x + 2].
x x
7. y = a2 (e a + e− a ).
1 x x y
Ans. y ′′ = 2a
(e a + e− a ) = a2
.

8. f (x) = ax2 + bx + c.
Ans. f ′′′ (x) = 0.

9. f (x) = log(x + 1).

6
Ans. f (4) (x) = − (x+1) 4.

10. f (x) = log(ex + e−x ).

x −x
Ans. f ′′′ (x) = − 8(e −e )
(ex −e−x )3
.

172
 6.6. EXERCISES

11. r = sin aθ.

d4 r
Ans. dθ4
= a4 sin aθ = a4 r.

12. r = tan φ.
d3 r
Ans. dφ3
= 6 sec6 φ − 4 sec2 φ.

13. r = log sin φ.

Ans. r′′′ = 2 cot φ csc2 φ.

14. f (t) = e−t cos t.

Ans. f (4) (t) = −4e−t cos t = −4f (t).
√
15. f (θ) = sec 2θ.
Ans. f ′′ (θ) = 3[f (θ)]5 − f (θ).

16. p = (q 2 + a2 ) arctan aq .
d3 p 4a3
Ans. dq 3
= (a2 +q 2 )2
.

17. y = ax .
dn y
Ans. dxn
= (log a)n ax .
Sage

sage: a,x = var("a,x")

sage: y = aˆx
sage: diff(y,x); diff(y,x,2); diff(y,x,3); diff(y,x,4)
aˆx*log(a)
aˆx*log(a)ˆ2
aˆx*log(a)ˆ3
aˆx*log(a)ˆ4

18. y = log(1 + x).

dn y (n−1)!
Ans. dxn
= (−1)n−1 (1+x) n.

19. y = cos ax.

dn y nπ
= an cos ax +


Ans. dxn 2
.

173
6.6. EXERCISES

20. y = xn−1 log x.

dn y (n−1)!
Ans. dxn
= x
.
1−x
21. y = 1+x
.
dn y n!
Ans. dxn
= 2(−1)n (1+x) n+1 .

2
Hint: Reduce fraction to form −1 + 1+x
before differentiating.

d2 y dy
22. If y = ex sin x, prove that dx2
− 2 dx + 2y = 0.
d y dy 2
23. If y = a cos(log x) + b sin(log x), prove that x2 dx 2 + x dx + y = 0.

Use Leibnitz’s Formula in the next four examples:

24. y = x2 ax .
dn y
Ans. dxn
= ax (log a)n−2 [(x log a + n)2 − n].

25. y = xex .
dn y
Ans. dxn
= (x + n)ex .

26. f (x) = ex sin x.

√ nπ
Ans. f (n) (x) = ( 2)n ex sin x +


4
.

27. f (θ) = cos aθ cos bθ.

(a+b)n nπ (a−b)n nπ
Ans. f n (θ) =
   
2
cos (a + b)θ + 2
+ 2
cos (a − b)θ + 2
.

28. Show that the formulas for acceleration, (5.28), (5.30), may be written a =
2
d2 s 2
dt2
, ax = ddt2x , ay = ddt2y .

29. y 2 = 4ax.
d2 y 2
Ans. dx2
= − 4a
y3
.

30. b2 x2 + a2 y 2 = a2 b2 .
d2 y 4 d3 y 6
Ans. dx2
= − a2by3 ; dx2
= − a3b4 yx5 .

d2 y 2
31. x2 + y 2 = r2 . dx2
= − yr 3 .

174
 6.6. EXERCISES

32. y 2 + y = x2 .
d3 y 24x
Ans. dx3
= − (1+2y) 5.

33. ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 1.

d2 y h2 −ab
Ans. dx2
= (hx+by)3
.

34. y 2 − 2xy = a2 .
d2 y a2 3 2
Ans. dx2
= ;dy
(y−x)3 dx3
3a x
= − (y−x) 5.

35. sec φ cos θ = c.

d2 θ tan2 θ−tan2 φ
Ans. dφ2
= tan3 θ
.

36. θ = tan(φ + θ).

2 4
d3 θ
Ans. dφ3
= − 2(5+8θθ8 +3θ ) .

37. Find the second derivative in the following:

(a) log(u + v) = u − v. (e) y 3 + x3 − 3axy = 0.

(b) eu + u = ev + v. (f ) y 2 − 2mxy + x2 − a = 0.
(c) s = 1 + tes . (g) y = sin(x + y).
(d) es + st − e = 0. (h) ex+y = xy.

175
6.6. EXERCISES

176
 CHAPTER
SEVEN

Maxima, minima and inflection points

7.1 Introduction
Many practical problems occur where we have to deal with functions that have
a maximum value (or a minimum value) and it is important to know where the
extreme values of the function occur.

Example 7.1.1. A wooden box is to be built to contain 108 ft3 . It is to have an

open top and a square base. What must be its dimensions in order that the amount
of material required shall be a minimum; that is, what dimensions will make the
cost the least?
Let x denote the length of side of square base in feet, and y denote the height of
box. Since the volume of the box is given, y may be found in terms of x. Thus
volume = x2 y = 108, so y = 108 x2
. Let M denote the number of square feet of
lumber required as a function of x. We compute M explicitly as follows:

area of base = x2 sq. ft.,

area of four sides = 4xy = 432 x
sq. ft.

Hence
432
M = M (x) = x2 +
x
is a formula giving the number of square feet required in any such box having a
capacity of 108 ft3 . Draw a graph of M (x).

177
7.1. INTRODUCTION

Figure 7.1: A box with square x × x base, height y = 108/x2 , and fixed volume.

432
Figure 7.2: Sage plot of y = x2 + x
, 1 < x < 10.

What do we learn from the graph?

(a) If the box is carefully drawn, we may measure the ordinate corresponding to
any length (= x) of the side of the square base and so determine the number of

178
 7.1. INTRODUCTION

square feet of lumber required.

(b) There is one horizontal tangent (RS). The ordinate from its point of contact T
is less than any other ordinate. Hence this discovery: One of the boxes evidently
takes less lumber than any of the others. In other words, we may infer that the
function defined by M = M (x) has a minimum value. Let us find this point on
the graph exactly, using our Calculus. Differentiating M (x) to get the slope at any
point, we have

dM 432
= 2x − 2 .
dx x
At the lowest point T the slope will be zero. Hence

432
2x − = 0;
x2
that is, when x = 6 the least amount of lumber will be needed.
Substituting in M (x), we see that this is M = 108 sq. ft.
In addition to the graph, the fact that a least value of M exists can be intuitively
deduced by the following argument. Let the base increase from a very small
square to a very large one. In the former case the height must be very great and
therefore the amount of lumber required will be large. In the latter case, while the
height is small, the base will take a great deal of lumber. Our intuition tells that
M therefore varies from a large value, decreases for a while, then increases again
to another large value. It follows, then, that the graph of y = M (x) must have a
“lowest” point corresponding to the dimensions which require the least amount of
lumber, and therefore would involve the least cost.
Here is how to compute the critical points of M in Sage :
Sage

sage: x = var("x")
sage: M = xˆ2 + 432/x
sage: solve(M.diff(x)==0,x)
[x == 3*sqrt(3)*I - 3, x == -3*sqrt(3)*I - 3, x == 6]

This says that (x2 + 432/x)′ = 0 has three roots, but only one real root - the one
reported above at x = 6.

179
7.1. INTRODUCTION

Figure 7.3: A rectangle with circumscribed circle.

Example 7.1.2. For instance, suppose that it is required to find the dimensions of
the rectangle of greatest area that can be inscribed in a circle of radius 5 inches.
Consider the circle in Figure 7.3:
Inscribe any rectangle,
√ as BCDE, where CD is the base and DE is the height. Let
CD = x, so DE = 100 − x2 , and the area of the rectangle is evidently
√
A = A(x) = x 100 − x2 .

180
 7.1. INTRODUCTION

That a rectangle of maximum area must exist may be seen as follows: Let the
base CD (= x) increase to 10 inches (the diameter); then the altitude DE (=
√
100 − x2 ) will decrease to zero and the area will become zero. Now let the base
decrease to zero; then the altitude will increase to 10 inches and the area will again
become zero. It is therefore intuitively evident that there exists in-between these
extremes a rectangle of greatest area. By a careful study of the figure we might
suspect that when the rectangle becomes a square its area would be the greatest,
but this would be mere guesswork1 . A better way would be to plot the graph of
the function y = A(x) and note its behavior. To aid us in drawing the graph of
A(x), we observe that

(a) from the nature of the problem it is clear that x and A(x) must both be
positive; and

(b) the values of x range from zero to 10 inclusive.

Now draw the graph (we have used Sage in Figure 7.4).
What do we learn from the graph?

(a) If the rectangle is carefully drawn, we may approximate the area of the
rectangle corresponding to any value x by measuring the length of the cor-
responding ordinate. For example, when x = 3 inches, then the area is
about A(x) ≈ 28.6 inches2 ; and when x 29 inches, then the area is about
A(x) ≈ 39.8 inches2 .

(b) There is one horizontal tangent to the curve y = A(x).

The y-coordinate at the point T there this tangent contacts the curve is greater
than any other y-coordinate on the curve. We deduce from this that one of the
inscribed rectangles has a greater area than any of the others. In other words, we
may infer from this that the function defined by y = A(x) has a maximum value.
We can find this value very easily to using calculus. We observed that at T the
tangent was horizontal, hence the slope will be zero at that point (Example 5.1.2).
To find the x-coordinate of T we find the first derivative of A(x), set it equal to
zero, and solve for x:
1
Reasoning that “by symmetry we must have base = height” happens to work in this particular
example (as we will see) but, surprisingly enough, does not hold in general.

181
7.1. INTRODUCTION

Figure 7.4: The area of a rectangle with fixed circumscribed circle.

√
A = x 100 − x2 ,
dA 2
dx
= √100−2x
100−x2
,
100−2x2
√
100−x2
= 0.

√ √ √
Solving this gives x = 5 2. Substituting back, we get DE = 100 − x2 = 5 2.
Hence the rectangle √of maximum
√ area inscribed in the circle is a square of area
A = CD × DE = 5 2 × 5 2 = 50 square inches. The length of HT is therefore
50.

We will now proceed to the treatment in detail of the subject of maxima and
minima.

182
 7.2. INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

7.2 Increasing and decreasing functions

A function is said to be increasing when it increases as the variable increases and
decreases as the variable decreases. A function is said to be decreasing when it
decreases as the variable increases and increases as the variable decreases.
The graph of a function indicates plainly whether it is increasing or decreasing.

Example 7.2.1. (1) Consider the function y = ax , a > 1, whose graph is

shown in Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5: Sage plot of y = 2x , −1 < x < 1.

As we move along the curve from left to right the curve is rising; that is, as
x increases the function y = ax always increases. Therefore ax (a > 1) is
an increasing function for all values of x.

(2) On the other hand, consider the function (a − x)3 whose graph (Figure 7.6)
is the locus of the equation y = (a − x)3 .

183
7.2. INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

Figure 7.6: Sage plot of y = (2 − x)3 , 1 < x < 3.

Now as we move along the curve from left to right the curve is falling;
that is, as x increases, the function y = (a − x)3 always decreases. Hence
(a − x)3 is a decreasing function for all values of x.

(3) That a function may be sometimes increasing and sometimes decreasing is

shown by the graph (Figure 7.7) of

y = 2x3 − 9x2 + 12x − 3.

Figure 7.7: Sage plot of y = 2x3 − 9x2 + 12x − 3, 0 < x < 3.

As we move along the curve from left to right the curve rises until we reach

184
 7.3. TESTS FOR DETERMINING WHEN A FUNCTION IS INCREASING
OR DECREASING
the point when x = 1, then it falls from that point to the point when x = 2,
and to the right of x = 2 it is always increasing. Hence

(a) from x = −∞ to x = 1 the function is increasing;

(b) from x = 1 to x = 2 the function is decreasing;
(c) from x = 2 to x = +∞ the function is increasing.

The student should study the curve carefully in order to note the behavior
of the function when x = 1 and x = 2. At x = 1 the function ceases to
increase and commences to decrease; at x = 2, the reverse is true. At x = 1
and at x = 2 the tangent to the curve is parallel to the x-axis, and therefore
the slope is zero.

7.3 Tests for determining when a function is increas-

ing or decreasing
It is evident from Figure 7.7 that at a point where a function

y = f (x)
is increasing, the tangent in general makes an acute angle with the x-axis, so

dy
slope = tan τ = dx
= f ′ (x) = a positive number.

Similarly, at a point where a function is decreasing, the tangent in general makes

an obtuse angle with the x-axis; therefore2

dy
slope = tan τ = dx
= f ′ (x) = a negative number.

It follows from this that in order for a differentiable function to change from an
increasing to a decreasing function, or vice versa, it is a necessary and sufficient
condition that the first derivative changes sign. But this can only happen for a
continuous derivative by passing through the value zero. Thus in Figure 7.7 as
2
Conversely, for any given value of x, if f ′ (x) > 0, then f (x) is increasing; if f ′ (x) < 0,
then f (x) is decreasing. When f ′ (x) = 0, we cannot decide without further investigation whether
f (x) is increasing or decreasing.

185
7.4. MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES OF A FUNCTION

we pass along the curve the derivative (= slope) changes sign at the points where
x = 1 and x = 2. In general, then, we have at these “turning points,”

dy
= f ′ (x) = 0.
dx
A value of y = f (x) satisfying this condition is called a critical point of the
function f (x).

Remark 7.3.1. The derivative is continuous in nearly all our important appli-
cations, but it is interesting to note the case when the derivative (= slope) of y
changes sign by “passing through ∞” (that is, its reciprocal 1/y passes through
the value zero). This would evidently happen at the points on a curve where the
tangent is perpendicular to the x-axis. At such “turning points” we have

dy
= f ′ (x) = inf;
dx
or, what amounts to the same thing,

1
= 0.
f ′ (x)
For example, the function y = 1/x2 has a “turning point” at x = 0, where the
slope is infinite but the function changes from being increasing (for x < 0) to
decreasing (for x > 0).

7.4 Maximum and minimum values of a function

A maximum value of a function is one that is greater than any values immediately
preceding or following. A minimum value of a function is one that is less than any
values immediately preceding or following.
For example, in Figure 7.7, it is clear that the function has a maximum value
(y = 2) when x = 1, and a minimum value (y = l) when x = 2.
The student should observe that a maximum value is not necessarily the greatest
possible value of a function nor a minimum value the least. For in Figure 7.7 it is
seen that the function (= y) has values to the right of x = 1 that are greater than
the maximum 2, and values to the left of x = 1 that are less than the minimum 1.
A function may have several maximum and minimum values. Suppose that
Figure 7.8 represents the graph of a function f (x).

186
 7.4. MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES OF A FUNCTION

Figure 7.8: A continuous function.

At B, F the function is at a local maximum, and at D, G a minimum. That

some particular minimum value of a function may be greater than some particular
maximum value is shown in the figure, the minimum value at D being greater than
the maximum value at G.
At the ordinary critical points D, F, H the tangent (or curve) is parallel to the
x-axis; therefore

dy
slope = = f ′ (x) = 0.
dx
At the exceptional critical points A, B, G the tangent (or curve) is perpendicular
to the x-axis, giving

dy
slope = = f ′ (x) = ∞.
dx
One of these two conditions is then necessary in order that the function shall
have a maximum or a minimum value. But such a condition is not sufficient; for
at H the slope is zero and at A it is infinite, and yet the function has neither a
maximum nor a minimum value at either point. It is necessary for us to know,
in addition, how the function behaves in the neighborhood of each point. Thus
at the points of maximum value, B, F, the function changes from an increasing
to a decreasing function, and at the points of minimum value, D, G, the function

187
7.4. MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES OF A FUNCTION

changes from a decreasing to an increasing function. It therefore follows from

§7.3 that at maximum points
dy
slope = dx
= f ′ (x) must change from + to -,

and at minimum points

dy
slope = dx
= f ′ (x) must change from - to +

when we move along the curve from left to right.

At such points as A and H where the slope is zero or infinite, but which are
neither maximum nor minimum points,
dy
slope = dx
= f ′ (x) does not change sign.

We may then state the conditions in general for maximum and minimum values
of f (x) for certain values of the variable as follows:

f (x) is a maximum if f ′ (x) = 0, and f ′ (x) changes from + to − . (7.1)

f (x) is a minimum if f ′ (x) = 0, and f ′ (x) changes from − to + . (7.2)

The values of the variable at the turning points of a function are called critical
values; thus x = 1 and x = 2 are the critical values of the variable for the function
whose graph is shown in Figure 7.7. The critical values at turning points where the
tangent is parallel to the x-axis are evidently found by placing the first derivative
equal to zero and solving for real values of x, just as under §5.1. (Similarly, if
we wish to examine a function at exceptional turning points where the tangent is
perpendicular to the x-axis, we set the reciprocal of the first derivative equal to
zero and solve to find critical values.)
To determine the sign of the first derivative at points near a particular turning
point, substitute in it, first, a value of the variable just a little less than the corre-
sponding critical value, and then one a little greater3 . If the first gives + (as at L,
Figure 7.8) and the second - (as at M), then the function (= y) has a maximum
3
In this connection the term “little less,” or “trifle less,” means any value between the next
smaller root (critical value) and the one under consideration; and the term “little greater,” or “trifle
greater,” means any value between the root under consideration and the next larger one.

188
 7.5. EXAMINING A FUNCTION FOR EXTREMAL VALUES: FIRST
METHOD
value in that interval (as at I). If the first gives − (as at P) and the second + (as at
N), then the function (= y) has a minimum value in that interval (as at C).
If the sign is the same in both cases (as at Q and R), then the function (= y) has
neither a maximum nor a minimum value in that interval (as at F)4 .
We shall now summarize our results into a compact working rule.

7.5 Examining a function for extremal values: first

method
Working rule, sometimes referred to as the sign test of the first derivative.

• FIRST STEP. Find the first derivative of the function.

• SECOND STEP. Set the first derivative equal to zero5 and solve the resulting
equation for real roots in order to find the critical values of the variable.

• THIRD STEP. Write the derivative in factored form if possible.

• FOURTH STEP. Considering one critical value at a time, test the first deriva-
tive, first for a value a trifle less and then for a value a trifle greater than the
critical value. If the sign of the derivative is first + and then −, the function
has a maximum value for that particular critical value of the variable; but if
the reverse is true, then it has a minimum value. If the sign does not change,
the function has neither.

Remark 7.5.1. It can be helpful to draw a sign graph for the values of the deriva-
tive. This is a sketch of the real axis, with tick marks at the critical points, labeling
an interval in-between successive critical points with a “+” if the derivative is pos-
itive there, and labeling such an interval with a “−” otherwise.
Example 7.5.1. In the problem worked out in Example 7.1.2, we showed by
means of the graph of the function
√
A = x 100 − x2
4
A similar discussion will evidently hold for the exceptional turning points B, E, and A respec-
tively.
5
When the first derivative becomes infinite for a certain value of the independent variable, then
the function should be examined for such a critical value of the variable, for it may give maximum
or minimum values, as at B, E, or A (Figure 7.8). See footnote in §7.3.

189
7.5. EXAMINING A FUNCTION FOR EXTREMAL VALUES: FIRST
METHOD
that the rectangle of maximum area inscribed in a circle of radius 5 inches con-
tained 50 square inches. This may now be proved analytically as follows by ap-
plying the above rule. √
Solution. Let f (x) = x 100 − x2 .
2
First step. Compute f ′ (x) = √100−2x
100−x2
.
100−2x 2 √
Second step. √100−x2 = 0 implies x = 5 2, which is the critical value. Only
the positive sign of the radical is taken, since, from the nature of the problem, the
negative sign has no meaning.√ √
Third step. f ′ (x) = 2(5 √ 2−x)(5 2+x) .
(10−x)(10+x)
√ 2(+)(+)
√
Fourth step. When x < 5 2, f ′ (x) = √ = +. When x > 5 2,
(+)(+)
′ 2(+)(+)
f (x) = √ = −.
(−)(+)
√
Since the sign of the first derivative changes from + to − at x = 5 2, the
function has a maximum value
√ √ √
f (5 2) = 5 2 · 5 2 = 50.
In Sage :
Sage

sage: x = var("x")
sage: f(x) = x*sqrt(100 - xˆ2)
sage: f1(x) = diff(f(x),x); f1(x)
sqrt(100 - xˆ2) - xˆ2/sqrt(100 - xˆ2)
sage: crit_pts = solve(f1(x) == 0,x); crit_pts
[x == -5*sqrt(2), x == 5*sqrt(2)]
sage: x0 = crit_pts[1].rhs(); x0
5*sqrt(2)
sage: f(x0)
50
sage: RR(f1(x0-0.1))>0
True
sage: RR(f1(x0+0.1))<0
True

√
This tells us that x0 = 5 2 is a critical point, at which the area is 50 square inches

190
 7.6. EXAMINING A FUNCTION FOR EXTREMAL VALUES: SECOND
METHOD
and at which the area changes from increasing to decreasing. This implies that the
area is a maximum at this point.

7.6 Examining a function for extremal values: sec-

ond method
From (7.1), it is clear that in the vicinity of a maximum value of f (x), in passing
along the graph from left to right, f ′ (x) changes from + to 0 to −. Hence f ′ (x)
is a decreasing function, and by §7.3 we know that its derivative, i.e. the second
derivative (= f ′′ (x)) of the function itself, is negative or zero.
Similarly, we have, from (7.2), that in the vicinity of a minimum value of f (x)
f ′ (x) changes from − to 0 to +. Hence f ′ (x) is an increasing function and by
§7.3 it follows that f ′′ (x) is positive or zero.
The student should observe that f ′′ (x) is positive not only at minimum values
but also at “nearby” points, P say, to the right of such a critical point. For, as
dy
a point passes through P in moving from left to right, slope = tan τ = dx =
′
f (x) is an increasing function. At such a point the curve is said to be concave
upwards. Similarly, f ′′ (x) is negative not only at maximum points but also at
“nearby ”points, Q say, to the left of such a critical point. For, as a point passes
dy
through Q, slope = tan τ = dx = f ′ (x) is a decreasing function. At such a point
the curve is said to be concave downwards.
At a point where the curve is concave upwards we sometimes say that the curve
has a “positive bending,]] and where it is concave downwards a “negative bend-
ing.”
We may then state the sufficient conditions for maximum and minimum values
of f (x) for certain values of the variable as follows:

f (x) is a maximum if f ′ (x) = 0 and f ′′ (x) = a negative number. (7.3)

f (x) is a minimum if f ′ (x) = 0 and f ′′ (x) = a positive number. (7.4)

Following is the corresponding working rule, sometimes referred to as the second

derivative test.

• FIRST STEP. Find the first derivative of the function.

191
7.6. EXAMINING A FUNCTION FOR EXTREMAL VALUES: SECOND
METHOD
• SECOND STEP. Set the first derivative equal to zero and solve the resulting
equation for real roots in order to find the critical values of the variable.

• THIRD STEP. Find the second derivative.

• FOURTH STEP. Substitute each critical value for the variable in the second
derivative. If the result is negative, then the function is a maximum for that
critical value; if the result is positive, the function is a minimum.

When f ′′ (x) = 0, or does not exist, the above process fails, although there may
even then be a maximum or a minimum; in that case the first method given in
the last section still holds, being fundamental. Usually this second method does
apply, and when the process of finding the second derivative is not too long or
tedious, it is generally the shortest method.

Example 7.6.1. Let us now apply the above rule to test analytically the function
432
M = x2 +
x
found in Example 7.1.1.
Solution. Let f (x) = x2 + 432x
.
First step. Compute f (x) = 2x − 432
′
x2
.
Second step. Solve 2x − 432x2
= 0. (In Example 7.1.1 we got x = 6.)
′′ 864
Third step. Compute f (x) = 2 + x3 .
Fourth step. Use the second derivative test. f ′′ (6) = +. Hence f (6) = 108,
minimum value.
In Sage :
Sage

sage: x = var("x")
sage: f(x) = xˆ2 + 432/x
sage: f1(x) = diff(f(x),x); f1(x)
2*x - 432/xˆ2
sage: f2(x) = diff(f(x),x,2); f2(x)
864/xˆ3 + 2
sage: crit_pts = solve(f1(x) == 0,x); crit_pts
[x == 3*sqrt(3)*I - 3, x == -3*sqrt(3)*I - 3, x == 6]
sage: x0 = crit_pts[2].rhs(); x0
6

192
 7.6. EXAMINING A FUNCTION FOR EXTREMAL VALUES: SECOND
METHOD
sage: f2(x0)
6
sage: f(x0)
108

This tells us that x0 = 6 is a critical point and that f ′′ (x0 ) > 0, so it is a minimum.

The work of finding maximum and minimum values may frequently be simpli-
fied by the aid of the following principles, which follow at once from our discus-
sion of the subject.

(a) The (local) maximum and minimum values of a continuous function must
occur alternately. (In particular, you cannot have two local maximums with-
out having a minimum in-between them.)

(b) If c is a positive constant, c · f (x) is a maximum or a minimum for a given

value of x if and only if f (x) is a maximum or a minimum at x.
Consequently, in determining the critical values and testing for maxima and
minima, any constant factor may be omitted.
When c is negative, c · f (x) is a maximum if and only if f (x) is a minimum,
and conversely.

(c) If c is a constant, f (x) and c + f (x) have maximum and minimum values
for the same values of x.
Hence a constant term may be omitted when finding critical values of x and
testing.

In general we must first construct, from the conditions given in the problem,
the function whose maximum and minimum values are required, as was done in
the two examples worked out in §7.1. This is sometimes a problem of consider-
able difficulty. No rule applicable in all cases can be given for constructing the
function, but in a large number of problems we may be guided by the following
general directions.

(a) Express the function whose maximum or minimum is involved in the prob-
lem.

193
7.7. PROBLEMS

(b) If the resulting expression contains more than only variable, the conditions
of the problem will furnish enough relations between the variables so that
all may be expressed in terms of a single one.

(c) To the resulting function of a single variable apply one of our two rules for
finding maximum and minimum values.

(d) In practical problems it is usually easy to tell which critical value will give
a maximum and which a minimum value, so it is not always necessary to
apply the fourth step of our rules.

(e) Draw the graph of the function in order to check the work.

7.7 Problems
1. It is desired to make an open-top box of greatest possible volume from a
square piece of tin whose side is a, by cutting equal squares out of the
corners and then folding up the tin to form the sides. What should be the
length of a side of the squares cut out?
Solution. Let x = side of small square = depth of box; then a − 2x = side of
square forming bottom of box, and volume is V = (a − 2x)2 x, which is the
function to be made a maximum by varying x. Applying rule:
dV
First step. dx
= (a − 2x)2 − 4x(a − 2x) = a2 − 8ax + 12x2 .
a
Second step. Solving a2 − 8ax + 12x2 = 0 gives critical values x = 2
and
a
6
.
It is evident that x = a2 must give a minimum, for then all the tin would
be cut away, leaving no material out of which to make a box. By the usual
3
test, x = a6 is found to give a maximum volume 2a 27
. Hence the side of the
square to be cut out is one sixth of the side of the given square.
The drawing of the graph of the function in this and the following problems
is left to the student.

2. Assuming that the strength of a beam with rectangular cross section varies
directly as the breadth and as the square of the depth, what are the dimen-
sions of the strongest beam that can be sawed out of a round log whose
diameter is d?

194
 7.7. PROBLEMS

Solution. If x = breadth and y = depth, then the beam will have maximum
strength when the function xy 2 is a maximum. From the construction and
the Pythagorean theorem, y 2 = d2 − x2 ; hence we should test the function

f (x) = x(d2 − x2 ).
First step. f ′ (x) = −2x2 + d2 − x2 = d2 − 3x2 .
Second step. d2 − 3x2 = 0. Therefore, x = √d = critical value which gives
3
a maximum.
q
Therefore, if the beam is cut so that depth = 23 of diameter of log, and
q
breadth = 13 of diameter of log, the beam will have maximum strength.

3. What is the width of the rectangle of maximum area that can be inscribed
in a given segment OAA′ of a parabola?

Figure 7.9: An inscribed rectangle in a parabola, P = (x, y).

HINT. If OC = h, BC = h − x and P P ′ = 2y; therefore the area of

rectangle P DD′ P ′ is 2(h − x)y.
But since√P lies on the parabola y 2 = 2px, the function to be tested is
2(h − x) 2px

195
7.7. PROBLEMS

Ans. Width = 23 h.

4. Find the altitude of the cone of maximum volume that can be inscribed in a
sphere of radius r (see Figure 7.10).

Figure 7.10: An inscribed cone, height y and base radius x, in a sphere.

HINT. Volume of cone = 31 πx2 y. But x2 = BC ×CD = y(2r−y); therefore

the function to be tested is f (y) = π3 y 2 (2r − y).
Ans. Altitude of cone = 43 r.

5. Find the altitude of the cylinder of maximum volume that can be inscribed
in a given right cone (see Figure 7.11).
HINT. Let AU = r and BC = h. Volume of cylinder = πx2 y. But from
similar triangles ABC and DBG, r/x = h/(h − y), so x = r(h−y)
h
. Hence
r2 2
the function to be tested is f (y) = h2 y(h − y) .
Ans. Altitude = 13 h.

6. Divide a into two parts such that their product is a maximum.

Ans. Each part = a2 .

196
 7.7. PROBLEMS

Figure 7.11: An inscribed cylinder in a cone.

7. Divide 10 into two such parts that the sum of the double of one and square
of the other may be a minimum.
Ans. 9 and 1.

8. Find the number that exceeds its square by the greatest possible quantity.
Ans. 21 .

9. What number added to its reciprocal gives the least possible sum?
Ans. 1.

10. Assuming that the stiffness of a beam of rectangular cross section varies

197
7.7. PROBLEMS

directly as the breadth and the cube of the depth, what must be the breadth
of the stiffest beam that can be cut from a log 16 inches in diameter?
Ans. Breadth = 8 inches.
11. A water tank is to be constructed with a square base and open top, and is
to hold 64 cubic yards. If the cost of the sides is $ 1 a square yard, and of
the bottom $ 2 a square yard, what are the dimensions when the cost is a
minimum? What is the minimum cost?
Ans. Side of base = 4 yd., height = 4 yd., cost $ 96.
12. A rectangular tract of land is to be bought for the purpose of laying out a
quarter-mile track with straightaway sides and semicircular ends. In addi-
tion a strip 35 yards wide along each straightaway is to be bought for grand
stands, training quarters, etc. If the land costs $ 200 an acre, what will be
the maximum cost of the land required?
Ans. $ 856.
13. A torpedo boat is anchored 9 miles from the nearest point of a beach, and
it is desired to send a messenger in the shortest possible time to a military
camp situated 15 miles from that point along the shore. If he can walk 5
miles an hour but row only 4 miles an hour, required the place he must land.
Ans. 3 miles from the camp.
14. A gas holder is a cylindrical vessel closed at the top and open at the bottom,
where it sinks into the water. What should be its proportions for a given
volume to require the least material (this would also give least weight)?
Ans. Diameter = double the height.
15. What should be the dimensions and weight of a gas holder of 8, 000, 000
cubic feet capacity, built in the most economical manner out of sheet iron
1
16
of an inch thick and weighing 52 lb. per sq. ft.?
Ans. Height = 137 ft., diameter = 273 ft., weight = 220 tons.
16. A sheet of paper is to contain 18 sq. in. of printed matter. The margins
at the top and bottom are to be 2 inches each and at the sides 1 inch each.
Determine the dimensions of the sheet which will require the least amount
of paper.
Ans. 5 in. by 10 in.

198
 7.7. PROBLEMS

17. A paper-box manufacturer has in stock a quantity of cardboard 30 inches

by 14 inches. Out of this material he wishes to make open-top boxes by
cutting equal squares out of each corner and then folding up to form the
sides. Find the side of the square that should be cut out in order to give the
boxes maximum volume.
Ans. 3 inches.
18. A roofer wishes to make an open gutter of maximum capacity whose bottom
and sides are each 4 inches wide and whose sides have the same slope. What
should be the width across the top?
Ans. 8 inches. 4
19. Assuming that the energy expended in driving a steamboat through the wa-
ter varies as the cube of her velocity, find her most economical rate per hour
when steaming against a current running c miles per hour.
HINT. Let v = most economical speed; then av 3 = energy expended each
hour, a being a constant depending upon the particular conditions, and v − c
av 3
= actual distance advanced per hour. Hence v−c is the energy expended per
mile of distance advanced, and it is therefore the function whose minimum
is wanted.
20. Prove that a conical tent of a √given capacity will require the least amount
of canvas when the height is 2 times the radius of the base. Show that
when the canvas is laid out flat it will be a circle with a sector of 1520 9′ =
2.6555... cut out. A bell tent 10 ft. high should then have a base of diameter
14 ft. and would require 272 sq. ft. of canvas.
21. A cylindrical steam boiler is to be constructed having a capacity of 1000 cu.
ft. The material for the side costs $ 2 a square foot, and for the ends $ 3 a
square foot. Find radius when the cost is the least.
1
Ans. √
3
3π
ft.
22. In the corner of a field bounded by two perpendicular roads a spring is
situated 6 rods from one road and 8 rods from the other.
(a) How should a straight road be run by this spring and across the corner
so as to cut off as little of the field as possible?
(b) What would be the length of the shortest road that could be run across?
2 2 3
Ans. (a) 12 and 16 rods from corner. (b) (6 3 + 8 3 ) 2 rods.

199
7.7. PROBLEMS

23. Show that a square is the rectangle of maximum perimeter that can be in-
scribed in a given circle.

24. Two poles of height a and b feet are standing upright and are c feet apart.
Find the point on the line joining their bases such that the sum of the squares
of the distances from this point to the tops of the poles is a minimum. (Ans.
Midway between the poles.) When will the sum of these distances be a
minimum?

25. A conical tank with open top is to be built to contain V cubic feet. Deter-
mine the shape if the material used is a minimum.

26. An isosceles triangle has a base 12 in. long and altitude 10 in. Find the rect-
angle of maximum area that can be inscribed in it, one side of the rectangle
coinciding with the base of the triangle.

27. Divide the number 4 into two such parts that the sum of the cube of one part
and three times the square of the other shall have a maximum value.

28. Divide the number a into two parts such that the product of one part by the
fourth power of the other part shall be a maximum.

29. A can buoy in the form of a double cone is to be made from two equal
circular iron plates of radius r. Find the radius of the base of the cone when
the buoy has the greatest displacement (maximum volume).
q
Ans. r 23 .

30. Into a full conical wineglass of depth a and generating angle a there is care-
fully dropped a sphere of such size as to cause the greatest overflow. Show
that the radius of the sphere is sinααsin α
cos 2α
.

31. A wall 27 ft. high is 8 ft. from a house. Find the length of the shortest
ladder that will reach the house if one end rests on the ground outside of the
wall.
√
Ans. 13 13.
Here’s how to solve this using Sage : Let h be the height above ground at
which the ladder hits the house and let d be the distance from the wall that
the ladder hits the ground on the other side of the wall. By similar triangles,

200
 7.7. PROBLEMS

h/27 = (8 + d)/d = 1 + d8 , so d + 8 = 8 h−27

h
. The length of the ladder is,
p q
h
by the Pythagorean theorem, f (h) = h + (8 + d) = h2 + (8 h−27
2 2 )2 .

Sage

sage: h = var("h")
sage: f(h) = sqrt(hˆ2+(8*h/(h-27))ˆ2)
sage: f1(h) = diff(f(h),h)
sage: f2(h) = diff(f(h),h,2)
sage: crit_pts = solve(f1(h) == 0,h); crit_pts
[h == 21 - 6*sqrt(3)*I, h == 6*sqrt(3)*I + 21, h == 39, h == 0]
sage: h0 = crit_pts[2].rhs(); h0
39
sage: f(h0)
13*sqrt(13)
sage: f2(h0)
3/(4*sqrt(13))

This says f (h) has four critical points, but only one of which is meaningful,
h0 = 39. At this point, f (h) is a minimum.

32. A vessel is anchored 3 miles offshore, and opposite a point 5 miles further
along the shore another vessel is anchored 9 miles from the shore. A boat
from the first vessel is to land a passenger on the shore and then proceed to
the other vessel. What is the shortest course of the boat?
Ans. 13 miles.

33. A steel girder 25 ft. long is moved on rollers along a passageway 12.8 ft.
wide and into a corridor at right angles to the passageway. Neglecting the
width of the girder, how wide must the corridor be?
Ans. 5.4 ft.

34. A miner wishes to dig a tunnel from a point A to a point B 300 feet below
and 500 feet to the east of A. Below the level of A it is bed rock and above
A is soft earth. If the cost of tunneling through earth is $ 1 and through rock
$ 3 per linear foot, find the minimum cost of a tunnel.
Ans. $ 1348.53.

201
7.7. PROBLEMS

35. A carpenter has 108 sq. ft. of lumber with which to build a box with a
square base and open top. Find the dimensions of the largest possible box
he can make.
Ans. 6 × 6 × 3.

36. Find the right triangle of maximum area that can be constructed on a line of
length h as hypotenuse.
Ans. √h = length of both legs.
2

37. What is the isosceles triangle of maximum area that can be inscribed in a
given circle?
Ans. An equilateral triangle.

38. Find the altitude of the maximum rectangle that can be inscribed in a right
triangle with base b and altitude h.
Ans. Altitude = h2 .

39. Find the dimensions of the rectangle of maximum area that can be inscribed
in the ellipse b2 x2 + a2 y 2 = a2 b2 .
√ √
Ans. a 2 × b 2; area = 2ab.

40. Find the altitude of the right cylinder of maximum volume that can be in-
scribed in a sphere of radius r.
2r
Ans. Altitude of cylinder = √
3
.

41. Find the altitude of the right cylinder of maximum convex (curved) surface
that can be inscribed in a given sphere.
√
Ans. Altitude of cylinder = r 2.

42. What are the dimensions of the right hexagonal prism of minimum surface
whose volume is 36 cubic feet?
√
Ans. Altitude = 2 3; side of hexagon = 2.

43. Find the altitude of the right cone of minimum volume circumscribed about
a given sphere.
Ans. Altitude = 4r, and volume = 2× vol. of sphere.

202
 7.7. PROBLEMS

44. A right cone of maximum volume is inscribed in a given right cone, the
vertex of the inside cone being at the center of the base of the given cone.
Show that the altitude of the inside cone is one third the altitude of the given
cone.

45. Given a point on the axis of the parabola y 2 = 2px at a distance a from the
vertex; find the abscissa of the point of the curve nearest to it.
Ans. x = a − p.

46. What is the length of the shortest line that can be drawn tangent to the ellipse
b2 x2 + a2 y 2 = a2 b2 and meeting the coordinate axes?
Ans. a + b.

47. A Norman window consists of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircle.

Given the perimeter, required the height and breadth of the window when
the quantity of light admitted is a maximum.
Ans. Radius of circle = height of rectangle.

48. A tapestry 7 feet in height is hung on a wall so that its lower edge is 9
feet above an observer’s eye. At what distance from the wall should he
stand in order to obtain the most favorable view? (HINT. The vertical angle
subtended by the tapestry in the eye of the observer must be at a maximum.)
Ans. 12 feet.

49. What are the most economical proportions of a tin can which shall have a
given capacity, making allowance for waste? (HINT. There is no waste in
cutting out tin for the side of the can, but for top and bottom a hexagon of
tin circumscribing the circular pieces required is used up. NOTE 1. If no
allowance is made for waste, then height = diameter. NOTE 2. We know
that the shape of a bee cell is hexagonal, giving a certain capacity for honey
with the greatest possible economy of wax.)
√
2 3
Ans. Height = π
× diameter of base.

50. An open cylindrical trough is constructed by bending a given sheet of tin at

breadth 2a. Find the radius of the cylinder of which the trough forms a part
when the capacity of the trough is a maximum.
2a
Ans. Rad. = π
; i.e. it must be bent in the form of a semicircle.

203
7.7. PROBLEMS

51. A weight W is to be raised by means of a lever with the force F at one end
and the point of support at the other. If the weight is suspended from a point
at a distance a from the point of support, and the weight of the beam is w
pounds per linear foot, what should be the length of the lever in order that
the force required to lift it shall be a minimum?
q
Ans. x = 2aW w
feet.

52. An electric arc light is to be placed directly over the center of a circular plot
of grass 100 feet in diameter. Assuming that the intensity of light varies
directly as the sine of the angle under which it strikes an illuminated surface,
and inversely as the square of its distance from the surface, how high should
the light he hung in order that the best possible light shall fall on a walk
along the circumference of the plot?
50
Ans. √
2
feet

53. The lower corner of a leaf, whose width is a, is folded over so as just to
reach the inner edge of the page.
(a) Find the width of the part folded over when the length of the crease is a
minimum.
(b) Find the width when the area folded over is a minimum.
Ans. (a) 34 a; (b) 32 a.

54. A rectangular stockade is to be built which must have a certain area. If

a stone wall already constructed is available for one of the sides, find the
dimensions which would make the cost of construction the least.
Ans. Side parallel to wall = twice the length of each end.

55. When the resistance of air is taken into account, the inclination of a pen-
dulum to the vertical may be given by the formula θ = ae−kt cos (nt + η).
Show that the greatest elongations occur at equal intervals πn of time.

56. It is required to measure a certain unknown magnitude x with precision.

Suppose that n equally careful observations of the magnitude are made,
giving the results a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an . The errors of these observations are
evidently x − a1 , x − a2 , x − a3 , · · · , x − an , some of which are positive and
some negative. It has been agreed that the most probable value of x is such
that it renders the sum of the squares of the errors, namely (x − a1 )2 + (x −

204
 7.7. PROBLEMS

Figure 7.12: A leafed page of width a.

a2 )2 + (x − a3 )2 + · · · + (x − an )2 , a minimum. Show that this gives the

arithmetical mean of the observations as the most probable value of x.
(This is related to the method of least squares, discovered by Gauss, a com-
monly used technique in statistical applications.)

57. The bending moment at x of a beam of length ℓ, uniformly loaded, is given

by the formula M = 12 wℓx − 21 wx2 , where w = load per unit length. Show
that the maximum bending moment is at the center of the beam.
2
58. If the total waste per mile in an electric conductor is W = c2 r + tr , where
c = current in amperes (a constant), r = resistance in ohms per mile, and t =
a constant depending on the interest on the investment and the depreciation

205
7.7. PROBLEMS

of the plant, what is the relation between c, r, and t when the waste is a
minimum?
Ans. cr = t.

59. A submarine telegraph cable consists of a core of copper wires with a cov-
ering made of non-conducting material. If x denote the ratio of the radius
of the core to the thickness of the covering, it is known that the speed of
signaling varies as

1
x2 log .
x
Show that the greatest speed is attained when x = √1 .
e

60. Assuming that the power given out by a voltaic cell is given by the formula

E 2R
P = ,
(r + R)2
when E = constant electro-motive force, r = constant internal resistance, R
= external resistance, prove that P is a maximum when r = R.

61. The force exerted by a circular electric current of radius a on a small magnet
whose axis coincides with the axis of the circle varies as

x
5 .
(a2 + x2 ) 2
where x = distance of magnet from plane of circle. Prove that the force is a
maximum when x = a2 .

62. We have two sources of heat at A and B, which we visualize on the real line
(with B to the right or A), with intensities a and b respectively. The total
intensity of heat at a point P between A and B at a distance of x from A
is given by the formula I = xa2 + (d−x)
b
2 . Show that the temperature at P
1/3
will be the lowest when d−x
x
= ab 1/3 . that is, the distances BP and AP have
the same ratio as the cube roots of the corresponding heat intensities. The
1
a3 d
distance of P from A is x = 1 1 .
a 3 +b 3

206
 7.7. PROBLEMS

v 2 sin 2φ
63. The range of a projectile in a vacuum is given by the formula R = 0 g ,
where v0 = initial velocity, g = acceleration due to gravity, φ = angle of
projection with the horizontal. Find the angle of projection which gives the
greatest range for a given initial velocity.
Ans. φ = 45o = π/4.
64. The total time of flight of the projectile in the last problem is given by the
formula T = 2v0 gsin φ . At what angle should it be projected in order to make
the time of flight a maximum?
Ans. φ = 90o = π/2.
65. The time it takes a ball to roll down an inclined planeqwith angle φ (with
respect to the x-axis) is given by the formula T = 2 g sin2 2φ . Neglecting
friction, etc., what must be the value of φ to make the quickest descent?
Ans. φ = 45o = π/4.
66. Examine the function (x − 1)2 (x + 1)3 for maximum and minimum values.
Use the first method.
Solution. f (x) = (x − 1)2 (x + 1)3 .
First step. f ′ (x) = 2(x − 1)(x + 1)3 + 3(x − 1)2 (x + 1)2 = (x − 1)(x +
1)2 (5x − 1).
Second step. (x − 1)(x + 1)2 (5x − 1) = 0, x = 1, −1, 51 , which are critical
values.
Third step. f ′ (x) = 5(x − 1)(x + 1)2 (x − 51 ).
Fourth step. Examine first for critical value x = 1.
When x < 1, f ′ (x) = 5(−)(+)2(+) = −. When x > 1, f ′ (x) =
5(+)(+)2(+) = +. Therefore, when x = 1 the function has a minimum
value f (l) = 0. Examine now for the critical value x = 51 . When x < 51 ,
f ′ (x) = 5(−)(+)2 (−) = +. When x > 51 , f ′ (x) = 5(−)(+)2 (+) = −.
Therefore, when x = 15 the function has a maximum value f ( 51 ) = 1.11.
Examine lastly for the critical value x = −1. When x < −1, f ′ (x) =
5(−)(−)2(−) = +. When x > −1, f ′ (x) = 5(−)(+)2(−) = +. There-
fore, when x = −1 the function has neither a maximum nor a minimum
value.

Examine the following functions for maximum and minimum values:

207
7.7. PROBLEMS

67. (x − 3)2 (x − 2).

Ans. x = 37 , gives max. = 4
27
; x = 3, gives min. = 0.

68. (x − 1)3 (x − 2)2 .

Ans. x = 58 , gives max. = 0.03456; x = 2, gives min. = 0; x = 1, gives
neither.

69. (x − 4)5 (x + 2)4 .

2
Ans. x = −2, gives max.; x = 3
gives min; x = 4, gives neither.

70. (x − 2)5 (2x + 1)4 .

Ans. x = − 21 , gives max.; x = 11
18
, gives min.; x = 2, gives neither.
2
71. (x + 1) 3 (x − 5)2 .

2
Figure 7.13: Sage plot of y = (x + 1) 3 (x − 5)2 .

Ans. x = 21 , gives max.; x = −1 and 5, give min.

1 2
72. (2x − a) 3 (x − a) 3 .
2a
Ans. x = 3
, gives max.; x = 1 and − 13 , gives min.; x = a2 , gives neither.

73. x(x − 1)2 (x + 1)3 .

Ans. x = 12 , gives max.; x = 1 and − 13 , gives min.; x = −1, gives neither.

208
 7.7. PROBLEMS

74. x(a + x)2 (a − x)3

Ans. x = −a and a3 , give max.; x = − a2 ; x = a, gives neither.
2
75. b + c(x − a) 3 .
Ans. x = a, gives min. = b.
1
76. a − b(x − c) 3 .
Ans. No max. or min.
x2 −7x+6
77. x−10
.
Ans. x = 4, gives max. x = 16, gives min.
(a−x)3
78. a−2x
.
Ans. x = a4 , gives min.
1−x+x2
79. 1+x−x2
.
Ans. x = 21 , gives min.
x2 −3x+2
80. x2 +3x+2
.
√ √ √ √
Ans. x = 2, gives min. = 12 2 − 17; x = − 2, gives max. = −12 2 −
17; x = −1, −2, give neither.
(x−a)(b−x)
81. x2
.
2ab (a−b)2
x= a+b
, gives max. = 4ab
.
a2 b2
82. x
+ a−x
.
a2 a2
Ans. x = a−b
, gives min.; x = a+b
, gives max.

83. Examine x3 −3x2 −9x+5 for maxima and minima, Use the second method,
§7.6.
Solution. f (x) = x3 − 3x2 − 9x + 5.
First step. f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 6x − 9.
Second step, 3x2 − 6x − 9 = 0; hence the critical values are x = −1 and 3.
Third step. f ′′ (x) = 6x − 6.

209
7.7. PROBLEMS

Fourth step. f ′′ (−1) = −12.

Therefore, f (−1) = 10 = maximum value. f ′′ (3) = +12. Therefore,
f (3) = −22 = minimum value.

84. Examine sin2 x cos x for maximum and minimum values.

Solution. f (x) = sin2 x cos x.
First step. f ′ (x) = 2 sin x cos2 x − sin3 x.
3
Second step. 2 sin x cos2 x −
√sin x = 0; hence the critical values are x =
nπ and x = nπ ± arctan(− 2) = nπ ± α.
Third step. f ′′ (x) = cos x(2 cos2 x − 7 sin2 x).
Fourth step. f ′′ (0) = +. Therefore, f (0) = 0 = minimum value. f ′′ (π) =
−. Therefore,f (π) = 0 = maximum value. f ′′ (α) = −. Therefore, f (α)
maximum value. f ′′ (π − α) = +. Therefore,f (π − α) minimum value.

Examine the following functions for maximum and minimum values:

87. 3x3 − 9x2 − 27x + 30.

Ans. x = −1, gives max. = 45; x = 3, gives min. = −51.

88. 2x3 − 21x2 + 36x − 20.

Ans. x = 1, gives max. = −3; x = 6, gives min. = −128.
x3
89. 3
− 21x2 + 3x + 1.
Ans. x = 1, gives max. = 37 ; x = 3, gives min. = 1.

90. 2x3 − 15x2 + 36x + 10.

Ans. x = 2, gives max. = 38; x = 3, gives min. = 37.

91. x3 − 9x2 + 15x − 3.

Ans. x = 1, gives max. = 4; x = 5, gives min. = −28.

92. x3 − 3x2 + 6x + 10.

Ans. No max. or min.

93. x5 − 5x4 + 5x3 + 1. x = 1, gives max. = 2; x = 3, gives min. = −26; x = 0,

gives neither.

210
 7.7. PROBLEMS

94. 3x5 − 125x2 + 2160x.

x = −4 and 3, give max.; x = −3 and 4, give min.

95. 2x3 − 3x2 − 12x + 4.

96. 2x3 − 21x2 + 36x − 20.

97. x4 − 2x2 + 10.

98. x4 − 4.

99. x3 − 8.

100. 4 − x6 .

101. sin x(1 + cos x).

√ √
Ans. x = 2nπ + π3 , give max. = 3
4
3; x = 2nπ − π3 , give min. = 3
4
3;
x = nπ, give neither.
x
102. log x
.
Ans. x = e, gives min. = e; x = 1, gives neither.

103. log cos x.

Ans. x = nπ, gives max.

104. aekx + be−kx .

1
q
b
√
Ans. x = k
log a
, gives min. = 2 ab.

105. xx .
x = 1e , gives min.
1
106. x x .
Ans. x = e, gives max.

107. cos x + sin x.

√ √
Ans. x = π4 , gives max. = 2. x = 5π
4
, gives min. = − 2.

108. sin 2x − x.
Ans. x = π6 , gives max.; x = − π6 , gives min.

211
7.7. PROBLEMS

109. x + tan x.
Ans. No max. or min.

110. sin3 x cos x.

√ √
Ans. x = nπ + π3 , gives max. = 3
16
3; x = nπ − π3 , gives min. = − 16
3
3;
x = nπ, gives neither.

111. x cos x.

Figure 7.14: Sage plot of y = x cos(x).

Ans. x such that x sin x = cos x, gives max/min.

112. sin x + cos 2x.

Ans. arcsin 14 , gives max.; x = π2 , gives min.

113. 2 tan x − tan2 x.

Ans. x = π4 , gives max.
sin x
114. 1+tan x
.
Ans. x = π4 , gives max.
x
115. 1+x tan x
.
x = cos x, gives max.; x = − cos x, gives min.

212
 7.8. POINTS OF INFLECTION

7.8 Points of inflection

Definition 7.8.1. Consider the graph y = f (x) is a twice continuously differen-
tiable function. Points of inflection separate concave upwards sections of the graph
from concave downwards sections. They may also be defined as points where
d2 y d2 y
(a) dx 2 = 0 and dx2 changes sign,

or
2 2
(b) ddyx2 = 0 and ddyx2 changes sign.

Thus, if a curve y = f (x) changes from concave upwards to concave downwards

at a point, or the from concave down to concave up, then such a point is called a
point of inflection.
From the discussion of §7.6, it follows at once that where the curve is concave
up, f ′′ (x) = +, and where the curve is concave down, f ′′ (x) = −. In order to
change sign it must pass through the value zero6 ; hence we have:

Lemma 7.8.1. At points of inflection, f ′′ (x) = 0.

Solving the equation resulting from Lemma 7.8.1 gives the x-coordinate(s) of
the point(s) of inflection. To determine the direction of curving or direction of
bending in the vicinity of a point of inflection, test f ′′ (x) for values of x, first
slightly less and then slightly more than the x-coordinate at that point.
If f ′′ (x) changes sign, we have a point of inflection, and the signs obtained deter-
mine if the curve is concave upwards or concave downwards in the neighborhood
of each point of inflection.
The student should observe that near a point where the curve is concave up-
wards the curve lies above the tangent, and at a point where the curve is concave
downwards the curve lies below the tangent. At a point of inflection the tangent
evidently crosses the curve.
Following is a rule for finding points of inflection of the curve whose equation
is y = f (x). This rule includes also directions for examining the direction of
curvature of the curve in the neighborhood of each point of inflection.

• FIRST STEP. Find f ′′ (x).

• SECOND STEP. Set f ′′ (x) = 0, and solve the resulting equation for real
roots.
6
It is assumed that f ′ (x) and f ′′ (x) are continuous. The solution of Exercise 2, §7.8, shows
how to discuss a case where f ′ (x) and f ′′ (x) are both infinite.

213
7.9. EXAMPLES

• THIRD STEP. Write f ′′ (x) in factor form.

• FOURTH STEP. Test f ′′ (x) for values of x, first a trifle less and then a trifle
greater than each root found in the second step. If f ′′ (x) changes sign, we
have a point of inflection.

When f ′′ (x) = +, the curve is concave upwards7 .

When f ′′ (x) = −, the curve is concave downwards.

7.9 Examples
Examine the following curves for points of inflection and direction of bending.

1. y = 3x4 − 4x3 + 1.
Solution. f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 + 1.
First step. f ′′ (x) = 36x2 − 24x.
2
Second step. 36x2 − 24x = 0, x = 3
and x = 0, critical values.
′′ 2
Third step. f (x) = 36x(x − 3
).
Fourth step. When x < 0, f (x) = +; and when x > 0, f ′′ (x) = −.
′′

Therefore, the curve is concave upwards to the left and concave downwards
to the right of x = 0. When x < 23 , f ′′ (x) = −; and when x > 23 ,
f ′′ (x) = +. Therefore, the curve is concave downwards to the left and
concave upwards to the right of x = 32 .
The curve is evidently concave upwards everywhere to the left of x = 0,
11
concave downwards between (0, 1) and ( 23 , 27 ), and concave upwards ev-
2 11
erywhere to the right of ( 3 , 27 ).

2. (y − 2)3 = (x − 4).
1
Solution. y = 2 + (x − 4)− 3 .
dy 2
First step. dx
= 13 (x − 4)− 3 .
Second step. When x = 4, both first and second derivatives are infinite.
d2 y d2 y
Third step. When x < 4, dx2
= +; but when x > 4, dx2
= −.
7
This may be easily remembered if we say that a vessel shaped like the curve where it is
concave upwards will “hold (+) water”, and where it is concave downwards will “spill (−) water.”

214
 7.9. EXAMPLES

We may therefore conclude that the tangent at (4, 2) is perpendicular to the

x-axis, that to the left of (4, 2) the curve is concave upwards, and to the
right of (4, 2) it is concave downwards. Therefore (4, 2) must be considered
a point of inflection.

3. y = x2 .
Ans. Concave upwards everywhere.

4. y = 5 − 2x − x2 .
Ans. Concave downwards everywhere.

5. y = x3 .
Ans. Concave downwards to the left and concave upwards to the right of
(0, 0).

6. y = x3 − 3x2 − 9x + 9.
Ans. Concave downwards to the left and concave upwards to the right of
(1, −2).

7. y = a + (x − b)3 .
Ans. Concave downwards to the left and concave upwards to the right of
(b, a).
x3
8. a2 y = 3
− ax2 + 2a3 .
Ans. Concave downwards to the left and concave upwards to the right of
(a, 4a
3
).

9. y = x4 .
Ans. Concave upwards everywhere.

10. y = x4 − 12x3 + 48x2 − 50.

Ans. Concave upwards to the left of x = 2, concave downwards between
x = 2 and x = 4, concave upwards to the right of x = 4.

11. y = sin x.
Ans. Points of inflection are x = nπ, n being any integer.

215
7.10. CURVE PLOTTING

12. y = tan x.
Ans. Points of inflection are x = n, n being any integer.

13. Show that no conic section can have a point of inflection.

14. Show that the graphs of ex and log x have no points of inflection.

7.10 Curve plotting

The elementary method of plotting a curve whose equation is given in rectangular
coordinates, and one with which the student is already familiar, is to (a) solve its
equation for y (or x), (b) take several arbitrary values of x (or y), tabulate the
corresponding values of y (or x), (c) plot the respective points, and (d) draw a
smooth curve through them. The result is an approximation to the required curve.
This process is laborious at best, and in case the equation of the curve is of a degree
higher than the second, the solved form of such an equation may be unsuitable for
the purpose of computation, or else it may fail altogether, since it is not always
possible to solve the equation for y or x.
The general form of a curve is usually all that is desired, and calculus furnishes
us with useful methods for determining the shape of a curve with very little com-
putation.
The first derivative gives us the slope of the curve at any point; the second deriva-
tive determines the intervals within which the curve is concave upward or concave
downward, and the points of inflection separate these intervals; the maximum
points are the high points and the minimum points are the low points on the curve.
As a guide in his work the student may follow the following rule.
Rule for plotting curves in rectangular coordinates.

• FIRST STEP. Find the first derivative; place it equal to zero; solving gives
the abscissas of maximum and minimum points.

• SECOND STEP. Find the second derivative; place it equal to zero; solving
gives the abscissas of the points of inflection.

• THIRD STEP. Calculate the corresponding ordinates of the points whose

abscissas were found in the first two steps. Calculate as many more points
as may be necessary to give a good idea of the shape of the curve. Fill out a
table such as is shown in the example worked out.

216
 7.11. EXERCISES

• FOURTH STEP. Plot the points determined and sketch in the curve to cor-
respond with the results shown in the table.

If the calculated values of the ordinates are large, it is best to reduce the scale on
the y-axis so that the general behavior of the curve will be shown within the limits
of the paper used. Coordinate plotting (graph) paper should be employed.

7.11 Exercises
Trace the following curves, making use of the above rule. Also find the equations
of the tangent and normal at each point of inflection.

1. y = x3 − 9x2 + 24x − 7.
Solution. Use the above rule.
First step. y ′ = 3x2 − 18x + 24, 3x2 − 18x + 24 = 0, x = 2, 4.
Second step. y ′′ = 6x − 18, 6x − 18 = 0, x = 3.
Third step.
x y y′ y ′′ Remarks Direction of Curve
0 -7 + - concave down
2 13 0 - max. concave down
3 11 - 0 pt. of infl. concave up
4 9 0 + min. concave up
6 29 + + concave up
Fourth step. Plot the points and sketch the curve. To find the equations
of the tangent and normal to the curve at the point of inflection (3, 11),
use formulas (5.1), ((5.2). This gives 3x + y = 20 for the tangent and
3y − x = 30 for the normal.

2. y = x3 − 6x2 − 36x + 5.
Ans. Max. (−2, 45); min. (6, −211); pt. of infl. (2, −83); tan. y + 48x −
13 = 0; nor. 48y − x + 3986 = 0.
We shall solve this using Sage .
Sage

sage: x = var("x")

217
7.11. EXERCISES

sage: f = xˆ3 - 6*xˆ2 - 36*x + 5

sage: f1 = diff(f(x),x); f1
3*xˆ2 - 12*x - 36
sage: crit_pts = solve(f1(x) == 0, x); crit_pts
[x == 6, x == -2]
sage: f2 = diff(f(x),x,2); f2(x)
6*x - 12
sage: x0 = crit_pts[0].rhs(); x0
6
sage: x1 = crit_pts[1].rhs(); x1
-2
sage: f(x0); f2(x0)
-211
24
sage: f(x1); f2(x1)
45
-24
sage: infl_pts = solve(f2(x) == 0, x); infl_pts
[x == 2]
sage: p = plot(f, -5, 10)
sage: show(p)

3. y = x4 − 2x2 + 10.
 
1 85
Ans. Max. (0, 10); min. (±1, 9); pt. of infl. ± 3 , 9 .
√

4. y = 12 x4 − 3x2 + 2.
√
Ans. Max. (0, 2); min. (± 3, − 52 ); pt. of infl. (±1, − 12 ).
6x
5. y = 1+x2
.
 √ √ 
Ans. Max. (1, 3); min. (−1, −3); pt. of infl. (0, 0), ± 3, ± 3 2 3 .

6. y = 12x − x3 .
Ans. Max. (2, 16); min. (−2, −16); pt. of infl. (0, 0).
7. 4y + x3 − 3x2 + 4 = 0.
Ans. Max. (2, 0); min. (0, −1).

218
 7.11. EXERCISES

Figure 7.15: Plot for Exercise 8.11-2, y = x3 − 6x2 − 36x + 5.

8. y = x3 − 3x2 − 9x + 9.

9. 2y + x3 − 9x + 6 = 0.

10. y = x3 − 6x2 − 15x + 2.

11. y(1 + x2 ) = x.
8a3
12. y = x2 +4a2
.
2
13. y = e−x .
4+x
14. y = x2
.
2
15. y = (x + l) 3 (x − 5)2 .
x+2
16. y = x3
.

17. y = x3 − 3x2 − 24x.

18. y = 18 + 36x − 3x2 − 2x3 .

219
7.11. EXERCISES

19. y = x − 2 cos x.

20. y = 3x − x3 .

21. y = x3 − 9x2 + 15x − 3.

22. x2 y = 4 + x.

23. 4y = x4 − 6x2 + 5.
x3
24. y = x2 +3a2
.

25. y = sin x + x2 .
x2 +4
26. y = x
.

27. y = 5x − 2x2 − 31 x3 .
1+x2
28. y = 2x
.

29. y = x − 2 sin x.

30. y = log cos x.

31. y = log(1 + x2 ).

220
 CHAPTER
EIGHT

Application to arclength and rates

8.1 Introduction
Thus far we have represented the derivative of y = f (x) by the notation

dy
= f ′ (x).
dx
We have taken special pains to impress on the student that the symbol

dy
dx
was to be considered not as an ordinary fraction with dy as numerator and dx as
denominator, but as a single symbol denoting the limit of the quotient

∆y
∆x
as ∆x approaches the limit zero.
Problems do occur, however, where it is very convenient to be able to give a
meaning to dx and dy separately, and it is especially useful in applications us-
ing integral calculus. How this may be done is explained in the first part of this
chapter.
In the second part (starting with §8.6), we apply what we know about the deriva-
tive to functions of time t. If f (t) is some quantity (for example, distance) chang-
ing with time then we can regard f ′ (t) as the rate of change of f (for example,

221
8.2. DEFINITIONS

velocity). The method of solving “related rates” problems will be explained in the
second part of this chapter.

8.2 Definitions
If f ′ (x) is the derivative of f (x) for a particular value of x, and ∆x is an arbitrarily
chosen1 increment of x, then the differential of f (x), denoted by the symbol df (x),
is defined by the equation

df (x) = f ′ (x)∆x. (8.1)

If now f (x) = x, then f ′ (x) = 1, and (8.1) reduces to dx = ∆x, showing that
when x is the independent variable, the differential of x (= dx) is identical with
∆x. Hence, if y = f (x), (8.1) may in general be written in the form

dy = f ′ (x) dx. (8.2)

The differential of a function equals its derivative multiplied by the differential of
the independent variable. Observe that, since dx may be given any arbitrary value
whatever, dx is independent of x. Hence, dy is a function of two independent
variables x and dx.
Let us illustrate what this means geometrically.
Let f ′ (x) be the derivative of y = f (x) at P, then

dy = f ′ (x)dx = tan τ · dx.

Therefore dy, or df (x), is the increment of the y-coordinate on the tangent line to
the curve y = f (x) corresponding to replacing x by x + dx.
This gives the following interpretation of the derivative as a fraction.
If an arbitrarily chosen increment of the independent variable x for a point (x, y)
on the curve y = f (x) is denoted by dx, then in the derivative

dy
= f ′ (x) = tan τ,
dx
dy denotes the corresponding increment of the y-coordinate drawn to the tangent.
1
The term “arbitrarily chosen” essentially means that the variable ∆x is independent from the
variable x.

222
 8.3. DERIVATIVE OF THE ARCLENGTH IN RECTANGULAR
COORDINATES

Figure 8.1: The differential of a function.

8.3 Derivative of the arclength in rectangular coor-

dinates
Let s be the arclength2 of the part of the curve y = f (x) from a given point A on
the curve to some ‘variable” point P.
Denote the increment of s (= arc PQ in Figure 8.2) by ∆s. The definition of the
arclength depends on the assumption that, as Q approaches P,
 
chordP Q
lim = 1.
arcP Q
In the limit of the ratio of chord PQ and a second infinitesimal, chord PQ may be
replaced by arc PQ (= ∆s).
From Figure 8.2, we have

(chord P Q)2 = (∆x)2 + (∆y)2 . (8.3)

2
Defined in integral calculus. For now, we simply assume that there is a function s = s(x)
such that if you go along the curve from a given point A (such as the point (0, f (0))) to a point
P = (x, y) then s(x) describes the arclength.

223
8.3. DERIVATIVE OF THE ARCLENGTH IN RECTANGULAR
COORDINATES

Figure 8.2: The differential of the arclength.

Dividing through by (∆x)2 , we get

 2  2
chordP Q ∆y
=1+ .
∆x ∆x
Now let Q approach P in the limit. Then ∆x → 0 and we have
 2  2
ds dy
=1+ .
dx dx
chordP Q ∆s ds



(Since lim∆x→0 ∆x
= lim∆x→0 ∆x
= dx
.) Therefore,
s  2
ds dy
= 1+ . (8.4)
dx dx

Similarly, if we divide (8.3) by (∆y)2 and pass to the limit, we get

224
 8.4. DERIVATIVE OF THE ARCLENGTH IN POLAR COORDINATES

s 2
ds dx
= + 1.
dy dy
Also, from the above figure,

∆x ∆y
cos θ = , sin θ = .
chordP Q chordP Q
Now as Q approaches P as a limiting position θ → τ , and we get

dx dy
cos τ = , sin τ = . (8.5)
ds ds
∆y
∆x
(Since lim chord PQ
∆x
= lim ∆x = dx
ds
, and lim chord PQ
= lim ∆y
∆s
= dy
ds
.) Using the
notation of differentials, these formulas may be written
"  2 # 21
dy
ds = 1 + dx (8.6)
dx
and
" 2 # 21
dx
ds = +1 dy, (8.7)
dy
respectively. Substituting the value of ds from (8.6) in (8.5),
dy
1 dx
cos τ = h i 12 , sin τ = h i 12 , (8.8)
dy 2 dy 2



1+ dx
1+ dx

the same relations given by (8.5).

8.4 Derivative of the arclength in polar coordinates

In the discussion below we shall employ the same figure and the same notation
used in §5.7.

(chord P Q)2 = (P R)2 + (RQ)2 = (ρ sin ∆θ)2 + (ρ + ∆ρ − ρ cos ∆θ)2 .

225
8.4. DERIVATIVE OF THE ARCLENGTH IN POLAR COORDINATES

Dividing throughout by (∆θ)2 , we get

 2  2  2
chordP Q 2 sin ∆θ ∆ρ 1 − cos ∆θ
=ρ + +ρ· .
∆θ ∆θ ∆θ ∆θ
Passing to the limit as ∆θ diminishes towards zero, we get3
 2  2
ds 2 dρ
=ρ + ,
dθ dθ
s  2
ds 2
dρ
= ρ + . (8.9)
dθ dθ
In the notation of differentials this becomes
"  2 # 12
dρ
ds = ρ2 + dθ. (8.10)
dθ
These relations between ρ and the differentials ds, dρ, and dθ are correctly repre-
sented by a right triangle whose hypotenuse is ds and whose sides are dρ and ρdθ.
Then
p
ds = (ρdθ)2 + (dρ)2 ,
and dividing by dθ gives (8.9). Denoting by ψ the angle between dρ and ds, we
get at once
dθ
tan ψ = ρ ,
dρ
which is the same as ((5.12).
Example 8.4.1. Find the differential of the arc of the circle x2 + y 2 = r2 .
dy
Solution. Differentiating, dx = − xy .
To find ds in terms of x we substitute in (8.6), giving
1 1  2  21
x2 2
 2
y + x2 2

r rdy
ds = 1 + 2 dx = 2
dx = 2 dx = √ .
y y y r 2 − x2
3
Recall: lim∆θ→0 chord
∆θ
PQ
= lim∆θ→0 ∆s
∆θ = ds
dθ , by §8.3;lim∆→0 sin ∆θ
∆θ = 1, by §2.10;
2 sin2 ∆θ sin ∆θ
lim∆θ→0 1−cos
∆θ
∆θ
= lim∆θ→0 ∆θ
2
= lim∆θ→0 sin ∆θ
2 · ∆θ
2
= 0 · 1 = 0, by §2.10 and 39
2
in §12.1.

226
 8.5. EXERCISES

To find ds in terms of y we substitute in (8.7), giving

1 1  2  12
y2 2
 2
x + y2 2

r rdy
ds = 1 + 2 dy = 2
dy = 2 = p .
x x x r2 − y 2

Example 8.4.2. Find the differential of the arclength of the cardioid ρ = a(l −
cos θ) in terms of θ.
Solution. Differentiating, dρ
dθ
= a sin θ.
Substituting in (8.10), gives

  12
1 1 θ θ
ds = [a2 (1−cos θ)2 +a2 sin2 θ] dθ = a[2−2 cos θ] dθ = a 4 sin2
2 2 dθ = 2a sin dθ.
2 2

8.5 Exercises
Find the differential of arclength in each of the following curves:

1. y 2 = 4x.
q
1+x
Ans. ds = x
dx.

2. y = ax2 .
√
Ans. ds = 1 + 4a2 x2 dx.

3. y = x3 .
√
Ans. ds = 1 + 9x4 dx.

4. y 3 = x2 .
1
√
Ans. ds = 2
4 + 9ydy.
2 2 2
5. x 3 + y 3 = a 3 .
q
Ans. ds = 3 ay dy.

6. b2 x2 + a2 y 2 = a2 b2 .
q
2 2 x2
Ans. ds = aa2−e −x2
dx.

227
8.6. THE DERIVATIVE CONSIDERED AS THE RATIO OF TWO RATES

7. ey cos x = 1.
Ans. ds = sec x dx.

8. ρ = a cos θ.
Ans. ds = a dθ.

9. ρ2 = a2 cos 2θ.
√
Ans. ds = sec 2θdθ.

10. ρ = aeθ cot a .

Ans. ds = ρ csc a · dθ.

11. ρ = aθ.
p
Ans. ds = aθ 1 + log2 adθ.

12. ρ = aθ.
1
p
Ans. ds = a
a2 + ρ2 dρ.

13. 1 1 1
(a) x 2 − y 2 = a2 . (h) x 2 + y 2 = a 2 .
(b) x2 = 4ay. (i) y 2 = ax3 .
(c) y = ex + e−x . (j) y = log x.
(d) xy = a. (k) 4x = y 3 .
(e) y = log sec x. (l) ρ = a sec2 2θ .
(f ) ρ = 2a tan θ sin θ. (m) ρ = 1 + sin θ.
(g) ρ = a sec3 3θ . (n) ρθ = a.

8.6 The derivative considered as the ratio of two rates

Let

y = f (x)
be the equation of a curve generated by a moving point P. Its coordinates x and y
may then be considered as functions of the time, as explained in §5.13. Differen-
tiating with respect to t, by the chain rule (Formula XXV in §4.1), we have
dy dx
= f ′ (x) . (8.11)
dt dt

228
 8.6. THE DERIVATIVE CONSIDERED AS THE RATIO OF TWO RATES

At any instant the time rate of change of y (or the function) equals its derivative
multiplied by the time rate change of the independent variable.
Or, write (8.11) in the form
dy
dy
dt
dx
= f ′ (x) = .
dt
dx
The derivative measures the ratio of the time rate of change of y to that of x.

Figure 8.3: Geometric visualization of the derivative the arclength.

ds
dt
being the time rate of change of length of arc, we have from (5.26),
s 2  2
ds dx dt
= + . (8.12)
dt dt dt
which is the relation indicated by Figure 8.3.
As a guide in solving rate problems use the following rule.

229
8.7. EXERCISES

• FIRST STEP. Draw a figure illustrating the problem. Denote by x, y, z, etc.,

the quantities which vary with the time.

• SECOND STEP. Obtain a relation between the variables involved which

will hold true at any instant.

• THIRD STEP. Differentiate with respect to the time.

• FOURTH STEP. Make a list of the given and required quantities.

• FIFTH STEP. Substitute the known quantities in the result found by differ-
entiating (third step), and solve for the unknown.

8.7 Exercises
1. A man is walking at the rate of 5 miles per hour towards the foot of a tower
60 ft. high. At what rate is he approaching the top when he is 80 ft. from
the foot of the tower?
Solution. Apply the above rule.
First step. Draw the figure. Let x = distance of the man from the foot and y
= his distance from the top of the tower at any instant.
Second step. Since we have a right triangle, y 2 = x2 + 3600.
Third step. Differentiating, we get 2y dy
dt
= 2x dx
dt
, or, dy
dt
= xy dx
dt
, meaning
 
that at any instant whatever (Rate of change of y) = xy (rate of change of
x).
Fourth step.

x = 80, dx
dt
= 5 miles/hour,
=√5 × 5280f t/hour,
y = x2 + 3600
= 100.
dy
dt
=?
dy 80
Fifth step. Substituting back in the above dt
= 100
× 5 × 5280 ft/hour = 4
miles/hour.

230
 8.7. EXERCISES

2. A point moves on the parabola 6y = x2 in such a way that when x = 6, the

x-coordinate is increasing at the rate of 2 ft. per second. At what rates are
the y-coordinate and arclength increasing at the same instant?
Solution. First step. Plot the parabola.
Second step. 6y = x2 .
Third step. 6 dy
dt
= 2x dx
dt
, or, dy
dt
= x3 · dx
dt
. This means that at any point on the
parabola (Rate of change of y-coordinate) = x3 (rate of change of abcissa).

dx dy x2 ds
Fourth step. dt
= 2 ft. per second, x = 6, dt
=?, y = 6
= 6, dt
=?
dy 6
Fifth step. Substituting back in the above, dt
= 3
× 2 = 4 ft. per second.
From the first result we note that at the point (6, 6) the y-coordinate changes
twice as rapidly as the x-coordinate.
If we consider the point (−6, 6) instead, the result is dydt
= −4 ft. per
second, the minus sign indicating that the y-coordinate is decreasing as the
x-coordinate increases.
We shall now solve this using Sage .
Sage

sage: t = var("t")
sage: x = function("x",t)
sage: y = function("y",t)
sage: eqn = 6*y - xˆ2
sage: solve(diff(eqn,t) == 0, diff(y(t), t, 1))
[diff(y(t), t, 1) == x(t)*diff(x(t), t, 1)/3]
sage: s = sqrt(xˆ2+yˆ2)
sage: diff(s,t)
(2*y(t)*diff(y(t), t, 1)
+ 2*x(t)*diff(x(t), t, 1))/(2*sqrt(y(t)ˆ2 + x(t)ˆ2))

dy x dx
This tells us that dt
= 3
· dt
and

ds y(t)y ′ (t) + x(t)x′ (t)

= p .
dt x(t)2 + y(t)2
dy
Substituting dx
dt √
= 2, x = 6, gives = 4. In addition, if y = 6 then this
ds
√ dt
gives dt = 36/ 72 = 3 2.

231
8.7. EXERCISES

3. A circular plate of metal expands by heat so that its radius increases uni-
formly at the rate of 0.01 inch per second. At what rate is the surface in-
creasing when the radius is two inches?
Solution. Let x = radius and y = area of plate. Then y = πx2 , dy dt
= 2πx dx
dt
,
That is; at any instant the area of the plate is increasing in square inches 2πx
times as fast as the radius is increasing in linear inches. x = 2, dx dt
= 0.01,
dy dy
dt
=?. Substituting in the above, dt = 2π × 2 × 0.01 = 0.04π sq. in. per
sec.
4. A street light is hung 12 ft. directly above a straight horizontal walk on
which a boy 5 ft. in height is walking. How fast is the boy’s shadow length-
ening when he is walking away from the light at the rate of 168 ft. per
minute?
Solution. Let x = distance of boy from a point directly under light L, and y
= length of boy’s shadow. By similar triangle, y/(y +x) = 5/12, or y = 57 x.
Differentiating, dy
dt
= 57 dx
dt
; i.e. the shadow is lengthening 57 as fast as the
boy is walking, or 120 ft. per minute.
5. In a parabola y 2 = 12x, if x increases uniformly at the rate of 2 in. per
second, at what rate is y increasing when x = 3 in. ?
Ans. 2 in. per sec.
6. At what point on the parabola of the last example do the x-coordinate and
y-coordinate increase at the same rate?
Ans. (3, 6).
7. In the function y = 2x3 + 6, what is the value of x at the point where y
increases 24 times as fast as x?
Ans. x = ±2.
8. The y-coordinate of a point describing the curve x2 + y 2 = 25 is decreasing
at the rate of 3/2 in. per second. How rapidly is the x-coordinate changing
when the y-coordinate is 4 inches?
dx
Ans. dt
= 2 in. per sec.
9. Find the values of x at the points where the rate of change of x3 − 12x2 +
45x − 13 is zero.
Ans. x = 3 and 5.

232
 8.7. EXERCISES

10. At what point on the ellipse 16x2 + 9y 2 = 400 does y decrease at the same
rate that x increases?
Ans. (3, 16
3
).

11. Where in the first quadrant does the arclength increase twice as fast as the
y-coordinate?
Ans. At 60o = π/3.

A point generates each of the following curves (problems 12-16). Find the rate
at which the arclength is increasing in each case:
dx
12. y 2 = 2x; = 2, x = 2.
dt
ds
√
Ans. dt
= 5.
dy
13. xy = 6; dt
= 2, y = 3.
ds
√
Ans. dt
= 23 13.
dx
14. x2 + 4y 2 = 20; dt
= −1, y = 1.
√
Ans. ds
dt
= 2.
dx
15. y = x3 ; dt
= 3, x = −3.
dy
16. y 2 = x3 ; dt
= 4, y = 8.

17. The side of an equilateral triangle is 24 inches long, and is increasing at the
rate of 3 inches per hour. How fast is the area increasing?
√
Ans. 36 3 sq. in. per hour.

18. Find the rate of change of the area of a square when the side b is increasing
at the rate of a units per second.
Ans. 2ab sq. units per sec.

19. (a) The,volume of a spherical soap bubble increases how many times as fast
as the radius? (b) When its radius is 4 in. and increasing at the rate of 1/2
in. per second, how fast is the volume increasing?
Ans. (a) 4πr2 times as fast; (b) 32π cu. in. per sec.
How fast is the surface increasing in the last case?

233
8.7. EXERCISES

20. One end of a ladder 50 ft. long is leaning against a perpendicular wall
standing on a horizontal plane. Supposing the foot of the ladder to be pulled
away from the wall at the rate of 3 ft. per minute; (a) how fast is the top of
the ladder descending when the foot is 14 ft. from the wall? (b) when will
the top and bottom of the ladder move at the same rate? (c) when is the top
of the ladder descending at the rate of 4 ft. per minute?
7
√
Ans. (a) 78 ft. per min.; (b) when 25 2 ft. from wall; (c) when 40 ft. from
wall.

21. A barge whose deck is 12 ft. below the level of a dock is drawn up to it by
means of a cable attached to a ring in the floor of the dock, the cable being
hauled in by a windlass on deck at the rate of 8 ft. per minute. How fast is
the barge moving towards the dock when 16 ft. away?
Ans. 10 ft. per minute.

22. An elevated car is 40 ft. immediately above a surface car, their tracks inter-
secting at right angles. If the speed of the elevated car is 16 miles per hour
and of the surface car 8 miles per hour, at what rate are the cars separating
5 minutes after they meet?
Ans. 17.9 miles per hour.

23. One ship was sailing south at the rate of 6 miles per hour; another east at
the rate of 8 miles per hour. At 4 P.M. the second crossed the track of the
first where the first was two hours before; (a) how was the distance between
the ships changing at 3 P.M.? (b) how at 5 P.M.? (c) when was the distance
between them not changing?
Ans. (a) Diminishing 2.8 miles per hour; (b) increasing 8.73 miles per hour;
(c) 3 : 17 P.M.

24. Assuming the volume of the wood in a tree to be proportional to the cube
of its diameter, and that the latter increases uniformly year by year when
growing, show that the rate of growth when the diameter is 3 ft. is 36 times
as great as when the diameter is 6 inches.

25. A railroad train is running 15 miles an hour past a station 800 ft. long, the
track having the form of the parabola y 2 = 600x, and situated as shown in
Figure 8.4.

234
 8.7. EXERCISES

Figure 8.4: Train station and the train’s trajectory.

If the sun is just rising in the east, find how fast the shadow S of the loco-
motive L is moving along the wall of the station at the instant it reaches the
end of the wall.
Solution. y 2 = 600x, 2y dy = 600 dx , or dx y dy
= 300 . Substituting this value
q
dt
dt dt dt
dx 2 dy 2 ds 2 y dy 2 dy 2
of dx ds




dt
in dt
= dt
+ dt
, we get dt
= 300 dt
+ dt
. Now
ds dy
dt
= 15 miles per hour = 22 ft. per sec., y = 400 and dt =?. Substituting

dy
2
back in the above, we get (22)2 = 16 9
+ 1 dt
, or, dy
dt
= 13 51 ft. per
second.

26. An express train and a balloon start from the same point at the same instant.
The former travels 50 miles an hour and the latter rises at the rate of 10
miles an hour. How fast are they separating?
Ans. 51 miles an hour.

27. A man 6 ft. tall walks away from a lamp-post 10 ft. high at the rate of 4
miles an hour. How fast does the shadow of his head move?
Ans. 10 miles an hour.

235
8.7. EXERCISES

28. The rays of the sun make an angle of 30o = π/6 with the horizon. A ball is
thrown vertically upward to a height of 64 ft. How fast is the shadow of the
ball moving along the ground just before it strikes the ground?
Ans. 110.8 ft. per sec.

29. A ship is anchored in 18 ft. of water. The cable passes over a sheave on the
bow 6 ft. above the surface of the water. If the cable is taken in at the rate
of 1 ft. a second, how fast is the ship moving when there are 30 ft. of cable
out?
5
Ans. 3
ft. per sec.

30. A man is hoisting a chest to a window 50 ft. up by means of a block and

tackle. If he pulls in the rope at the rate of 10 ft. a minute while walking
away from the building at the rate of 5 ft. a minute, how fast is the chest
rising at the end of the second minute?
Ans. 10.98 ft. per min.

31. Water flows from a faucet into a hemispherical basin of diameter 14 inches
at the rate of 2 cu. in. per second. How fast is the water rising (a) when
the water is halfway to the top? (b) just as it runs over? (The volume of a
spherical segment = 12 πr2 h + 61 πh3 , where h = altitude of segment.)

32. Sand is being poured on the ground from the orifice of an elevated pipe,
and forms a pile which has always the shape of a right circular cone whose
height is equal to the radius of the base. If sand is falling at the rate of 6 cu.
ft. per sec., how fast is the height of the pile increasing when the height is 5
ft.?

33. An aeroplane is 528 ft. directly above an automobile and starts east at the
rate of 20 miles an hour at the same instant the automobile starts east at the
rate of 40 miles an hour. How fast are they separating?

34. A revolving light sending out a bundle of parallel rays is at a distance of t

a mile from the shore and makes 1 revolution a minute. Find how fast the
light is traveling along the straight beach when at a distance of 1 mile from
the nearest point of the shore.
Ans. 15.7 miles per min.

236
 8.7. EXERCISES

35. A kite is 150 ft. high and 200 ft. of string are out. If the kite starts drifting
away horizontally at the rate of 4 miles an hour, how fast is the string being
paid out at the start?
Ans. 2.64 miles an hour.

36. A solution is poured into a conical filter of base radius 6 cm. and height 24
cm. at the rate of 2 cu. cm. a second, and filters out at the rate of 1 cu. cm.
a second. How fast is the level of the solution rising when (a) one third of
the way up? (b) at the top?
Ans. (a) 0.079 cm. per sec.; (b) 0.009 cm. per sec.

37. A horse runs 10 miles per hour on a circular track in the center of which is
a street light. How fast will his shadow move along a straight board fence
(tangent to the track at the starting point) when he has completed one eighth
of the circuit?
Ans. 20 miles per hour.

38. The edges of a cube are 24 inches and are increasing at the rate of 0.02
in. per minute. At what rate is (a) the volume increasing? (b) the area
increasing?

39. The edges of a regular tetrahedron are 10 inches and are increasing at the
rate of 0.3 in. per hour. At what rate is (a) the volume increasing? (b) the
area increasing?

40. An electric light hangs 40 ft. from a stone wall. A man is walking 12 ft. per
second on a straight path 10 ft. from the light and perpendicular to the wall.
How fast is the man’s shadow moving when he is 30 ft. from the wall?
Ans. 48 ft. per sec.

41. The approach to a drawbridge has a gate whose two arms rotate about the
same axis as shown in the figure. The arm over the driveway is 4 yards
long and the arm over the footwalk is 3 yards long. Both arms rotate at
the rate of 5 radians per minute. At what rate is the distance between the
extremities of the arms changing when they make an angle of 45o = π/4
with the horizontal?
Ans. 24 yd. per min.

237
8.7. EXERCISES

42. A conical funnel of radius 3 inches and of the same depth is filled with a
solution which filters at the rate of 1 cu. in. per minute. How fast is the
surface falling when it is 1 inch from the top of the funnel?
1
Ans. 4π
in. per mm.

43. An angle is increasing at a constant rate. Show that the tangent and sine
are increasing at the same rate when the angle is zero, and that the tangent
increases eight times as fast as the sine when the angle is 60o = π/3.

238
 CHAPTER
NINE

Change of variable

dy
If y = f (x) is a function of x and x is a function of some other variable t then dx ,
2
d y dy dx d y 2

dx2
, etc., can be expressed in terms of dt , dt , dt2 , etc.. This chapter is devoted to
explaining the techniques to find the formulas necessary for making such a change
of variables.

9.1 Interchange of dependent and independent vari-

ables
If y = f (x) is a one-to-one function of x then it can be “inverted” so that x =
f −1 (y) is a function of y. It is sometimes desirable to transform an expression
involving derivatives of y with respect to x into an equivalent expression involving
derivatives of x with respect to y. Our examples will show that in many cases such
a change transforms the given expression into a much simpler one. Or perhaps x
is given as an explicit function of y in a problem, and it is found more convenient
2 dy d2 y
to use a formula involving dx , d x , etc., than one involving dx
dy dy 2
, dx2 , etc. We shall
now find the formulas necessary for making such transformations.
Given y = f (x), then from item 4.28 in §4.1, we have

dy 1 dx
= dx , 6= 0 (9.1)
dx dy
dy
dy dx
giving dx
in terms of dy
. Also, by 4.27 in §4.1,

239
9.1. INTERCHANGE OF DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

d2 y
   
d dy d dy dy
2
= = ,
dx dx dx dy dx dx
or
!
d2 y d 1 dy
2
= dx
. (9.2)
dx dy dy
dx
d2 x
 
d 1 dy 2 dy 1
But dy dx =− dx 2
; and dx
= dx from (9.1). Substituting these in (9.2), we
dy ( )
dy dy
get
d2 x
d2 y dy 2
2
= −  3 , (9.3)
dx dx
dy

d2 y dx d2 x
giving dx2
in terms of dy
and dy 2
. Similarly,
 2
d3 x dx d2 x
d3 y dy 3 dy
−3 dy 2
=−  5 , (9.4)
dx3 dx
dy

and so on for higher derivatives. This transformation is called changing the inde-
pendent variable from x to y.
Example 9.1.1. Change the independent variable from x to y in the equation
2  2
d2 y dy d3 y d2 y dy

3 − − = 0.
dx2 dx dx3 dx2 dx
Solution. Substituting from (9.1), (9.3), (9.4),

 2   2   
d2 x d3 x dx d2 x d2 x
!2
−3
!
dy 2 1 dy 3 dy dy 2 dy 2 1
3 −  3  − −  − −  3  = 0.
     
dx  5 dx
dx dy dx dx dy
dy dy dy

Reducing, we get
d3 x d2 x
+ = 0,
dy 3 dy 2
a much simpler equation.

240
 9.2. CHANGE OF THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

9.2 Change of the dependent variable

Let

y = f (x),
and suppose at the same time y is a function of z, say

y = g(z).
dy d2 y dz d z 2
We may then express dx , dx2 etc., in terms of dx , dx2 , etc., as follows
In general, z is a function of y, and since y is a function of x, it is evident that z
is a function of x. Hence by 4.27 of §4.1, we have

dy dy dz dz
= = ψ ′ (z) .
dx dz dx dx
d2 y d ′ dz dz d ′ d z 2 d ′ d ′ dz
+ g ′ (z) dx


Also dx 2 = dx g (z) dx = dx dx
g (z) 2 . But dx
g (z) = dz
g (z) dx =
′′ dz
g (z) dx . Therefore,
2
d2 y d2 z

dz
2
= g ′′ (z) + g ′ (z) .
dx dx dx2
Similarly for higher derivatives. This transformation is called changing the de-
pendent variable from y to z, the independent variable remaining x throughout.
We will now illustrate this process by means of an example.

Example 9.2.1. Having given the equation

2
d2 y

2(1 + y) dy
2
=1+ ,
dx 1 + y2 dx
change the dependent variable from y to z by means of the relation

y = tan z.
Solution. From the above,
2
dz d2 y d2 z

dy dz
= sec2 (z) , 2 = sec2 (z) 2 + 2 sec2 (z) tan(z) ,
dx dx dx dx dx
Substituting,

241
9.3. CHANGE OF THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

2 2
d2 z
 
dz 2(1 + tan z) dz
2
sec (z) 2 + 2 sec2 (z) tan(z) =1+ 2
sec z ,
dx dx 1 + tan2 z dx

d2 z dz 2
= cos2 z.


and reducing, we get dx2
−2 dx

9.3 Change of the independent variable

Let y be a function of x, and at the same time let x (and hence also y) be a function
of a new variable t. It is required to express

dy d2 y
, , etc.,
dx dx2
in terms of new derivatives having t as the independent variable. By 4.27 §4.1,
dy dy dx
dt
= dx dt
, or
dy
dy dt
= dx
. (9.5)
dx dt

This is another formulation of the so-called chain rule. Also

d dy


d2 y
   
d dy d dy dt dt dx
2
= = = dx
.
dx dx dx dt dx dx dt
dy
But differentiating dx
with respect to t,

dx d2 y
! 2
dy
− dy d x
 
d dy d dt dt dt2 dt dt2
= = .
dt dx dt dx dx 2


dt dt

Therefore

dx d2 y 2
d2 y dt dt2
− dy d x
dt dx2
= , (9.6)
dx2 dx 3


dt

and so on for higher derivatives. This transformation is called changing the in-
dependent variable from x to t. It is usually better to work out examples by the
methods illustrated above rather than by using the formulas deduced.

242
 9.4. CHANGE OF INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES

Example 9.3.1. Change the independent variable from x to t in the differential

equation

d2 y dy
x2 + x +y =0
dx2 dx
where x = et .
Solution. dx
dt
= et , therefore

dt
= e−t .
dx
dy d2 y
= dy dt ; therefore dx
dy
= e−t dy −t d dy dy −t dt


Also dx
dt dx dt
. Also dx 2 = e dx dt
− dt
e dx =
dy dt dy −t dt
e−t dtd dt dx
− dt e dx . Substituting into dt −t
the last result dx = e ,

d2 y 2
−2t d y dy
2
= e 2
− e−2t .
dx dt dt
Substituting these into the differential equation,
2
   
2t −2t d y dy −2t t −t dy
e e − e +e e + y = 0,
dt2 dt dt
d2 y
and reducing, we get dt2
+ y = 0.

Since the formulas deduced in the Differential Calculus generally involve deriva-
tives of y with respect to x, such formulas as the chain rule are especially useful
when the parametric equations of a curve are given. Such examples were given in
§5.5, and many others will be employed in what follows.

9.4 Change of independent and dependent variables

It is often desirable to change both independent and dependent variables simulta-
neously. An important case is that arising in the transformation from rectangular
to polar coordinates. Since

x = ρ cos θ, and y = ρ sin θ,

the equation

f (x, y) = 0

243
9.4. CHANGE OF INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES

becomes by substitution an equation between ρ and θ, defining ρ as a function of

θ. Hence ρ, x, y are all functions of θ.

Example 9.4.1. Transform the formula for the radius of curvature (11.5),
h i 23
dy 2


1+ dx
R= d2 y
,
dx2

into polar coordinates.

Solution. Since in (9.5) and (9.6), t is any variable on which x and y depend, we
dy
dy
may in this case let t = θ, giving dx
= dθ
dx , and
dθ

dx d2 y 2
d2 y dθ dθ2
− dy d x
dθ dθ2
= .
dx2 dx 3


dθ

Substituting these into R, we get

"
dx 2

2 # 32 dx d2 y 2
+ dy − dy d x


dθ dθ dθ2 dθ dθ2
R=
dθ
dx 2
÷
dx 3

,
dθ dθ
or
h i 23
dx 2 dy 2



dθ
+ dθ
R= dx d2 y dy d2 x
. (9.7)
dθ dθ2
− dθ dθ2

But since x = ρ cos θ and y = ρ sin θ, we have

dx dρ
= −ρ sin θ + cos θ ;
dθ dθ
dy dρ
= ρ cos θ + sin θ ;
dθ dθ
d2 x dρ d2 ρ
= −ρ cos θ − 2 sin θ + cos θ ;
dθ2 dθ dθ2
d2 y dρ d2 ρ
= −ρ sin θ + 2 cos θ + sin θ .
dθ2 dθ dθ2
Substituting these in (9.7) and reducing,

244
 9.5. EXERCISES

h i 23
2 dρ 2


ρ + dθ
R= .
dρ 2 2
− ρ ddθρ2


ρ2 + 2 dθ

9.5 Exercises
Change the independent variable from x to y in the following equations.

i3
dy 2 2
h
1+( dx )
1. R = d2 y
dx2
h i3
2 2
1+( dx
dy )
Ans. R = − d2 x
.
dy 2

d2 y dy 2


2. dx2
+ 2y dx
= 0.
d2 x
Ans. dy 2
− 2y dx
dy
= 0.

d y2 dy 3 dy


3. x dx 2 + dx
− dx
= 0.
2
 2
d y dx
Ans. x dx 2 − 1 + dy
= 0.

dy

 d2 y 2 dy

dy d3 y
4. + 2 dx2 = a dx
3a dx + 1 dx dx3
.
 2 2   3
Ans. ddyx2 = dx dy
+ a d x
dy 3
.

Change the dependent variable from y to z in the following equations:

 
d3 y dy 2 dy d y 2
5. (1 + y)2 , y = z 2 + 2z.


dx3
− 2y + dx
= 2 (1 + y) dx dx2

d x 3 dz d2 z
Ans. (z + 1) dx 3 = dx dx2
+ z 2 + 2z.

d2 y 2(1+y) dy 2


6. dx2
=1+ 1+y 2 dx
, y = tan z.
d2 z dz 2
= cos2 z.


Ans. dx2
−2 dx

245
9.5. EXERCISES
n o
3 dy 2
d y dy

d2 y dy dy
7. y 2 dx 2
+ 3x2 y 2 + x3 y 3 = 0, y =


3 − 3y dx + 2xy dx2
+ 2 dx
2xy dx dx
ez .
d3 z d z 2
2 dz 3
Ans. dx3
− 2x dx 2 + 3x dx + x = 0.

Change the independent variable in the following eight equations:

d2 y x dy y
8. dx2
− 1−x2 dx
+ 1−x2
= 0, x = cos t.
d2 y
Ans. dt2
+ y = 0.

d y 2
dy
9. (1 − x2 ) dx 2 − x dx = 0, x = cos z.

d2 y
Ans. dz 2
= 0.
2
10. (1 − y 2 ) ddyu2 − y du
dy
+ a2 u = 0, y = sin x.
d2 u
Ans. dx2
+ a2 u = 0.
2
d y dy a2
11. x2 dx 2 + 2x dx + x2
y = 0, x = z1 .
d2 y
Ans. dz 2
+ a2 y = 0.

d v 3 2
2d v dv
12. x3 dx 3 + 3x dx2 + x dx + v = 0, x = et .
d3 v
Ans. dx3
+ v = 0.

d2 y 2x dy y
13. dx2
+ 1+x2 dx
+ (1+x2 )2
= 0, x = tan θ.
d2 y
Ans. dθ2
+ y = 0.

d2 u
14. ds2
+ su du
ds
+ sec2 s = 0.
Ans. s = arctan t.
d y 2
15. x4 dx 2
2 + a y = 0, x = z1 .
d2 y 2 dy
Ans. dz 2
+ z dz
+ a2 y = 0.

In the following seven examples the equations are given in parametric form.
dy d2 y
Find dx and dx 2 in each case:

246
 9.5. EXERCISES

16. x = 7 + t2 , y = 3 + t2 − 3t4 .
dy d2 y
Ans. dx
= 1 − 6t2 , dx2
= −6.
We shall solve this using Sage .
Sage

sage: t = var("t")
sage: x = 7 + tˆ2
sage: y = 3 + tˆ2 - 3*tˆ4
sage: f = (x, y)
sage: p = parametric_plot(f, 0, 1)
sage: D_x_of_y = diff(y,t)/diff(x,t); D_x_of_y
(2*t - 12*tˆ3)/(2*t)
sage: solve(D_x_of_y == 0,t)
[t == -1/sqrt(6), t == 1/sqrt(6)]
sage: t0 = solve(D_x_of_y == 0,t)[1].rhs()
sage: (x(t0),y(t0))
(43/6, 37/12)
sage: D_xx = (diff(y,t,t)*diff(x,t)-diff(x,t,t)*diff(y,t))/diff(x,t)ˆ2
sage: D_xx
(2*t*(2 - 36*tˆ2) - 2*(2*t - 12*tˆ3))/(4*tˆ2)
sage: D_xx(t0)
-12/sqrt(6)

This tells us that the critical point is at (43/6, 37/12) = (7.166.., 3.0833..),
which is a maximum. The plot in Figure 9.1 illustrates this.
17. x = cot t, y = sin3 t.
dy d2 y
Ans. dx
= −3 sin4 t cos t, dx2
= 3 sin5 t(4 − 5 sin2 t).
18. x = a(cos t + sin t), y = a(sin t − t cos t).
dy d2 y 1
Ans. dx
= tan t, dx2
= at cos3 t
.
1−t 2t
19. x = 1+t
, y= 1+t
.
20. x = 2t, y = 2 − t2 .
21. x = 1 − t2 , y = t3 .
22. x = a cos t, y = b sin t.
x dy −y
23. Transform q dx
dy 2
by assuming x = ρ cos θ, y = ρ sin θ.
1+( dx )
2
Ans. q ρ
2.
ρ( dρ
dθ )

247
9.5. EXERCISES

Figure 9.1: Plot for Exercise 11.5-16, x = 7 + t2 , y = 3 + t2 − 3t4 .

24. Let
f (x, y) = 0 be the equation of a curve. Find an expression for its slope
dy
dx
in terms of polar coordinates.
dy ρ cos θ+sin θ dρ
Ans. dx
= dθ
−ρ sin θ+cos θ dρ
.
dθ

248
 CHAPTER
TEN

Applications of higher derivatives

We have seen how the first derivative can be applied to solving max-min problems
and related rate problems. In this chapter, we present some applications of higher
derivatives. Below, we introduce the mean value theorem, L’Hôpital’s rule for
limits of “indeterminant forms,” and Taylor series approximations.

10.1 Rolle’s Theorem

Let y = f (x) be a continuous single-valued function of x, vanishing for x = a and
x = b, and suppose that f ′ (x) changes continuously when x varies from a to b.
The function will then be represented graphically by a continuous curve starting
at a point on the x-axis and ending at another point on the x-axis, as in Figure
10.1. Geometric intuition tells us that for at least one value of x between a and b
the tangent is parallel to the x-axis (as at P); that is, the slope is zero.
This illustrates

Rolle’s Theorem: If f (x) vanishes when x = a and x = b, and f (x) and f ′ (x)
are continuous for all values of x from x = a to x = b, then f ′ (x) will be zero for
at least one value of x between a and b.

This theorem is obviously true, because as x increases from a to b, f (x) cannot

always increase or always decrease as x increases, since f (a) = 0 and f (b) = 0.
Hence for at least one value of x between a and b, f (x) must cease to increase
and begin to decrease, or else cease to decrease and begin to increase; and for that

249
10.1. ROLLE’S THEOREM

Figure 10.1: Geometrically illustrating Rolle’s theorem.

particular value of x the first derivative must be zero (see §7.3).

That Rolle’s Theorem does not apply when f (x) or f ′ (x) are discontinuous is
illustrated in Figure 10.2.

Figure 10.2: Counterexamples to Rolle’s theorem.

Figure 10.2 shows

250
 10.2. THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM

(a) the graph of a function which is discontinuous (= ∞) for x = c, a value

lying between a and b, and

(b) a continuous function whose first derivative is discontinuous (= ∞) for such

an intermediate value x = c.

In either case it is seen that at no point on the graph between x = a and x = b

does the tangent (or curve) be,come parallel to the x-axis.

10.2 The mean value theorem

Consider the quantity Q defined by the equation

f (b) − f (a)
= Q, (10.1)
b−a
or

f (b) − f (a) − (b − a)Q = 0. (10.2)

Let F (x) be a function formed by replacing b by x in the left-hand member of
(10.2); that is,

F (x) = f (x) − f (a) − (x − a)Q. (10.3)

From (10.2), F (b) = 0, and from (10.3), F (a) = 0; therefore, by Rolle’s Theorem
(see §10.1), F ′ (x) must be zero for at least one value of x between a and b, say
for x1 . But by differentiating (10.3) we get

F ′ (x) = f ′ (x) − Q.
Therefore, since F ′ (x1 ) = 0, then also f ′ (x1 ) − Q = 0, and Q = f ′ (x1 ). Substi-
tuting this value of Q in (10.1), we get the ean value theorem,

f (b) − f (a)
= f ′ (x1 ), a < x1 < b (10.4)
b−a
where in general all we know about x1 is that it lies between a and b.
The mean value theorem interpreted geometrically.
Let the curve in the figure be the locus of y = f (x).

251
10.2. THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM

Figure 10.3: Geometric illustration of the mean value theorem.

In the notation of Figure 10.3, take OC = a and OD = b; then f (a) = CA and

f (b) = DB, giving AE = b − a and EB = f (b) − f (a). Therefore the slope of
the chord AB is

EB f (b) − f (a)
tan EAB = = .
AE b−a
There is at least one point on the curve between A and B (as P) where the tangent
(or curve) is parallel to the chord AB. If the abscissa of P is x1 the slope at P is

tan t = f ′ (x1 ) = tan EAB.

Equating these last two equations, we get

f (b) − f (a)
= f ′ (x1 ),
b−a
which is the mean value theorem.

252
 10.3. THE EXTENDED MEAN VALUE THEOREM

The student should draw curves (as the one in §10.1), to show that there may be
more than one such point in the interval; and curves to illustrate, on the other hand,
that the theorem may not be true if f (x) becomes discontinuous for any value of
x between a and b (see Figure 10.2 (a)), or if f ′ (x) becomes discontinuous (see
Figure 10.2 (b)).
Clearing (10.4) of fractions, we may also write the theorem in the form

f (b) = f (a) + (b − a)f ′ (x1 ). (10.5)

Let b = a + ∆a; then b − a = ∆a, and since x1 is a number lying between a and
b, we may write
x1 = a + θ · ∆a,
where θ is a positive proper fraction. Substituting in (10.4), we get another form
of the mean value theorem.

f (a + ∆a) − f (a) = ∆af ′ (a + θ · ∆a), 0 < θ < 1. (10.6)

10.3 The extended mean value theorem

Following the method of the last section, let R be defined by the equation

1
f (b) − f (a) − (b − a)f ′ (a) − (x − a)2 R = 0. (10.7)
2
Let F (x) be a function formed by replacing b by x in the left-hand member of
(10.1); that is,

1
F (x) = f (x) − f (a) − (x − a)f ′ (a) − (x − a)2 R. (10.8)
2
From (10.7), F (b) = 0; and from (10.8), F (a) = 0; therefore, by Rolle’s Theo-
rem, at least one value of x between a and b, say x1 will cause F ′ (x) to vanish.
Hence, since

F ′ (x) = f ′ (x) − f ′ (a) − (x − a)R,

we get

F ′ (x1 ) = f ′ (x1 ) − f ′ (a) − (x1 − a)R = 0.

253
10.4. EXERCISES

Since F ′ (x1 ) = 0 and F ′ (a) = 0, it is evident that F ′ (x) also satisfies the condi-
tions of Rolle’s Theorem, so that its derivative, namely F ′′ (x), must vanish for at
least one value of x between a and x1 , say x2 , and therefore x2 also lies between
a and b. But F ′′ (x) = f ′′ (x) − R; therefore F ′′ (x2 ) = f ′′ (x2 ) − R = 0, and
R = f ′′ (x2 ). Substituting this result in (10.7), we get

1
f (b) = f (a) + (b − a)f ′ (a) +
(b − a)2 f ′′ (x2 ), a < x2 < b.
2!
In the same manner, if we define S by means of the equation

1 1
f (b) − f (a) − (b − a)f ′ (a) − (b − a)2 f ′′ (a) − (b − a)2 f ′′ (a)S = 0,
2! 3!
we can derive the equation

f (b) = f (a) +(b − a)f ′ (a) + 2!1 (b − a)2 f ′′ (a)

(10.9)
+ 3!1 (b − a)3 f ′′′ (x3 ), a < x3 < b,
where x3 lies between a and b. By continuing this process we get the general
result,
2
f (b) = f (a) + (b−a)
1!
f ′ (a) + (b−a)2!
f ′′ (a)
3 (n−1)
+ (b−a)
3!
f ′′′ (a) + · · · + (b−a)
(n−1)!
f (n−1) (a)
n
+ (b−a)
n!
f (n) (x1 ), a < x1 < b,
where x1 lies between a and b. This equation is called the extended mean value
theorem1 .
Applications of this theorem will be presented in §10.15 below.

10.4 Exercises
Examine the following functions for maximum and minimum values, using the
methods above.

1. y = 3x4 − 4x3 + 1
Ans. x = 1 is a min., y = 0; x = 0 gives neither.
1
Also called Taylor’s formula.

254
 10.5. MAXIMA AND MINIMA TREATED ANALYTICALLY

2. y = x3 − 6x2 + 12x + 48
Ans. x = 2 gives neither.

3. y = (x − 1)2 (x + 1)3
Ans. x = 1 is a min., y = 0; x = 1/5 is a max; x = −1 gives neither.

4. Investigate y = x5 − 5x4 + 5x3 − 1 at x = 1 and x = 3.

5. Investigate y = x3 − 3x2 + 3x + 7 at x = 1.

6. Show the if the first derivative of f (x) which does not vanish at x = a is
of odd order n then f (x) is increasing or decreasing at x = a, according to
whether f (n) (a) is positive or negative.

10.5 Maxima and minima treated analytically

By making use of the results of the last two sections we can now give a general
discussion of maxima and minima of functions of a single independent variable.
Given the function f (x). Let h be a positive number as small as we please;
then the definitions given in §7.4, may be stated as follows: If, for all values of x
different from a in the interval [a − h, a + h],

f (x) − f (a) = a negative number, (10.10)

then f (x) is said to be a maximum when x = a. If, on the other hand,

f (x) − f (a) = a positive number, (10.11)

then f (x) is said to be a minimum when x = a. Consider the following cases:

I Let f ′ (a) 6= 0. From (10.5), [§10.2], replacing b by x and transposing f(a),

f (x) − f (a) = (x − a)f ′ (x1 ), a < x1 < x, (10.12)

Since f ′ (a) 6= 0, and f ′ (x) is assumed as continuous, h may be chosen so
small that f ′ (x) will have the same sign as f ′ (a) for all values of x in the
interval [a−h, a+h]. Therefore f ′ (x1 ) has the same sign as f ′ (a) (Chap. 2).
But x − a changes sign according as x is less or greater than a. Therefore,
from (10.12), the difference f (x) − f (a) will also change sign, and, by

255
10.5. MAXIMA AND MINIMA TREATED ANALYTICALLY

(10.10) and (10.11), f (a) will be neither a maximum nor a minimum. This
result agrees with the discussion in §7.4, where it was shown that for all
values of x for which f (x) is a maximum or a minimum, the first derivative
f ′ (x) must vanish.
II Let f ′ (a) = 0, and f ′′ (a) 6= 0. From (10.12), replacing b by x and transpos-
ing f (a),

(x − a)2 ′′
f (x) − f (a) = f (x2 ), a < x2 < x. (10.13)
2!
Since f ′′ (a) 6= 0, and f ′′ (x) is assumed as continuous, we may choose
our interval [a − h, a + h] so small that f ′′ (x2 ) will have the same sign as
f ′′ (a) (Chap. 2). Also (x − a)2 does not change sign. Therefore the second
member of (10.13) will not change sign, and the difference f (x) − f (a)
will have the same sign for all values of x in the interval [a − h, a + h],
and, moreover, this sign will be the same as the sign of f ′′ (a). It therefore
follows from our definitions (10.10) and (10.11) that

f (a) is a maximum if f ′ (a) = 0 and f ′′ (a) = a negative number;

(10.14)
′ ′′
f (a) is a minimum if f (a) = 0 and f (a) = a positive number (10.15)
These conditions are the same as (7.3) and (7.4), [§7.6].
III Let f ′ (a) = f ′′ (a) = 0, and f ′′′ (a) 6= 0. From (10.9), [§10.3], replacing b
by x and transposing f (a),

1
f (x) − f (a) = (x − a)3 f ′′′ (x3 ), a < x3 < x. (10.16)
3!
As before, f ′′′ (x3 ) will have the same sign as f ′′′ (a). But (x−a)3 changes its
sign from − to + as x increases through a. Therefore the difference f (x) −
f (a) must change sign, and f (a) is neither a maximum nor a minimum.
IV Let f ′ (a) = f ′′ (a) = · · · = f (n−l) (a) = 0, and f (n) (a) 6= 0. By continuing
the process as illustrated in I, II, and III, it is seen that if the first derivative
of f (x) which does not vanish for x = a is of even order (= n), then2
2
As in §7.4, a critical value x = a is found by placing the first derivative equal to zero and
solving the resulting equation for real roots.

256
 10.6. EXERCISES

f (a) is a maximum if f (n) (a) = a negative number; (10.17)

f (a) is a minimum if f (n) (a) = a positive number. (10.18)
If the first derivative of f (x) which does not vanish for x = a is of odd
order, then f (a) will be neither a maximum nor a minimum.

Example 10.5.1. Examine x3 −9x2 +24x−7 for maximum and minimum values.
Solution. f (x) = x3 − 9x2 + 24x − 7. f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 18x + 24. Solving
3x2 − 18x + 24 = 0 gives the critical values x = 2 and x = 4. Thus f ′ (2) = 0,
and f ′ (4) = 0. Differentiating again, f ′′ (x) = 6x − 18. Since f ′′ (2) = −6, we
know from (10.17) that f (2) = 13 is a maximum. Since f ′′ (4) = +6, we know
from (10.18) that f (4) = 9 is a minimum.

Example 10.5.2. Examine ex +2 cos(x)+e−x for maximum and minimum values.

Solution. f (x) = ex + 2 cos(x) + e−x , f ′ (x) = ex − 2 sin x − e−x = 0, for
x = 0 (and x = 0 is the only root of the equation ex − 2 sin x − e−x = 0),
f ′′ (x) = ex − 2 cos(x) + e−x = 0, for x = 0, f ′′′ (x) = ex + 2 sin x − e−x = 0,
for x = 0, f (4) (x) = ex + 2 cos(x) + e−x = 4, for x = 0. Hence from (10.18),
f (0) = 4 is a minimum.

10.6 Exercises
Examine the following functions for maximum and minimum values, using the
method of the last section.

1. 3x4 − 4x3 + 1.
Ans. x = 1 gives min. = 0; x = 0 gives neither.

2. x3 − 6x2 + 12x + 48.

Ans. x = 2 gives neither.

3. (x − 1)2 (x + 1)3 .
1
Ans. x = 1 gives min. = 0; x = 5
gives max.; x = −1 gives neither.

4. Investigate x6 − 5x4 + 5x3 − 1, at x = 1 and x = 3.

5. Investigate x3 − 3x2 + 3x + 7, at x = 1.

257
10.7. INDETERMINATE FORMS

6. Show that if the first derivative of f (x) which does not vanish for x = a is
of odd order (= n), then f (x) is an increasing or decreasing function when
x = a, according as f (n) (a) is positive or negative.

10.7 Indeterminate forms

Some singularities are easy to diagnose. Consider the function cosx x at the point
x = 0 (see Figure 10.4). The function evaluates to 01 and is thus discontinuous
at that point. Since the numerator and denominator are continuous functions and
the denominator vanishes while the numerator does not, the left and right limits
as x → 0 do not exist. Thus the function has an infinite discontinuity at the point
x = 0.

cos(x)
Figure 10.4: x
.

More generally, a function which is composed of continuous functions and evalu-

ates to a0 at a point where a 6= 0 must have an infinite discontinuity there.

Other singularities require more analysis to diagnose. Consider the functions

sin x sin x sin x
x
, |x| and 1−cos x
at the point x = 0. All three functions evaluate to 00 at
that point, but have different kinds of singularities. The first has a removable
discontinuity, the second has a finite discontinuity and the third has an infinite
discontinuity. See Figure 10.5.
An expression that evaluates (for a particular value of the independent variable)
to 00 , ∞
∞
, 0 · ∞, ∞ − ∞, 1∞ , 00 or ∞0 is called an indeterminate form. A function

258
10.8. EVALUATION OF A FUNCTION TAKING ON AN INDETERMINATE
FORM

sin x sin x sin x

Figure 10.5: The functions x
, |x|
, 1−cos x
, resp..

h(x) which takes an indeterminate form at x = a is not defined for x = a by the

given analytical expression. For example, suppose we have

f (x)
h(x) = ,
g(x)
where at x = a,

f (a) = 0, and g(a) = 0.

For this value of x our function is not defined and we may therefore assign to it
any value we please. It is usually desirable to assign to the function a value that
will make it continuous when x = a whenever it is possible to do so. L’Hôpital’s
rule, given in (10.19) below, helps us determine this value of h(a) which makes h
continuous at x = a.

10.8 Evaluation of a function taking on an indeter-

minate form
If when x = a the function f (x) assumes an indeterminate form, then

lim f (x)
x=a
is taken as the value of f (x) for x = a. The calculation of this limiting value is
called evaluating the indeterminate form.
The assumption of this limiting value makes f (x) continuous for x = a. This
agrees with the theorem under Case II [§2.6], and also with our practice in Chapter
2, where several functions assuming the indeterminate form 00 were evaluated.

259
 0
10.9. EVALUATION OF THE INDETERMINATE FORM 0

x2 −4 0
Example 10.8.1. For x = 2 the function x−2
assumes the form 0
but

x2 − 4
lim = 4.
x→2 x − 2

Hence 4 is taken as the value of the function for x = 2. Let us now illustrate
graphically the fact that if we assume 4 as the value of the function for x = 2,
2 −4
then the function is continuous for x = 2. Let y = xx−2 This equation may also
be written in the form y(x − 2) = (x − 2)(x + 2); or (x − 2)(y − x − 2) = 0.
Placing each factor separately equal to zero, we have x = 2, and y = x + 2. Also,
when x = 2, we get y = 4.
In plotting, the loci of these equations are found to be two lines. Since there
are infinitely many points on a line, it is clear that when x = 2, the value of
y (or the function) may be taken as any number whatever. When x is different
from 2, it is seen from the graph of the function that the corresponding value of
y (or the function) is always found from y = x + 2, which we saw was also the
limiting value of y (or the function) for x = 2. It is evident from geometrical
considerations that if we assume 4 as the value of the function for x = 2, then the
function is continuous for x = 2.

Similarly, several of the examples given in Chapter 2 illustrate how the limiting
values of many functions assuming indeterminate forms may be found by em-
ploying suitable algebraic or trigonometric transformations, and how in general
these limiting values make the corresponding functions continuous at the points
in question. The most general methods, however, for evaluating indeterminate
forms depend on differentiation.

0
10.9 Evaluation of the indeterminate form 0

Given a function of the form fg(x)

(x)
such that f (a) = 0 and g(a) = 0; that is, the
function takes on the indeterminate form 00 when a is substituted for x. It is then
required to find

f (x)
lim .
x→a g(x)

(See Figure 10.6.) Since, by hypothesis, f (a) = 0 and g(a) = 0, these graphs
intersect at (a, 0).

260
 0
10.9. EVALUATION OF THE INDETERMINATE FORM 0

Figure 10.6: The graphs of the functions f (x) = x and g(x) = sin(x).

Applying the mean value theorem to each of these functions (replacing b by x),
we get f (x) = f (a)+(x−a)f ′ (x1 ), a < xl < x, and g(x) = g(a)+(x−a)g ′ (x2 ).
a < x2 < x. Since f (a) = 0 and g(a) = 0, we get, after canceling out (x − a),

f (x) f ′ (x1 )
= ′ .
g(x) g (x2 )
Now let x → a; then xl → a, x2 → a, and limx→a f ′ (x1 ) = f ′ (a), limx→a g ′ (x2 ) =
g ′ (a). Therefore,

f (x) f ′ (a)
lim = ′ , (10.19)
x→a g(x) g (a)
provided g ′ (a) 6= 0. This is a special case of the so-called

261
 0
10.9. EVALUATION OF THE INDETERMINATE FORM 0

L’Hospital’s Rule3 : Let f (x) and g(x) be differentiable and f (a) = g(a) = 0.
Further, let g(x) be nonzero in a punctured neighborhood of x = a, (for some
small δ, g(x) 6= 0 for x ∈ {0 < |x − a| < δ}). Then

f (x) f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′ .
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

The rule is named after the 17th-century Frenchman Guillaume de l’Hospital,

who published the rule in his book l’Analyse des Infiniment Petits pour l’Intelligence
des Lignes Courbes (translation: Analysis of the infinitely small to understand
curves), the first book about differential calculus. This book was first published
in the late 1600’s and basically consisted of the lectures of his teacher Johann
Bernoulli. In particular, this rule is, in fact, due to Johann Bernoulli (1667 - 1748).

Example 10.9.1. Consider the three functions sinx x , sin

|x|
x
and sin x
1−cos x
at the point
x = 0.
sin x cos x
lim = lim =1
x→0 x x→0 1
Thus sinx x has a removable discontinuity at x = 0.

sin x sin x
lim+ = lim+ =1
x→0 |x| x→0 x
sin x sin x
lim− = lim− = −1
x→0 |x| x→0 −x
sin x
Thus |x|
has a finite discontinuity at x = 0.

sin x cos x 1
lim = lim = =∞
x→0 1 − cos x x→0 sin x 0
sin x
Thus 1−cos x
has an infinite discontinuity at x = 0.
cos(x)−1
Example 10.9.2. We use Sage to compute limx→0 x2
.
Sage

sage: limit((cos(x)-1)/xˆ2,x=0)
-1/2
sage: limit((-sin(x))/(2*x),x=0)
3
Also written L’Hôpital and pronounced “low-peh-tall”.

262
 0
10.9. EVALUATION OF THE INDETERMINATE FORM 0

-1/2
sage: limit((-cos(x))/(2),x=0)
-1/2

This verifies

cos(x) − 1 − sin(x) − cos(x)

lim 2
= lim = lim = −1/2.
x→0 x x→0 2x x→0 2

Example 10.9.3. Let a and d be nonzero.

ax2 + bx + c 2ax + b
lim = lim
x→∞ dx2 + ex + f x→∞ 2dx + e
2a
= lim
x→∞ 2d
a
=
d

Example 10.9.4. Consider

cos x − 1
lim .
x→0 x sin x

This limit is an indeterminate of the form 00 . Applying L’Hospital’s rule we see

that limit is equal to
− sin x
lim .
x→0 x cos x + sin x

This limit is again an indeterminate of the form 00 . We apply L’Hospital’s rule

again.
− cos x 1
lim =−
x→0 −x sin x + 2 cos x 2

Thus the value of the original limit is − 12 . We could also obtain this result by

263
 0
10.9. EVALUATION OF THE INDETERMINATE FORM 0

expanding the functions in Taylor series.

 
x2 x4
cos x − 1 1 − 2 + 24 − · · · − 1
lim = lim 3 5
x→0 x sin x x→0 x x − x + x − · · ·


6 120
2 x4
− x2 + 24
− ···
= lim 4 6
x→0 x2 − x + x − · · ·
6 120
2
− 21 + x24 − · · ·
= lim 2 4
x→0 1 − x + x − · · ·
6 120
1
=−
2
cos(x)−1
Example 10.9.5. We use Sage to compute limx→0 x2
.
Sage

sage: limit((cos(x)-1)/xˆ2,x=0)
-1/2
sage: limit((-sin(x))/(2*x),x=0)
-1/2
sage: limit((-cos(x))/(2),x=0)
-1/2

This verifies

cos(x) − 1 − sin(x) − cos(x)

lim 2
= lim = lim = −1/2.
x→0 x x→0 2x x→0 2

0
10.9.1 Rule for evaluating the indeterminate form 0
Differentiate the numerator for a new numerator and differentiate the denominator
for a new denominator4 . The value of this new fraction for the assigned value5 of
the variable will be the limiting value of the original fraction.
4
A warning to the student: don’t make the mistake of differentiating the whole expression as a
fraction using the quotient rule!
5
If a = inf, the substitution x = z1 reduces the problem to the evaluation of the limit for z = 0.
(x) −f ′ ( 1 ) 1 f ′( 1 ) ′
(x)
Thus limx→inf fg(x) = limz→0 −g′ 1z z12 = limz→0 g′ 1z = limx→inf fg′ (x) . Therefore the rule
( z ) z2 (z)
holds in this case also.

264
 0
10.9. EVALUATION OF THE INDETERMINATE FORM 0

In case it so happens that f ′ (a) = 0 and g ′ (a) = 0, that is, the first derivatives
also vanish for x = a, then we still have the indeterminate form 00 , and the theorem
′ (x) ′′ (a)
can be applied anew to the ratio fg′ (x) giving us limx→a fg(x)
(x)
= fg′′ (a) . When also
f (x) f ′′′ (a)
f ′′ (a) = 0 and g ′′ (a) = 0, we get in the same manner limx→a g(x)
= g ′′′ (a)
, and so
on.
It may be necessary to repeat this process several times.
f (x) x3 −3x+2
Example 10.9.6. Evaluate g(x)
= x3 −x2 −x−1
when x = 1.
Solution.

x3 − 3x + 2

f (1) 1−3+2 0
= 3 = = .
g(1) x − x2 + 1 x=1 1−1−1+1 0
Therefore, this is an indeterminate form.

f ′ (1) 3x2 − 3

3−3 0
= = = .
g ′ (1) 3x2 − 2x − 1 x=1 3 − 2 − 1 0
Therefore, this is an indeterminate form.

f ′′ (1)

6x 6 3
′′
= = = . Ans.
g (1) 6x − 2 x=1 6 − 2 2
ex −e−x −2x
Example 10.9.7. Evaluate limx→0 x−sin x
.
Solution.

ex − e−x − 2x

f (0) 1−1−0 0
= = = .
g(0 x − sin x x=0 0−0 0
Therefore, this is an indeterminate form.

f ′ (0) ex − e−x − 2

1+1−2 0
′
= = = .
g (0) 1 − cos x x=0 1−1 0
Therefore, this is an indeterminate form.

f ′′ (0) ex − e−x

1−1 0
= = = .
g ′′ (0) sin x x=0 0 0
Therefore, this is an indeterminate form.

f ′′′ (0) ex − e−x


1+1
′′′
= = = 2. Ans.
g (0) cos x x=0 1

265
 0
10.9. EVALUATION OF THE INDETERMINATE FORM 0

10.9.2 Exercises
Evaluate the following by differentiation6 .

x2 −16
1. limx→4 x2 +x−20
.
Ans. 89 .
x−1
2. limx→1 xn −1
.
Ans. n1 .
log x
3. limx→1 x−1
.
Ans. 1.
ex −e−x
4. limx→0 sin x
.
Ans. 2.
tan x−x
5. limx→0 x−sin x
.
Ans. 2.
log sin x
6. limx→ π2 (π−2x)2
.
Ans. − 81 .
ax −bx
7. limx→0 x
.
Ans. log ab .
r 3 −ar 2 −a2 r+a3
8. limr→a r 2 −a2
.
Ans. 0.
θ−arcsin θ
9. limθ→0 sin3 θ
.
Ans. − 61 .
sin x−sin φ
10. limx→φ x−φ
.
Ans. cos φ.
6
After differentiating, the student should in every case reduce the resulting expression to its
simplest possible form before substituting the value of the variable.

266
 ∞
10.10. EVALUATION OF THE INDETERMINATE FORM ∞

ey +sin y−1
11. limy→0 log(1+y)
.
Ans. 2.
tan θ+sec θ−1
12. limθ→0 tan θ−sec θ+1
.
Ans. 1.
sec2 φ−2 tan φ
13. limφ→ π4 1+cos 4φ
.
Ans. 21 .
az−z 2
14. limz→a a4 −2a3 z+2az 3 −z 4
.
Ans. +∞.
(ex −e2 )2
15. limx→2 (x−4)ex +e2 x
.
Ans. 6e4 .
x2 +x−2
16. limx→1 x2 −1
.
x3 +8
17. limx→−2 x5 +32
.
sin 2x
18. limx→0 x
.
x−sin x
19. limx→0 x3
.
log cos(x−1)
20. limx→1 1−sin πx
.
2

tan x−sin x
21. limx→0 sin3 x
.

∞
10.10 Evaluation of the indeterminate form ∞
In order to compute

f (x)
lim
x→a g(x)

when limx→a f (x) = ∞ and limx→a g(x) = ∞, that is, when for x = a the
function fg(x)
(x)
assumes the indeterminate form ∞∞
, we follow the same rule as that
given in §10.9 for evaluating the indeterminate form 00 .

267
10.11. EVALUATION OF THE INDETERMINATE FORM 0 · ∞

∞
Rule for evaluating the indeterminate form ∞ : Differentiate the numerator
for a new numerator and the denominator for a new denominator. The value of
this new fraction for the assigned value of the variable will be the limiting value
of the original fraction.
A rigorous proof of this rule is beyond the scope of this book and is left for more
advanced treatises.
log x
Example 10.10.1. Evaluate csc x
for x = 0.
Solution.

f (0) log(x) −∞
= = .
g(0) csc(x) x=0 ∞
Therefore, this is an indeterminate form.
1
f ′ (0) sin2 x
 
x 0
′
= =− = .
g (0) − csc x cot x x=0 x cos x x=0 0
Therefore, this is an indeterminate form.
f ′′ (0)

2 sin x cos x 0
= − = − = 0. Ans.
g ′′ (0) cos x − x sin x x=0 1
Example 10.10.2. Let a and d be nonzero.
ax2 + bx + c 2ax + b
lim 2
= lim
x→∞ dx + ex + f x→∞ 2dx + e
2a
= lim
x→∞ 2d
a
=
d

10.11 Evaluation of the indeterminate form 0 · ∞

If a function f (x) · φ(x) takes on the indeterminate form 0 · ∞ for x = a, we write
the given function
!
f (x) φ(x)
f (x) · φ(x) = 1 or = 1
φ(x) f (x)
0 ∞
so as to cause it to take on one of the forms 0
or ∞
, thus bringing it under §10.9
or §10.10.

268
 10.12. EVALUATION OF THE INDETERMINATE FORM ∞ − ∞

Example 10.11.1. Evaluate sec(3x) cos(5x) for x = π2 .

Solution. sec 3x cos 5x]x= π = ∞ · 0. Therefore, this is an indeterminate form.
2
1 cos 5x f (x)
Substituting cos 3x
for sec 3x, the function becomes cos 3x
= g(x)
.

f ( π2 )

cos 5x 0
π = = .
g( 2 ) cos 3x x= π 0
s

Therefore, this is an indeterminate form.

f ′ ( π2 )

− cos x 0
′ π = = = 0. Ans.
g (2) − sin x x= π −1
s

Example 10.11.2.
 
1 x cos x − sin x
lim cot x − = lim
x→0 x x→0 x sin x
cos x − x sin x − cos x
= lim
x→0 sin x + x cos x
−x sin x
= lim
x→0 sin x + x cos x
−x cos x − sin x
= lim
x→0 cos x + cos x − x sin x

=0

Here is the Sage command for this example:

Sage

sage: limit(cot(x)-1/x,x=0)
0
sage: limit((- x*cos(x) - sin(x) )/(cos(x) + cos(x) - x*sin(x)),x=0)
0

This verifies the answer obtained “by hand” above.

10.12 Evaluation of the indeterminate form ∞ − ∞

It is possible in general to transform the expression into a fraction which will
∞
assume either the form 00 or ∞ .

269
10.12. EVALUATION OF THE INDETERMINATE FORM ∞ − ∞

Example 10.12.1. Evaluate sec x − tan x for x = π2 .

Solution. sec x − tan x]x= π = ∞ − ∞. Therefore, this is an indeterminate
2
form. By Trigonometry,
sec x − tan x = cos1 x − cos sin x
x
= 1−sin
cos x
x
= fg(x)
(x)
.
f ( π2 ) 1−sin x
 1−1 0
g( π2 )
= cos x x= π = 0 = 0 . Therefore, this is an indeterminate form.
f ′ ( π2 ) − cos x
 2 0
g′ ( )π = − sin x x= π
= −1 = 0. Ans.
2 2

10.12.1 Exercises
Evaluate the following by differentiation7 .
ax2 +b
1. limx→∞ cx2 +d
.
Ans. ac .
cot x
2. limx→0 log x
.
Ans. −∞.
log x
3. limx=∞ xn
.
Ans. 0.
x2
4. limx→∞ ex
.
Ans. 0.
ex
5. limx→∞ log x
.
Ans. ∞.

6. limx→0 x cot πx.

Ans. π1 .
y
7. limy→∞ eay
.
Ans. 0.

8. limx→ π2 (π − 2x) tan x.

Ans. 2.
7
In solving the remaining exercises in this chapter, the formulas in §2.12 may be useful, where
many special limits are evaluated.

270
 10.12. EVALUATION OF THE INDETERMINATE FORM ∞ − ∞

9. limx→∞ x sin xa .
Ans. a.
10. limx→0 xn log x. [n positive.]
Ans. 0.
11. limθ→ π4 (1 − tan θ) sec 2θ.
Ans. 1.
12. limφ→a (a2 − φ2 ) tan πφ
2a
.
4a2
Ans. π
.
log sin 2x
13. limx→0 log sin x
.
Ans. 1.
tan θ
14. limθ→ π2 tan 3θ
.
Ans. 3.
log(φ− π2 )
15. limφ→ π2 tan φ
.
Ans. 0.
log x
16. limx→0 cot x
.
Ans. 0.
17. limx→0 x log sin x.
Ans. 0.
2 1
 
18. limx→1 x2 −1
− x−1
.
Ans. − 21 .
Sage

sage: limit(2/(xˆ2-1) - 1/(x-1),x=1)

-1/2

h i
1 x
19. limx→1 log x
− log x
.
Ans. −1.

271
10.13. EVALUATION OF THE INDETERMINATE FORMS 00 , 1∞ , ∞0

Sage

sage: limit(1/log(x) - x/log(x),x=1)

-1

20. limθ→ π2 [sec θ − tan θ].

Ans. 0.
h i
2 1
21. limφ→0 sin2 φ
− 1−cos φ
.

Ans. 12 .
h i
y 1
22. limy→1 y−1
− log y
.

Ans. 12 .
h i
π π
23. limz→0 4z
− 2z(eπz +1)
.
π2
Ans. 8
.

10.13 Evaluation of the indeterminate forms 00, 1∞,

∞0
Given a function of the form

f (x)φ(x) .
In order that the function shall take on one of the above three forms, we must have
for a certain value of x, f (x) = 0, φ(x) = 0, giving 00 ; or, f (x) = 1, φ(x) = ∞,
giving 1∞ ; or, f (x) = ∞, φ(x) = 0, giving ∞0 . Let y = f (x)φ(x) ; taking the
logarithm of both sides gives us, log y = φ(x) log f (x). In any of the above cases
the logarithm of y (the function) will take on the indeterminate form 0 · ∞.
Evaluating this by the process illustrated in §10.11 gives the limit of the loga-
rithm of the function. This being equal to the logarithm of the limit of the function,
the limit of the function is known.

272
 10.14. EXERCISES

Example 10.13.1. Evaluate xx when x = 0.

Solution. This function assumes the indeterminate form 00 for x = 0. Let
y = xx ; then log y = x log x = 0 · (−∞), when x = 0. By §10.11,
log x −∞
log y 1 = ,
x
∞
when x = 0. By §10.10,
1
x
log y = −x = 0,
− x12
when x = 0. Since y = xx , this gives loge (xx ) = 0; i.e., xx = 1. Ans.
1
Example 10.13.2. Evaluate (1 + x) x when x = 0.
Solution. This function assumes the indeterminate form 1∞ for x = 0. Let
1
y = (1 + x) x ; then log y = x1 log(1 + x) = ∞ · 0 when x = 0. By §10.11,
1
log(1+x)
y= x
= 00 , when x = 0. By §10.9, y = 1+x
1
= 1
1+x
= 1 when x = 0. Since
1 1 1
y = (1 + x) 1+x , this gives loge (1 + x) = 1; i.e. (1 + x) = e. Ans.
x x

Example 10.13.3. Evaluate cot x sin x for x = 0.

Solution. This function assumes the indeterminate form ∞0 for x = 0. Let
y = (cot x)sin x ; then log y = sin x log cot x = 0 · ∞ when x = 0. By §10.11,
− csc2 x
log cot x ∞ sin x
log y = csc x
= ∞
when x = 0. §10.10, log y = cot x
− csc x cot x
= cos2 x
= 0, when
x = 0.

10.14 Exercises
Evaluate the following limits.
1
1. limx→1 x 1−x .
Ans. 1e .
1 tan x


2. limx→0 x
.
Ans. 1.

3. limθ→ π2 (sin θ)tan θ .

Ans. 1.

273
10.14. EXERCISES
 y
4. limy→∞ 1 + ay .
Ans. ea .

5. limx→0 (1 + sin x)cot x .

Ans. e.
2

x
6. limx→∞ x
+1 .
Ans. e2 .
1
7. limx→0 (ex + x) x .
Ans. e2 .
1
8. limx→0 (cot x) log x .
Ans. 1e .
1
9. limz→0 (1 + nz) z .
Ans. en .

tan πφ
10. limφ→1 tan πφ
4
2
.
1
Ans. e
.
n
11. limθ→0 (cos mθ) θ2 .
1 2
Ans. e− 2 nm .

12. limx→0 (cot x)x .

Ans. 1.
πx
x tan


13. limx→a 2 − a
2a
.
2
Ans. e .π

x−sin x
14. (a) limx→0 x3
1


(b) limx→0 csc x − x
1 x


(c) limx→+∞ 1 + x
(d) limx→0 csc2 x − x12 .


(First evaluate using L’Hospital’s rule then us-
ing a Taylor series expansion. You will find that the latter method is
more convenient.)

274
 10.15. APPLICATION: USING TAYLOR’S THEOREM TO APPROXIMATE
FUNCTIONS.
15.  a bx
lim xa/x , lim 1 + ,
x→∞ x→∞ x
where a and b are constants.
x2 −16
16. limx→4 x2 +x−20

Ans. 8/9
x−1
17. limx→1 xn −1
.
Ans. 1/n
log x
18. limx→1 x−1
.
Ans. 1
ex −e−x
19. limx→0 sin(x)

Ans. 2
log sin(x)
20. limx→π/2 (π−2x)2

Ans. −1/8
ax −bx
21. limx→0 x

Ans. log(a/b)
θ−arcsin(θ)
22. limx→0 θ2

Ans. −1/6.
sin(x)−sin(φ)
23. limx→φ x−φ
.
Ans. cos(φ).

10.15 Application: Using Taylor’s Theorem to ap-

proximate functions.
We revisit the ideas in §10.3 above to present some applications.

275
10.15. APPLICATION: USING TAYLOR’S THEOREM TO APPROXIMATE
FUNCTIONS.
Theorem 10.15.1. (Taylor’s Theorem) If f (x) is n + 1 times continuously dif-
ferentiable in (a, b) then there exists a point x = ξ ∈ (a, b) such that
2
f (b) = f (a) + (b − a)f ′ (a) + (b−a) 2!
f ′′ (a) + · · ·
n n+1 (10.20)
+ (b−a)
n!
f (n) (a) + (b−a)
(n+1)!
f (n+1) (ξ).
For the case n = 0, the formula is

f (b) = f (a) + (b − a)f ′ (ξ),

which is just a rearrangement of the terms in the theorem of the mean,

f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (ξ) = .
b−a
One can use Taylor’s theorem to approximate functions with polynomials. Con-
sider an infinitely differentiable function f (x) and a point x = a. Substituting x
for b into Equation 10.20 we obtain,

2 (x−a)n (n)
f (x) = f (a) + (x − a)f ′ (a) + (x−a)2!
f ′′ (a) + · · · + n!
f (a)
n+1 (10.21)
+ (x−a)
(n+1)!
f (n+1) (ξ).

If the last term in the sum is small then we can approximate our function with an
nth order polynomial.

(x − a)2 ′′ (x − a)n (n)

f (x) ≈ f (a) + (x − a)f ′ (a) + f (a) + · · · + f (a)
2! n!
The last term in Equation 10.21 is called the remainder or the error term,

(x − a)n+1 (n+1)
Rn = f (ξ).
(n + 1)!

Since the function is infinitely differentiable, f (n+1) (ξ) exists and is bounded.
Therefore we note that the error must vanish as x → 0 because of the (x − a)n+1
factor. We therefore suspect that our approximation would be a good one if x is
close to a. Also note that n! eventually grows faster than (x − a)n ,

(x − a)n
lim = 0.
n→∞ n!

276
 10.15. APPLICATION: USING TAYLOR’S THEOREM TO APPROXIMATE
FUNCTIONS.
So if the derivative term, f (n+1) (ξ), does not grow to quickly, the error for a certain
value of x will get smaller with increasing n and the polynomial will become a
better approximation of the function. (It is also possible that the derivative factor
grows very quickly and the approximation gets worse with increasing n.)
Example 10.15.1. Consider the function f (x) = ex . We want a polynomial ap-
proximation of this function near the point x = 0. Since the derivative of ex is ex ,
the value of all the derivatives at x = 0 is f (n) (0) = e0 = 1. Taylor’s theorem thus
states that
x2 x3 xn xn+1 ξ
ex = 1 + x + + + ··· + + e,
2! 3! n! (n + 1)!
for some ξ ∈ (0, x). The first few polynomial approximations of the exponent
about the point x = 0 are

f1 (x) = 1
f2 (x) = 1 + x
x2
f3 (x) = 1 + x +
2
x2 x3
f4 (x) = 1 + x + +
2 6
The four approximations are graphed in Figure 10.7.
Note that for the range of x we are looking at, the approximations become more
accurate as the number of terms increases.
Here is one way to compute these approximations using Sage :
Sage

sage: x = var("x")
sage: y = exp(x)
sage: a = lambda n: diff(y,x,n)(0)/factorial(n)
sage: a(0)
1
sage: a(1)
1
sage: a(2)
1/2
sage: a(3)
1/6
sage: taylor = lambda n: sum([a(i)*xˆi for i in range(n)])
sage: taylor(2)
x + 1

277
10.15. APPLICATION: USING TAYLOR’S THEOREM TO APPROXIMATE
FUNCTIONS.

x2
Figure 10.7: Finite Taylor Series Approximations of 1, 1 + x, 1 + x + 2
to ex .

sage: taylor(3)
xˆ2/2 + x + 1
sage: taylor(4)
xˆ3/6 + xˆ2/2 + x + 1

Example 10.15.2. Consider the function f (x) = cos x. We want a polynomial

approximation of this function near the point x = 0. The first few derivatives of f
are

f (x) = cos x
f ′ (x) = − sin x
f ′′ (x) = − cos x
f ′′′ (x) = sin x
f (4) (x) = cos x

278
 10.15. APPLICATION: USING TAYLOR’S THEOREM TO APPROXIMATE
FUNCTIONS.
It’s easy to pick out the pattern here,
(
(−1)n/2 cos x for even n,
f (n) (x) =
(−1)(n+1)/2 sin x for odd n.

Since cos(0) = 1 and sin(0) = 0 the n-term approximation of the cosine is,

x2 x4 x6 x2(n−1) x2n
cos x = 1 − + − + · · · + (−1)2(n−1) + cos ξ.
2! 4! 6! (2(n − 1))! (2n)!
Here are graphs of the one-, two-, three- and four-term approximations.

x2 x2 x4
Figure 10.8: Taylor Series Approximations of 1, 1 − 2
, 1− 2
+ 4!
to cos x.

Note that for the range of x we are looking at, the approximations become more
accurate as the number of terms increases. Consider the ten term approximation
of the cosine about x = 0,
x2 x4 x18 x20
cos x = 1 − + − ··· − + cos ξ.
2! 4! 18! 20!
Note that for any value of ξ, | cos ξ| ≤ 1. Therefore the absolute value of the error
term satisfies,  20
 |x|20

x
|R| =  cos ξ  ≤ .
20! 20!

279
10.15. APPLICATION: USING TAYLOR’S THEOREM TO APPROXIMATE
FUNCTIONS.
Note that the error is very small for x < 6, fairly small but non-negligible for
x ≈ 7 and large for x > 8. The ten term approximation of the cosine, plotted in
Figure 10.9, behaves just we would predict.

x2 x4 x6 x8
Figure 10.9: Taylor Series Approximation of 1 − 2
+ 4!
− 6!
+ 8!
to cos x.

The error is very small until it becomes non-negligible at x ≈ 7 and large at

x ≈ 8.
Example 10.15.3. Consider the function f (x) = ln x. We want a polynomial
approximation of this function near the point x = 1. The first few derivatives of f
are
f (x) = ln x
1
f ′ (x) =
x
1
f ′′ (x) = − 2
x
2
f ′′′ (x) = 3
x
3
f (4) (x) = − 4
x
The derivatives evaluated at x = 1 are
f (1) = 0, f (n) (1) = (−1)n−1 (n − 1)!, for n ≥ 1.

280
 10.16. EXAMPLE/APPLICATION: FINITE DIFFERENCE METHODS

By Taylor’s theorem of the mean we have,

(x − 1)2 (x − 1)3 (x − 1)4
ln x = (x − 1) − + − + ···
2 3 4
n n+1
n−1 (x − 1) n (x − 1) 1
+ (−1) + (−1) n+1
.
n n+1 ξ
Figure 10.10 shows plots of the one-, two-, and three-term approximations.

2
Figure 10.10: Taylor series (about x = 1) approximations of x − 1, x − 1 − (x−1)
2
,
(x−1)2 (x−1)3
x − 1 − 2 + 3 to ln x.

Note that the approximation gets better on the interval (0, 2) and worse outside
this interval as the number of terms increases. The Taylor series converges to ln x
only on this interval.

10.16 Example/Application: finite difference meth-

ods
This is less of an application of derivatives themselves and more of an explanation
of one technique used to numerically approximate derivatives in a computer. Since

281
10.16. EXAMPLE/APPLICATION: FINITE DIFFERENCE METHODS

this is a bit of an advanced topic, rather than explain the theory, we shall just give
a detailed example which contains the main ideas.
Example 10.16.1. Suppose you sample a function at the discrete points n∆x,
n ∈ Z. In Figure 10.11 we sample the function f (x) = sin x on the interval
[−4, 4] with ∆x = 1/4 and plot the data points.
1

0.5

-4 -2 2 4

-0.5

-1
Figure 10.11: Sine function sampling.

We wish to approximate the derivative of the function on the grid points using
only the value of the function on those discrete points. From the definition of the
derivative, one is lead to the formula

f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
f ′ (x) ≈ . (10.22)
∆x
Taylor’s theorem states that
∆x2 ′′
f (x + ∆x) = f (x) + ∆xf ′ (x) + f (ξ).
2
Substituting this expression into our formula for approximating the derivative we
obtain

2
f (x + ∆x) − f (x) f (x) + ∆xf ′ (x) + ∆x2 f ′′ (ξ) − f (x) ∆x ′′
= = f ′ (x)+ f (ξ).
∆x ∆x 2

282
 10.16. EXAMPLE/APPLICATION: FINITE DIFFERENCE METHODS

Thus we see that the error in our approximation of the first derivative is ∆x 2
f ′′ (ξ).
Since the error has a linear factor of ∆x, we call this a first order accurate method.
Equation 10.22 is called the forward difference scheme for calculating the first
derivative. Figure 10.12 shows a plot of the value of this scheme for the function
f (x) = sin x and ∆x = 1/4. The first derivative of the function f ′ (x) = cos x is
shown for comparison.

0.5

-4 -2 2 4

-0.5

-1
Figure 10.12: Forward Difference Scheme Approximation of the Derivative.

Another scheme for approximating the first derivative is the centered difference
scheme,

f (x + ∆x) − f (x − ∆x)
f ′ (x) ≈ .
2∆x
Expanding the numerator using Taylor’s theorem,

f (x + ∆x) − f (x − ∆x)
2∆x
2 ∆x3 ′′′ ∆x2 ′′ ∆x3 ′′′
f (x) + ∆xf ′ (x) + ∆x ′′
2 f (x) + 6 f (ξ) − f (x) + ∆xf ′ (x) − 2 f (x) + 6 f (ψ)
=
2∆x
∆x2 ′′′
= f ′ (x) + (f (ξ) + f ′′′ (ψ)).
12
The error in the approximation is quadratic in ∆x. Therefore this is a second

283
10.16. EXAMPLE/APPLICATION: FINITE DIFFERENCE METHODS

order accurate scheme. Figure 10.13 is a plot of the derivative of the function and
the value of this scheme for the function f (x) = sin x and ∆x = 1/4.

0.5

-4 -2 2 4

-0.5

-1
Figure 10.13: Centered Difference Scheme Approximation of the Derivative.

Notice how the centered difference scheme gives a better approximation of the
derivative than the forward difference scheme.

284
 CHAPTER
ELEVEN

Curvature

This is a chapter of advanced topics devoted to the elementary differential geom-

etry of curves. Given a curve y = f (x) in the plane, we have studied how well the
tangent line at a point P0 = (x0 , y0 ) on the curve approximates the graph near P0 .
Analgously, we can study how well the a “tangent circle” at a point P0 = (x0 , y0 )
on the curve approximates the graph near P0 . This “tangent circle” is called the
“circle of curvature,” its radius the “radius of curvature,” and its center the “cen-
ter of curvature.” The topics covered include: the radius of curvature, curvature
(which is the inverse of the radius of curvature), circle of curvature, and center of
curvature.

11.1 Curvature
The shape of a curve depends very largely upon the rate at which the direction
of the tangent changes as the point of contact describes the curve. This rate of
change of direction is called curvature and is denoted by K. We now proceed to
find its analytical expression, first for the simple case of the circle, and then for
curves in general.

11.2 Curvature of a circle

Consider a circle of radius R.
In the notation of Figure 11.1, let

285
11.2. CURVATURE OF A CIRCLE

Figure 11.1: The curvature of a circle.

τ = angle that the tangent at P makes with the x-axis,

and
τ + ∆τ = angle made by the tangent at a neighboring point P′ .
Then we say ∆τ = total curvature of arc PP′ . If the point P with its tangent be
supposed to move along the curve to P′ , the total curvature (= ∆τ ) would measure
the total change in direction, or rotation, of the tangent; or, what is the same thing,
the total change in direction of the arc itself. Denoting by s the length of the arc
of the curve measured from some fixed point (as A) to P, and by ∆s the length of
the arc P P′ , then the ratio ∆τ
∆s
measures the average change in direction per unit
length of arc1 . Since, from Figure 11.1, ∆s = R · ∆τ , or ∆τ ∆s
= R1 , it is evident
that this ratio is constant everywhere on the circle. This ratio is, by definition, the
curvature of the circle, and we have
1
K= . (11.1)
R
The curvature of a circle equals the reciprocal of its radius.
∆τ
1
Thus, if ∆τ = π6 radians (= 30o ), and ∆s = 3 centimeters, then ∆s = π
18 radians per
centimeter = 10o per centimeter = average rate of change of direction.

286
 11.3. CURVATURE AT A POINT

11.3 Curvature at a point

Consider any curve. As in the last section, ∆τ = total curvature of the arc PP’,
and ∆τ
∆s
= average curvature of the arc PP’.

Figure 11.2: Geometry of the curvature at a point.

More important, however, than the notion of the average curvature of an arc is
that of curvature at a point. This is obtained as follows. Imagine P to approach
P along the curve; then the limiting value of the average curvature = ∆τ as P′


∆s
approaches P along the curve is defined as the curvature at P, that is,

∆τ dτ


Curvature at a point = lim∆s→0 ∆s
= ds
.

Therefore,

dτ
K= = curvature. (11.2)
ds
Since the angle ∆τ is measured in radians and the length of arc ∆s in units of
length, it follows that the unit of curvature at a point is one radian per unit of
length.

287
11.4. FORMULAS FOR CURVATURE

11.4 Formulas for curvature

It is evident that if, in the last section, instead of measuring the angles which the
tangents made with the x-axis, we had denoted by τ and τ + ∆τ the angles made
by the tangents with any arbitrarily fixed line, the different steps would in no wise
have been changed, and consequently the results are entirely independent of the
system of coordinates used. However, since the equations of the curves we shall
consider are all given in either rectangular or polar coordinates, it is necessary
dy
to deduce formulas for K in terms of both. We have tan τ = dx by §3.9, or
dy
τ = arctan dx . Differentiating with respect to x, using (4.23) in §4.1,
d y 2
dτ dx2
=
.
dx dy 2
1 + dx
Also
"  2 # 12
ds dy
= 1+ ,
dx dx
by (8.4). Dividing one equation into the other gives
dτ d2 y
dx dx2
ds
=h i 23 .
dy 2


dx 1+ dx

But
dτ
dx dτ
ds
= = K.
dx
ds
Hence
d2 y
dx2
K=h i 23 . (11.3)
dy 2


1+ dx

If the equation of the curve be given in polar coordinates, K may be found as

follows: From (5.13),

τ = θ + ψ.

288
 11.4. FORMULAS FOR CURVATURE

Differentiating,

dτ dψ
=1+ .
dθ dθ
But
ρ
tan ψ = dρ
,
dθ

from (5.12). Therefore,

ρ
ψ = arctan dρ
.
dθ

Differentiating with respect to θ using XX in §4.1 and reducing,

dρ 2 2
− ρ ddθρ2


dψ dθ
=
2 .
dθ ρ2 + dρ
dθ

Substituting, we get
2
2
dτ ρ2 − ρ ddθρ2 + 2 dρ
dθ
= .
dθ dρ 2


2
ρ + dθ

Also
"   # 12
2
ds dρ
= ρ2 ,
dθ dθ
by (8.9). Dividing gives
2
2
dτ
dθ
ρ2 − ρ ddθρ2 + 2 dρ
dθ
ds
= h i 3 .
dρ 2 2


dθ 2
ρ + dθ

But
dτ
dθ dτ
ds
= = K.
dθ
ds
Hence

289
11.4. FORMULAS FOR CURVATURE

2
2
ρ2 − ρ d ρ2 + 2 dρ
K = h dθ dθ
i 32 . (11.4)
2
ρ2 + dρ


dθ

Example 11.4.1. Find the curvature of the parabola y 2 = 4px at the left-most end
of the chord that passes through the focus and is perpendicular to the y-axis.
dy d2 y 4p2
Solution. dx = 2py
; dx 2p dy
2 = − y 2 dx = − y 3 . Substituting in (11.3), K =
40−p2
− 3 , giving the curvature at any point. At the left-most end of the chord
(y 2 +4p2 ) 2
(p, 2p),

4p2 4p2 1
K=− 3 =− √ =− √ .
(4p2 + 4p2 ) 2 16 2p3 4 2p
While in our work it is generally only the numerical value of K that is of im-
portance, yet we can give a geometric meaningqto its sign. Throughout our work
dy 2


we have taken the positive sign of the radical 1 + dx . Therefore K will be
d y 2
positive or negative at the same time that dx 2 is, i.e., (by §7.8), according as the

curve is concave upwards or concave downwards.

We shall solve this using Sage .
Sage

sage: x = var("x")
sage: p = var("p")
sage: y = sqrt(4*p*x)
sage: K = diff(y,x,2)/(1+diff(y,x)ˆ2)ˆ(3/2)
sage: K
-pˆ2/(2*(p/x + 1)ˆ(3/2)*(p*x)ˆ(3/2))

Taking x = p and simplifying gives the result above.

Sage

sage: K.variables()
(p, x)
sage: K(p,p)
-pˆ2/(4*sqrt(2)*(pˆ2)ˆ(3/2))
sage: K(p,p).simplify_rational()

290
 11.5. RADIUS OF CURVATURE

-1/(4*sqrt(2)*sqrt(pˆ2))

Example 11.4.2. Find the curvature of the logarithmic spiral ρ = eaθ at any point.
2
Solution. dρ
dθ
= aeaθ = aρ; ddθρ2 = a2 eaθ = a2 ρ.
1
Substituting in (11.4), K = ρ√1+a 2.

In laying out the curves on a railroad it will not do, on account of the high speed
of trains, to pass abruptly from a straight stretch of track to a circular curve. In
order to make the change of direction gradual, engineers make use of transition
curves to connect the straight part of a track with a circular curve. Arcs of cubical
parabolas are generally employed as transition curves.
Now we do this in Sage :
Sage

sage: rho = var("rho")

sage: t = var("t")
sage: r = var("r")
sage: a = var("a")
sage: r = exp(a*t)
sage: K = (rˆ2-r*diff(r,t,2)+2*diff(r,t)ˆ2)/(rˆ2+diff(r,t)ˆ2)ˆ(3/2)
sage: K
1/sqrt(aˆ2*eˆ(2*a*t) + eˆ(2*a*t))
sage: K.simplify_rational()
eˆ(-(a*t))/sqrt(aˆ2 + 1)

Example 11.4.3. The transition curve on a railway track has the shape of an arc
of the cubical parabola y = 13 x3 . At what rate is a car on this track changing its
direction (1 mi. = unit of length) when it is passing through (a) the point (3, 9)?
(b) the point (2, 38 )? (c) the point (1, 13 )?
dy d2 y 2x
Solution. dx = x2 , dx 2 = 2x. Substituting in (11.3), K =
4
3 . (a) At (3, 9),
(1+x ) 2
6 ′ 8 4
K = 3 radians per mile = 28 per mile. (b) At (2, 3
), K = 3 radians per
(82) 2 (17) 2
mile = 3 16 per mile. (c) At (1, 31 ), K =
o ′ 2
3 = √1
2
radians per mile = 40o 30′ per
(2) 2
mile.

11.5 Radius of curvature

By analogy with the circle (see (11.1)), the radius of curvature of a curve at a point
is defined as the reciprocal of the curvature of the curve at that point. Denoting

291
11.5. RADIUS OF CURVATURE

the radius of curvature by R, we have2

1
R= .
K
Or, substituting the values of x from (11.3) and (11.4),
h i 32
dy 2


1+ dx
R= d2 y
(11.5)
dx2

and3
h i 32
2 dρ 2


ρ + dθ
R=
. (11.6)
2 dρ 2
ρ2 − ρ ddθρ2 + 2 dθ

Example 11.5.1. Find the radius of curvature at any point of the catenary y =
a x x
2
(e a + e− a ).
dy x x d2 y x
−x
Solution. dx = 12 (e a − e− a ); dx 1
2 = 2a (e
a − e a ). Substituting in (11.5),

"
x «2 # 32
−x
„
e a −e a
1+ 2
R = x −x
e a −e a
„ x 2a«3
−x
e a −e a
x x
2 a(e a −e− a )2
= x −x
e a −e a
= 4
2a
y2
= a
.
If the equation of the curve is given in parametric form, find the first and second
derivatives of y with respect to x from (9.5) and (9.6), namely:
dy
dy dt
= dx
,
dx dt

and
2
Hence the radius of curvature will have the same sign as the curvature, that is, + or −, ac-
cording as the curve is concave upwards or concave downwards.
3
In §9.4, the next equation is derived from the previous one by transforming from rectangular
to polar coordinates.

292
 11.6. CIRCLE OF CURVATURE

dx d2 y 2
d2 y dt dt2
− dy d x
dt dt2
= ,
dx2 dx 3


dt
4
and then substitute the results in (11.5).
Example 11.5.2. Find the radius of curvature of the cycloid x = a(t − sin t),
y = a(t − cos t).
2 2
Solution. dx dt
= a(1 − cos t), dy dt
= a sin t; ddt2x = a sin t, ddt2y = a cos t. Substi-
tuting the previous example and then in (11.5), we get
h i3
2 2
dy d2 y a(1−cos t)a cos t−a sin ta sin t 1+( 1−cos
sin t
t)
sin t 1
dx
= 1−cos t , dx2 = a3 (1−cos t)3
= a(1−cos t)2 , and R = − 1 =
a(1−cos t)2
√
−2a 2 − 2 cos t.

11.6 Circle of curvature

Consider any point P on the curve C (see Figure 11.3). The tangent drawn to the
curve at P has the same slope as the curve itself at P (see §5.1). In an analogous
manner we may construct for each point of the curve a circle whose curvature is
the same as the curvature of the curve itself at that point. To do this, proceed as
follows. Draw the normal to the curve at P on the concave side of the curve.
Move along this normal a distance R from P to a point C. With C as a center,
draw the circle passing through P . The curvature of this circle is then K = R1 ,
which also equals the curvature of the curve itself at P .
Definition 11.6.1. (First definition) The circle so constructed is called the circle
of curvature for the point P on the curve.
In general, the circle of curvature of a curve at a point will cross the curve at that
point. This is illustrated in the Figure 11.3.
Just as the tangent at P shows the direction of the curve at P , so the circle
of curvature at P aids us very materially in forming a geometric concept of the
curvature of the curve at P , the rate of change of direction of the curve and of the
circle being the same at P .
The circle of curvature can be defined as the limiting position of a secant circle,
a definition analogous to that of the tangent given in §3.9.
2 3/2
h 2
i
dt )
( dx +( dy
dt )
4
Substituting these last two equations in (11.5) gives R = dx d2 y dy d2 x
.
dt dt2 − dt dt2

293
11.6. CIRCLE OF CURVATURE

Figure 11.3: The circle of curvature.

Example 11.6.1. Find the radius of curvature at the point (3, 4) on the equilateral
hyperbola xy = 12, and draw the corresponding circle of curvature.
dy d2 y 4 d2 y
Solution. dx = − xy , dx 2y dy 8
2 = x2 . For (3, 4), dx = − 3 , dx2 = 9 , so

16 32
[1 + 9
] 125 5
R= 8 = = 25 .
9
24 24
The circle of curvature crosses the curve at two points.
We solve for the circle of curvature using Sage . First, we solve for the inter-
section of the normal y − 4 = (−1/m)(x − 3), where m = y ′ (3) = −4/3, and
the circle of radius R = 125/24 about (3, 4):
Sage

sage: x = var("x")
sage: y = 12/x
sage: K = diff(y,x,2)/(1+diff(y,x)ˆ2)ˆ(3/2)
sage: K
24/((144/xˆ4 + 1)ˆ(3/2)*xˆ3)
sage: K(3)
24/125
sage: R = 1/K(3)

294
 11.6. CIRCLE OF CURVATURE

sage: m = diff(y,x)(3); m
-4/3
sage: xx = var("xx")
sage: yy = var("yy")
sage: solve((xx-3)ˆ2+(-1/m)ˆ2*(xx-3)ˆ2==Rˆ2, xx)
[xx == -7/6, xx == 43/6]

This tells us that the normal line intersects the circle of radius R centered at (3, 4)
in 2 points, one of which is at (43/6, 57/8). This is the center of the circle of
curvature, so the equation is (x − 43/6)2 + (y − 57/8)2 = R2 .

Figure 11.4: The circle of curvature of a hyperbola.

295
11.7. EXERCISES

11.7 Exercises
1. Find the radius of curvature for each of the following curves, at the point
indicated; draw the curve and the corresponding circle of curvature:

(a) b2 x2 + a2 y 2 = a2 b2 , (a, 0).

2
Ans. R = ba .
(b) b2 y 2 + a2 y 2 = a2 b2 , (0, b).
2
Ans. R = ab .
(c) y = x4 − 4x3 − 18x2 , (0, 0).
1
Ans. R = 36 .
(d) 16y 2 = 4x4 − x6 , (2, 0).
Ans. R = 2.
(e) y = x3 , (x1 , y1 ).
3
(1+9x1 4 ) 2
Ans. R = 6x1
.
(f) y 2 = x3 , (4, 8).
3
Ans. R = 31 (40) 2 .
(g) y 2 = 8x, ( 98 , 3).
Ans. R = 125 16
.

2
2
(h) xa + yb 3 = 1, (0, b).
a2
Ans. R = 3b
.
(i) x2 = 4ay, (0, 0).
Ans. R = 2a.
(j) (y − x2 )2 = x5 , (0, 0).
Ans. R = 12 .
(k) b2 x2 − a2 y 2 = a2 b2 , (x1 , y1 ).
3
(b4 x1 2 +a4 y1 2 ) 2
Ans. R = a 4 b4
.
(ℓ ) ex = sin y, (x1 , y1 ).
(m) y = sin x, π2 , 1 .


√

(n) y = cos x, π4 , 2 .

296
 11.7. EXERCISES

(o) y = log x, x = e.
(p) 9y = x3 , x = 3.
(q) 4y 2 = x3 , x = 4.
(r) x2 − y 2 = a2 , y = 0.
(s) x2 + 2y 2 = 9, (1, −2).

2. Determine the radius of curvature of the curve a2 y = bx2 + cx2 y at the

origin.
a2
Ans. R = 2b
.
a2 (a−x)
3. Show that the radius of curvature of the witch y 2 = x
at the vertex is
a
2
.

4. Find the radius of curvature of the curve y = log sec x at the point (x1 , y1 ).
Ans. R = sec x1 .
1 1 1
5. Find K at any point on the parabola x 2 + y 2 = a 2 .
1
a2
Ans. K = 3 .
2(x+y) 2

2 2 2
6. Find R at any point on the hypocycloid x 3 + y 3 = a 3 .
1
Ans. R = 3(axy) 3 .

7. Find R at any point on the cycloid x = r arcvers yr −

p
2ry − y 2 .
√
Ans. R = 2 2ry.

Find the radius of curvature of the following curves at any point:

8. The circle ρ = a sin θ.

Ans. R = a2 .

9. The spiral of Archimedes ρ = aθ.

3
(ρ2 =a2 ) 2
Ans. R = ρ2 +2a2
.

10. The cardioid ρ = a(1 cos θ).

√
R = 32 2aρ.

297
11.7. EXERCISES

11. The lemniscate ρ2 = a2 cos 2θ.

a2
R= 3ρ
.

12. The parabola ρ = a sec2 2θ .

Ans. R = 2a sec3 2θ .

13. The curve ρ = asin3 3θ .

14. The trisectrix ρ = 2a cos θ − a.

3
a(5−4 cos θ) 2
Ans. R = 9−6 cos θ
.

15. The equilateral hyperbola ρ2 cos 2θ = a2 .

ρ3
Ans. R = a2
.
a(1−e2 )
16. The conic ρ = 1−e cos θ
.
3
a(1−e2 )(1−2e cos θ+e2 ) 2
Ans. R = (1−e cos θ)3
.

17. The curve

(
x = 3t2 ,
y = 3t − t3 ,
t = 1.
Ans. R = 6.
In Sage :
Sage

sage: t = var(’t’)
sage: x = 3*tˆ2
sage: y = 3*t-tˆ3
sage: Rnum = (x.diff(t)ˆ2+y.diff(t)ˆ2)ˆ(3/2)
sage: Rdenom = x.diff(t)*y.diff(t,2)-y.diff(t)*x.diff(t,2)
sage: R = Rnum/Rdenom
sage: R(1)
-6

298
 11.7. EXERCISES

18. The hypocycloid

(
x = a cos3 t,
y = a sin3 t,
t = t1 .
Ans. R = 3a sin t1 cos t1 .
In Sage :
Sage

sage: t = var(’t’)
sage: x = cos(t)ˆ3
sage: y = sin(t)ˆ3
sage: Rnum = (x.diff(t)ˆ2+y.diff(t)ˆ2)ˆ(3/2)
sage: Rdenom = x.diff(t)*y.diff(t,2)-y.diff(t)*x.diff(t,2)
sage: R = Rnum/Rdenom
sage: R.simplify_trig()
-sqrt(9*cos(t)ˆ2 - 9*cos(t)ˆ4)

You can simplify this last result even further if you want.

19. The curve

(
x = a(cos t + t sin t),
y = a(sin t − t cos t),
t = π2 .
πa
Ans. R = 2
.

20. The curve

(
x = a(m cos t + cos mt),
y = a(m sin t − sin mt),
t = t0 .
4ma m+1


Ans. R = m−1
sin 2
t0 .

299
11.7. EXERCISES

21. Find the radius of curvature for each of the following curves at the point
indicated; draw the curve and the corresponding circle of curvature:
(a) x = t2 , 2y = t; t = 1. (e) x = t, y = 6t − 1; t = 2.
2 3
(b) x = t , y = t ; t = 1. (f) x = 2et , y = e−t ; t = 0.
π
(c) x = sin t, y = cos 2t; t = 6 . (g) x = sin t, y = 2 cos t; t = π4 .
(d) x = 1 − t, y = t3 ; t = 3. (h) x = t3 , y = t2 + 2t; t = 1.

22. An automobile race track has the form of the ellipse x2 + 16y 2 = 16, the
unit being one mile. At what rate is a car on this track changing its direction

(a) when passing through one end of the major axis?

(b) when passing through one end of the minor axis?
(c) when two miles from the minor axis?
(d) when equidistant from the minor and major axes?

1
Ans. (a) 4 radians per mile; (b) 16
radian per mile.

23. On leaving her dock a steamship moves on an arc of the semi cubical
parabola 4y 2 = x3 . If the shore line coincides with the axis of y, and the
unit of length is one mile, how fast is the ship changing its direction when
one mile from the shore?
24
Ans. 125
radians per mile.

24. A battleship 400 ft. long has changed its direction 30o while moving through
a distance equal to its own length. What is the radius of the circle in which
it is moving?
Ans. 764 ft.

25. At what rate is a bicycle rider on a circular track of half a mile diameter
changing his direction?
Ans. 4 rad. per mile = 43′ per rod.

26. The origin being directly above the starting point, an aeroplane follows ap-
proximately the spiral ρ = θ, the unit of length being one mile. How rapidly
is the aeroplane turning at the instant it has circled the starting point once?

300
 11.8. CIRCLE OF CURVATURE

27. A railway track has curves of approximately the form of arcs from the fol-
lowing curves. At what rate will an engine change its direction when pass-
ing through the points indicated (1 mi. = unit of length):
(a) y = x3 , (2, 8)? (d) y = ex , x = 0?
(b) y = x2 , (3, 9)? (e) y = cos x, x = π4 ?
(c) x2 − y 2 = 8, (3, 1)? (f) ρθ = 4, θ = 1?

11.8 Circle of curvature

The circle of curvature is sometimes called the osculating circle. It was defined
from another point of view in §11.6.

Definition 11.8.1. (Second definition) If a circle be drawn through three points

P0 = (x0 , y0 ), P1 = (x1 , y1 ), P2 = (x2 , y2 ) on a plane curve, and if P1 and P2 be
made to approach P0 along the curve as a limiting position, then the circle will in
general approach in magnitude and position a limiting circle called the circle of
curvature of the curve at the point P0 . The center of this circle is called the center
of curvature.

Figure 11.5: Geometric visualization of the circle of curvature.

301
11.8. CIRCLE OF CURVATURE

Let the equation of the curve be

y = f (x); (11.7)
and let x0 , x1 , x2 be the abscissas of the points P0 , P1 , P2 respectively, C =
(α′ , β ′ ) the coordinates of the center, and R′ the radius of the circle passing
through the three points. Then the equation of the circle is

(x − α′ )2 + (y − β ′ )2 = (R′ )2 ;
and since the coordinates of the points P0 , P1 , P2 must satisfy this equation, we
have

′ 2 ′ 2 ′ 2
(x0 − α ) + (y0 − β ) − (R ) = 0,

(x1 − α′ )2 + (y1 − β ′ )2 − (R′ )2 = 0, (11.8)
 ′ 2 ′ 2 ′ 2
(x2 − α ) + (y2 − β ) − (R ) = 0.


Now consider the function of x defined by

F (x) = (x − α′ )2 + (y − β ′ )2 − (R′ )2 ,
in which y = f (x) using (11.7).
Then from equations (11.8) we get

F (x0 ) = 0, F (x1 ) = 0, F (x2 ) = 0.

Hence, by Rolle’s Theorem (§10.1), F ′ (x) must vanish for at least two values of
x, one lying between x0 and x1 , say x′ , and the other lying between x1 and x2 say
x′′ ; that is,

F ′ (x′ ) = 0, F ′ (x′′ ) = 0.
Again, for the same reason, F ′′ (x) must vanish for some value of x between x′
and x′′ , say x3 ; hence

F ′′ (x3 ) = 0.
Therefore the elements α′ , β ′ , R′ of the circle passing through the points P0 , P1 ,
P2 must satisfy the three equations

F (x0 ) = 0, F ′ (x′ ) = 0, F ′′ (x3 ) = 0.

302
 11.8. CIRCLE OF CURVATURE

Now let the points P1 and P2 approach P0 as a limiting position; then x1 , x2 , x′ ,

x′′ , x3 will all approach x0 as a limit, and the elements α, β, R of the osculating
circle are therefore determined by the three equations

F (x0 ) = 0, F ′ (x0 ) = 0, F ′′ (x0 ) = 0;

or, dropping the subscripts, which is the same thing,

(x − α)2 + (y − β)2 = R2 (11.9)

dy
(x − α) + (y − β) = 0, (11.10)
dx
differentiating (11.9).
2
d2 y

dy
1+ + (y − β) 2 = 0, (11.11)
dx dx
differentiating
 2  (11.10). Solving (11.10) and (11.11) for x − α and y − β, we get
d y
dx2
6= 0 ,
dy 2
 dy
h i
dx
1+( dx )
x − α =


d2 y
dx2 (11.12)
dy 2
1+( dx )
y − β = − d2 y ;


dx2

hence the coordinates of the center of curvature are

dy 2
h i
dy
dx
1+( dx )
α =x− d2 y
dx2 (11.13)
dy 2
1+ dx( )
β =y+ d2 y
,
dx2
2
d y
assuming dx 2 6= 0.

Substituting the values of x − α and y − β from (11.12) in (11.9), and solving

for R, we get
h i 23
dy 2


1+ dx
R=± d2 y
,
dx2
which is identical with (11.5), [§11.5]. This is summarized in the following state-
ment.

303
11.9. SECOND METHOD FOR FINDING CENTER OF CURVATURE

Theorem 11.8.1. The radius of the circle of curvature equals the radius of curva-
ture.

11.9 Second method for finding center of curvature

Here we shall make use of the definition of circle of curvature given in §11.6.
Draw a figure showing the tangent line, circle of curvature, radius of curvature,
and center of curvature C = (α, β) corresponding to the point P = (x, y) on the
curve. For example, in Figure 11.5, replace P2 by P , replace (α′ , β ′ ) by (α, β),
and imagine the tangent line to the curve drawn at P . Call the origin in the plane
O, the projection of P to the x-axis D, the projection of C to the x-axis A, and
call B the projection of P onto the segment CA. This is depicted in Figure 11.6.

Figure 11.6: Circle of curvature.

Then

304
 11.9. SECOND METHOD FOR FINDING CENTER OF CURVATURE

α = OA = OD − AD = OD − BP = x − BP,
β = AC = AB + BC = DP + BC = y + BC.
But BP = R sin τ , BC = R cos τ . Hence

α = x − R sin τ, β = y + R cos τ. (11.14)

Example 11.9.1. We shall solve for the radius of curvature of y = x3 − x2 + 1 at

x = 1 using Sage .
Sage

sage: y = xˆ3-xˆ2+1
sage: Dy = diff(y,x)
sage: D2y = diff(y,x,x)
sage: R = (1+Dyˆ2)ˆ(3/2)/D2y
sage: R(1)
1/sqrt(2)
sage: alpha = x - Dy*(1+Dyˆ2)/D2y
sage: beta = y + (1+Dyˆ2)/D2y
sage: alpha(1)
1/2
sage: beta(1)
3/2

From (8.8) [§8.3], and (11.5) [11.5],

dy
dx
sin τ = h i 12 ,
dy 2


1+ dx

1
cos τ = h i 12 ,
dy 2


1+ dx
h i 23
dy 2


1+ dx
R= d2 y
.
dx2
Substituting these back in (11.14), we get

305
11.10. CENTER OF CURVATURE

h i
dy dy 2


1+ dy 2


dx dx 1+ dx
α=x− d2 y
; β=y+ d2 y
. (11.15)
dx2 dx 2

From Lemma 7.8.1 [§7.8], we know that at a point of inflection

d2 y
= 0.
dx2
Therefore, by (11.3) [§11.4], the curvature K = 0. From (11.5) [§11.5], and
d2 y
(11.15) [§11.9], we see that in general α, β, R increase without limit as dx 2 → 0.

Example 11.9.2. Find the coordinates of the center of curvature of the parabola
y 2 = 4px corresponding (a) to any point on the curve; (b) to the vertex.
dy 2 2
Solution. dx = 2p ; d y = − 4p
y dx2 y3
.
(a) Substituting in (11.13) [§11.8],

y 2 + 4p2 2p y 3
α=x+ · · = 3x + 2p.
y2 y 4p2
y 2 + 4p2 y 3 y3
β=y− · = − .
y2 4p2 4p2
 
y3
Therefore 3x + 2p, − 4p 2 is the center of curvature corresponding to any point
on the curve.
(b) (2p, 0) is the center of curvature corresponding to the vertex (0, 0).

11.10 Center of curvature

In this section, we discuss how the center of curvature can be thought of geomet-
ricaly as the limiting position of the intersection of normals at neighboring points.
Let the equation of a curve be

y = f (x). (11.16)
The equations of the normals to the curve at two neighboring points P0 and P1
are (using (5.2) [§5.3]),

dy0 dy1
(x0 − x) + (y0 − y) = 0, (x1 − x) + (y1 − y) = 0.
dx0 dx1

306
 11.10. CENTER OF CURVATURE

If the normals intersect at C ′ = (α′ , β ′ ), the coordinates of this point must satisfy
both equations, giving
(
dy0
(x0 − α′ ) + (y0 − β) dx = 0,
0
dy1 (11.17)
(x1 − α′ ) + (y1 − β ′ ) dx 1
= 0.

Now consider the function of x defined by

dy
φ(x) = (x − α′ ) + (y − β ′ ) ,
dx
in which y = f (x) using (11.16). Then equations (11.17) show that

φ(x0 ) = 0, φ(x1 ) = 0.

But then, by Rolle’s Theorem (§10.1), φ′ (x) must vanish for some value of x
between x0 and x1 say x′ . Therefore α′ and β ′ are determined by the two equations

φ(x0 ) = 0, φ′ (x′ ) = 0.

If now P1 approaches P0 as a limiting position, then x′ approaches x0 , giving

φ(x0 ) = 0, φ′ (x0 ) = 0,

and C ′ (α′ , β ′ ) will approach as a limiting position the center of curvature C(α, β)
corresponding to P0 on the curve. For if we drop the subscripts and write the last
two equations in the form
2
d2 y

′ dy
′ dy ′
(x − α ) + (y − β ) = 0, 1+ + (y − β ) 2 = 0,
dx dx dx

it is evident that solving for α′ and β ′ will give the same results as solving (11.10)
and ((11.11) for α and β. Hence we have the following result.

Theorem 11.10.1. The center of curvature C corresponding to a point P on a

curve is the limiting position of the intersection of the normal to the curve at P
with a neighboring normal.

307
11.11. EVOLUTES

11.11 Evolutes
The locus of the centers of curvature of a given curve is called the evolute of that
curve. Consider the circle of curvature corresponding to a point P on a curve.
If P moves along the given curve, we may suppose the corresponding circle of
curvature to roll along the curve with it, its radius varying so as to be always equal
to the radius of curvature of the curve at the point P . The curve described by the
center of the circles is the evolute.
It is instructive to make an approximate construction of the evolute of a curve by
estimating (from the shape of the curve) the lengths of the radii of curvature at
different points on the curve and then drawing them in and drawing the locus of
the centers of curvature.
Formula (11.13) gives the coordinates of any point (α, β) on the evolute ex-
pressed in terms of the coordinates of the corresponding point (x, y) of the given
curve. But y is a function of x; therefore
h
i
dy 2 dy dy 2
1 + dx


dx 1 + dx
α=x− d2 y
, β=y+ d2 y
dx2 dx2
give us at once the parametric equations of the evolute in terms of the parameter
x.
To find the ordinary rectangular equation of the evolute we eliminate x between
the two expressions. No general process of elimination can be given that will
apply in all cases, the method to be adopted depending on the form of the given
equation. In a large number of cases, however, the student can find the rectangular
equation of the evolute by taking the following steps:
General directions for finding the equation of the evolute in rectangular coordi-
nates.

• FIRST STEP. Find α, β from (11.15).

• SECOND STEP. Solve the two resulting equations for x and y in terms of
α and β.

• THIRD STEP. Substitute these values of x and y in the given equation. This
gives a relation between the variables α and β which is the equation of the
evolute.

Example 11.11.1. Find the equation of the evolute of the parabola y 2 = 4px.

308
 11.11. EVOLUTES

Figure 11.7: Evolute of a parabola.

dy 2p d2 y 2
Solution. dx
= ,
y dx2
= − 4p
y3
.
y 3
First step. α = 3x + 2p, β = − 4p 2.
1
Second step. x = α−2p3
, y = −(4p2 β) 3 .
2
Third step (4p2 β) 3 = 4p α−2p 4
or pβ 2 = 27 (α − 2p)3 .


3
Remembering that α denotes the “x-coordinate” and β the “y-coordinate” of a
rectangular system of coordinates, we see that the evolute of the parabola y = 4x2
is the “cusp” y 2 = 4(x − 2)3 /27. The curve (dotted) and its evolute (solid) are
plotted in Figure 11.7.

Example 11.11.2. Find the equation of the evolute of the ellipse b2 x2 + a2 y 2 =

a2 b 2 .
dy 2 d2 y b4
Solution. dx = − ab 2xy , dx 2 = − a2 y 3 .
(a2 −b2 )x3 2 2 3
First step. α = β = − (a −b
a4
,b4
)y
.
 4  31  4  13
Second step. x = aa2 −bα2 , y = − a2b−b β
2 .
2 2 2
Third step. (aα) 3 + (bβ) 3 = (a2 − b2 ) 3 , the equation of the evolute of the
ellipse.

When the equations of the curve are given in parametric form, we proceed to

309
11.11. EVOLUTES

dy d2 y
find dx
and dx2
, as in §11.5, from
dy dx d2 y 2
dy dt d2 y dt dt2
− dy d x
dt dt2
= , = (11.18)
dx dx dx2 dx 3


dt dt
and then substitute the results in formulas (11.15). This gives the parametric equa-
tions of the evolute in terms of the same parameter that occurs in the given equa-
tions.
Example 11.11.3. The parametric equations of a curve are

t2 + 1 t3
x= , y= . (11.19)
4 6
Find the equation of the evolute in parametric form, plot the curve and the evolute,
find the radius of curvature at the point where t = 1, and draw the corresponding
circle of curvature.
2 2 2
Solution. dx
dt
= 2t , ddt2x = 21 , dy
dt
= t2 , ddt2y = t. Substituting in above formulas
(11.18) and then in (11.15), gives

1 − t2 − 2t4 4t3 + 3t
α= , β= , (11.20)
4 6
the parametric equations of the evolute. Assuming values of the parameter t, we
calculate x, y; α, β from (11.19) and (11.20). The curve (solid) and its evolute
(dotted) are plotted in Figure 11.9.
The point ( 14 , 0) is common to the given curve and its evolute. The given curve (a
“cusp”) lies entirely to the right and the evolute entirely to the left of x = 14 .
Example 11.11.4. Find the parametric equations of the evolute of the cycloid,
(
x = a(t − sin t)
(11.21)
y = a(1 − cos t).
Solution. As in Example 11.5.2, we get

dy sin t d2 y 1
= , 2
=− .
dx 1 − cos t dx α(1 − cos t)2
Substituting these results in formulas (11.15), we get the answer:
(
α = a(t + sin t),
(11.22)
β = −a(1 − cos t).

310
 11.11. EVOLUTES

Figure 11.8: Evolute of an parametric curve.

Figure 11.9: Evolute of a cycloid.

The curve (solid) and its evolute (dotted) are plotted in Figure 11.9.

311
11.12. PROPERTIES OF THE EVOLUTE

11.12 Properties of the evolute

From (11.14),

α = x − R sin τ, β = y + R cos τ. (11.23)

Let us choose as independent variable the lengths of the arc on the given curve;
then x, y, R, T , α, β are functions of s. Differentiating (11.23) with respect to s
gives

dα dx dτ dR
= − R cos τ − sin τ , (11.24)
ds ds ds ds

dβ dy dτ dR
= − R sin τ + cos τ . (11.25)
ds ds ds ds
But dx
ds
= cos τ , dy
ds
= sin τ , from (8.5); and dτ
ds
= 1
R
, from (11.1) and (11.2).
Substituting in (11.24) and (11.25), we obtain

dα 1 dR dR
= cos τ − R cos τ · − sin τ = − sin τ , (11.26)
ds R ds ds
and
dβ 1 dR dR
= sin τ − R sin τ · + cos τ = cos τ . (11.27)
ds R ds ds
Dividing (11.27) by (11.26) gives

dβ 1 1
= − cot τ = − = − dy . (11.28)
dα tan τ dx
dβ dy
But dα = tan τ = slope of tangent to the evolute at C, and dx = tan τ = slope of
tangent to the given curve at the corresponding point P = (x, y).
Substituting the last two results in (11.28), we get

1
tan τ ′ = − .
tan τ
Since the slope of one tangent is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the other,
they are perpendicular. But a line perpendicular to the tangent at P is a normal to
the curve. Hence
A normal to the given curve is a tangent to its evolute.
Again, squaring equations (11.26) and (11.27) and adding, we get

312
 11.13. EXERCISES

 2  2  2
dα dβ dR
+ = . (11.29)
ds ds ds
But if s′ = length of arc of the evolute, the left-hand member of (11.29) is precisely
′
the square of ds
ds
(from (8.12), where t = s, s = s′ , x = α, y = β). Hence (11.29)
asserts that
2 2
ds′ ds′
 
dR dR
= , or =± .
ds ds ds ds
That is, the radius of curvature of the given curve increases or decreases as fast as
the arc of the evolute increases. In our figure this means that

P1 C1 − P C = arc CC1 .
The length of an arc of the evolute is equal to the difference between the radii of
curvature of the given curve which are tangent to this arc at its extremities.
Thus in Example 11.11.4, we observe that if we fold Qv Pv ( = 4a) over to the
left on the evolute, Pv will reach to O′ , and we have:
The length of one arc of the cycloid (as OO′ Qv ) is eight times the length of the
radius of the generating circle.

11.13 Exercises
Find the coordinates of the center of curvature and the equation of the evolute of
each of the following curves. Draw the curve and its evolute, and draw at least
one circle of curvature.
x2 y2
1. The hyperbola a2
− b1
= 1.
(a2 +b2 )x3 2 +b2 )y 3 2 2 2
Ans. α = a4
, β = − (a b4
; evolute (aα) 3 − (bβ) 3 = (a2 + b2 ) 3 .
2 2 2
2. The hypocycloid x 3 + y 3 = a 3 .
1 2 2 1 2 2 2
α = x + 3x 3 y 3 , β = y + 3x 3 y 3 ; evolute (α + β) 3 + (α − β) 3 = 2a 3 .

3. Find the coordinates of the center of curvature of the cubical parabola y 3 =

a2 x.
a4 +15y 4 a4 y−9y 5
Ans. α = 6a2 y
, β= 2a4
.

313
11.13. EXERCISES

1 1 1
4. Show that in the parabola x 2 + y 2 = a 2 we have the relation α + β =
3(x + y).

5. Given the equation of the equilateral hyperbola 2xy = a2 show that

(y + x)3 (y − x)3
α+β = ,α − β = .
a2 a2
2 2 2
From this derive the equation of the evolute (α + β) 3 − (α − β) 3 = 2a 3 .

Find the parametric equations of the evolutes of the following curves in terms
of the parameter t. Draw the curve and its evolute, and draw at least one circle of
curvature. (
x = a cos3 t,
6. The hypocycloid
y = a sin3 t.
(
α = a cos3 t + 3a cos t sin2 t,
Ans. .
β = 3a cos2 t sin t + a sin3 t.
(
x = 3t2 ,
7. The curve
y = 3t − t3 .
(
α = 23 (1 + 2t2 − t4 ),
Ans.
β = −4t3 .
(
x = a(cos t + t sin t),
8. The curve .
y = a(sin t − t cos t).
(
α = a cos t,
Ans. .
β = a sin t.
(
x = 3t,
9. The curve .
y = t2 − 6.
(
α = − 43 t3 ,
Ans. .
β = 3t2 − 23 .
(
x = 6 − t2
10. The curve .
y = 2t.
(
α = 4 − 3t2 ,
Ans. .
β = −2t3 .

314
 11.13. EXERCISES
(
x = 2t,
11. The curve .
y = t2 − 2.
(
α = −2t3 ,
Ans. .
β = 3t2 .
(
x = 4t,
12. The curve .
y = 3 + t2 .
(
α = −t3 ,
Ans. .
β = 11 + 3t2 .
(
x = 9 − t2 ,
13. The curve .
y = 2t.
(
α = 7 − 3t2 ,
Ans. .
β = −2t3 .
(
x = 2t,
14. The curve .
y = 13 t3 .
( 5
α = 4t−t4
.
Ans. 12+5t4
.
β = 6t .
(
x = 31 t3 ,
15. The curve .
y = t2 .
( 3
α = 4t +12t
3
Ans. 2 4 .
β = − 2t 2+t .
(
x = 2t,
16. The curve .
y = 3t .
( 4
α = 12t4t3+9
Ans 4 .
β = 27+4t
6t
.
17. x = 4 − t2 , y = 2t.
18. x = 2t, y = 16 − t2 .
19. x = t, y = sin t.
20. x = 4t , y = 3t.
21. x = t2 , y = 16 t3 .
22. x = t, y = t3 .
23. x = sin t, y = 3 cos t.

315
11.13. EXERCISES

24. x = 1 − cos t, y = t − sin t.

25. x = cos4 t, y = sin4 t.
26. x = a sec t, y = b tan t.

316
 CHAPTER
TWELVE

Appendix: Collection of formulas

12.1 Formulas for reference

For the convenience of the reader we give the following list of elementary formu-
las from Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry, and Analytic Geometry.

1. Binomial Theorem (n being a positive integer):

n(n−1) n−2 2
(a + b)n = an + nan−1 b + 2!
a b + n(n−1)(n−2)3!
an−3 b3 + · · ·
n(n−1)(n−2)···(n−r+2) n−r+1 r−1
+ (r−1)!
a b + ···

2. n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 · · · (n − 1)n.

3. In the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0,

when b2 − 4ac > 0, the roots are real and distinct;
when b2 − 4ac = 0, the roots are real and equal;
when b2 − 4ac < 0, the roots are complex.

4. When a quadratic equation is reduced to the form x2 + px + q = 0,

p = sum of roots with sign changed, and
q = product of roots.

317
12.1. FORMULAS FOR REFERENCE

5. In an arithmetical series, a, a + d, a + 2d, ...,

n−1
X n
s= a + id = [2a + (n − 1)d].
i=0
2

6. In a geometrical series, a, ar, ar2 , ...,

n−1
X a(rn − 1)
s= ari = .
i=0
r−1

7. log ab = log a + log b.

8. log ab = log a − log b.

9. log an = n log a.
√
10. log n a = n1 log a.

11. log 1 = 0.

12. log e = 1.

13. log a1 = − log a.

1
14. Circumference of circle = 2π r.

15. Area of circle = π r2 .

16. Volume of prism = Ba.

17. Volume of pyramid = 13 Ba.

18. Volume of right circular cylinder = π r2 a.

19. Lateral surface of right circular cylinder = 2π ra.

20. Total surface of right circular cylinder = 2π r(r + a).

21. Volume of right circular cone = 2π r(r + a).

1
In formulas 14-25, r denotes radius, a altitude, B area of base, and s slant height.

318
 12.1. FORMULAS FOR REFERENCE

22. Lateral surface of right circular cone = π rs.

23. Total surface of right circular cone = π r(r + s).

24. Volume of sphere = 43 π r3 .

25. Surface of sphere = 4π r2 .

1
26. sin x = csc x
;
1
cos x = sec x ;
tan x = cot1 x .
sin x
27. tan x = cos x
;
cos x
cot x = sin x
.

28. sin2 x + cos2 x = 1;

1 + tan2 x = sec2 x;
1 + cot2 x = csc2 x.

29. sin x = cos π2 − x ;

cos x = sin π2 − x ;

tan x = cot π2 − x .

30. sin(π − x) = sin x;

cos(π − x) = − cos x;
tan(π − x) = − tan x.

31. sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y.

32. sin(x − y) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y.

33. cos(x ± y) = cos x cos y + ∓ sin x sin y.

tan x+tan y
34. tan(x + y) = 1−tan x tan y
.
tan x−tan y
35. tan(x − y) = 1+tan x tan y
.

36. sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x; cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x; tan 2x = 2 tan x

1−tan2 x
.

319
12.1. FORMULAS FOR REFERENCE

2 tan 21 x
37. sin x = 2 sin x2 cos x2 ; cos x = cos2 x
2
− sin2 x2 ; tan x = 1−tan2 21 x
.

38. cos2 x = 1
2
+ 21 cos 2x; sin2 x = 1
2
− 21 cos 2x.

39. 1 + cos x = 2 cos2 x2 ; 1 − cos x = 2 sin2 x2 .

q q q
40. sin x2 = ± 1−cos
2
x
; cos x/2 = ± 1+cos x
2
; tan x
2
= ± 1−cos x
1+cos x
.

41. sin x + sin y = 2 sin 12 (x + y) cos 12 (x − y).

42. sin x − sin y = 2 cos 21 (x + y) sin 12 (x − y).

43. cos x + cos y = −2 cos 12 (x + y) cos 12 (x − y).

44. cos x − cos y = −2 sin 12 (x + y) sin 12 (x − y).

a b c
45. sin A
= sin B
= sin C
; Law of Sines.

46. a2 = b2 + c2 2bc cos A; Law of Cosines.

p
47. d = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 ; distance between points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ).
Ax√
1 +By1 +C
48. d = ± A2 +B 2
; distance from line Ax + By + C = 0 to (x1 , y1 ).
x1 +x2 y1 +y2
49. x = 2
, y= 2
; coordinates of middle point.

50. x = x0 + x′ , y = y0 + y ′ ; transforming to new origin (x0 , y0 ).

51. x = x′ cos θ − y ′ sin θ , y = x′ sin θ + y ′ cos θ; transforming to new axes

making the angle theta with old.

52. x = ρ cos θ , y = ρ sin θ; transforming from rectangular to polar coordi-

nates.

53. ρ = x2 + y 2 , θ = arctan xy ; transforming from polar to rectangular

p

coordinates.

54. Different forms of equation of a straight line:

y−y1
(a) x−x1
= xy22 −x
−y1
1
, two-point form (or point-point form);
(b) x
a
+ yb = 1, intercept form;

320
 12.1. FORMULAS FOR REFERENCE

(c) y − y1 = m(x − x1 ), slope-point form;

(d) y = mx + b, slope-intercept form;

(e) x cos α + y sin α = p, normal form (α is the angle the normal line
crosses the x-axis and p is the length of the shortest segment between
the line in question and the origin);

(f) Ax + By + C = 0, general form.

m1 −m2
55. tan θ = 1+m1 m2
, angle between two lines whose slopes are m1 and m2 .

m1 = m2 when lines are parallel, and

m1 = − m12 when lines are perpendicular.

56. (x − α)2 + (y − β)2 = r2 , equation of circle with center (α, β) and radius
r.

Many of these facts are already known to Sage :

Sage

sage: a,b = var("a,b")

sage: log(sqrt(a))
log(a)/2
sage: log(a/b).simplify_log()
log(a) - log(b)
sage: sin(a+b).simplify_trig()
cos(a)*sin(b) + sin(a)*cos(b)
sage: cos(a+b).simplify_trig()
cos(a)*cos(b) - sin(a)*sin(b)
sage: (a+b)ˆ5
(b + a)ˆ5
sage: expand((a+b)ˆ5)
bˆ5 + 5*a*bˆ4 + 10*aˆ2*bˆ3 + 10*aˆ3*bˆ2 + 5*aˆ4*b + aˆ5

“Under the hood” Sage used Maxima to do this simplification.

321
12.2. GREEK ALPHABET

12.2 Greek alphabet

letters names letters names
A, α alpha N, ν nu
B, β beta Ξ, ξ xi
Γ, γ gamma O, o omicron
∆, δ delta Π, π pi
E, ǫ epsilon P, ρ rho
Z, ζ zeta Σ, σ sigma
H, η eta T, τ tau
Θ, θ theta Y, υ upsilon
I, ι iota Φ, φ phi
K, κ kappa X, χ chi
Λ, λ lambda Ψ, ψ psi
M, µ mu Ω, ω omega

12.3 Rules for signs of the trigonometric functions

Quadrant Sin Cos Tan Cot Sec Csc
First + + + + + +
Second + - - - - +
Third - - + + - -
Fourth - + - - + -

12.4 Natural values of the trigonometric functions

Angle in Angle in
Radians Degrees Sin Cos Tan Cot Sec Csc
0 0 0 1√ 0√ ∞ 1√ ∞
π 1 3 3
√ 2 3
30 3 2
6
π
2
√
2
√2
2
3 √3 √
45 1 1√ 2 2
4
π
√2
3 1
2 √ 3
√
2 3
3
60 2 2
3 3
2 3
π
2
90 1 0 ∞ 0 ∞ 1
π 180 0 -1 0 ∞ -1 ∞
3π
2
270 -1 0 ∞ 0 ∞ -1
2π 360 0 1 0 ∞ 1 ∞

322
 12.4. NATURAL VALUES OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

You can create a table of trig values (for 0 < θ < π/4 in radians) like this in
Sage :
Sage

sage: RR15 = RealField(15)

sage: rads1 = [n*0.0175 for n in range(1,6)]
sage: rads2 = [0.0875+n*0.0875 for n in range(1,9)]
sage: rads = rads1+rads2
sage: trigs = [’radian’, "sin", "cos", "tan", "cot"]
sage: tbl = [[RR(y)]+[RR15(eval(x+"(%s)"%y)) for x in trigs[1:]] for y in rads]
sage: print trigs; print Matrix(tbl)
[0.01750 0.9998 0.01750 57.14]
[0.03499 0.9994 0.03502 28.56]
[0.05247 0.9986 0.05255 19.03]
[0.06994 0.9976 0.07011 14.26]
[0.08739 0.9962 0.08772 11.40]
[ 0.1741 0.9847 0.1768 5.656]
[ 0.2595 0.9658 0.2687 3.722]
[ 0.3429 0.9394 0.3650 2.740]
[ 0.4237 0.9058 0.4677 2.138]
[ 0.5012 0.8653 0.5792 1.726]
[ 0.5749 0.8182 0.7026 1.423]
[ 0.6442 0.7648 0.8423 1.187]
[ 0.7086 0.7056 1.004 0.9958]

The first column are the values of sin(x) at x ∈ {0.01750, 0.03500, ...0.7875}
(measured in radians). The second, third and fourth rows are the corresponding
values for cos, tan and cot, respectively.

323
12.4. NATURAL VALUES OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

324
 CHAPTER
THIRTEEN

Appendix: A mini-Sage tutorial

The goal for this chapter1 is to introduce to a Sage –newcomer some ways of
using Sage in calculus, emphasizing examples over detailed explanations or
programming background. We hope that you will consult the more detailed doc-
umentation, such as the Sage Tutorial [T], available (free) on the Sage website
if you want to learn more.

What is Sage ?

First, if you are a newcomer to Sage then welcome!

Sage is a free, open-source mathematics software that supports research and
teaching in algebra, geometry, number theory, cryptography, numerical computa-
tion, and related areas. Both the Sage development model and the technology in
Sage itself are distinguished by an extremely strong emphasis on openness, com-
munity, cooperation, and collaboration: we are building the car, not reinventing
the wheel.
For an undergraduate student needing mathematical software, Sage does ba-
sically the same type of computations you would use Maple or Mathematica
for2 , but it is free. Even the heavily discounted student price of these programs
1
Much of the material in this chapter appears in the Tutorial on the Sage website. The author
of the Tutorial is The Sage Group and the tutorial is licensed under the Creative Commons
attribution license, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/us/.
2
Since these mathematical software programs are different, some problems can be solved more

325
13.1. WAYS TO USE SAGE

can be weeks (or more) of a students’ salary3 ? . Sage is easy to use (that is, for
a beginner it is at least as easy to use as the commercial “competition”) and costs
a lot less!
A main goal for Sage is to create the best available software for (among many
other mathematical topics)

• number theory (“What’s the 10 millionth prime?”),

• algebra (“How many legal positions does the Rubik’s cube have?”),

• geometry (“What is an algebraic equation describing the intersection of a

sphere and a cone?”),

• probability/statistics (“What is the probability of a royal straight flush in

5-card stud poker game?”), and

• numerical computation (“What is the 10 millionth digit of π”?),

using the best possible GPL-compatible (open source) software. Currently, Sage
includes are: Maxima (for calculus and other symbolic computation), Singular
(for algebra), R (for statistics), Pari (for number theory), GAP (for more alge-
bra!), SciPy (for numerical computation), and over 60 more. Sage is headed
by the mathematician William Stein, who is at the University of Washington, in
Seattle. Sage is free and open source and will always remain so.
Though much of Sage is implemented using Python, no Python background is
needed to read this chapter nor to follow the examples in this book. However, to
become expert in Sage you will want to learn Python (a great language, used at
places such as Google and Industrial Light and Magic) at some point.

13.1 Ways to Use Sage

You can use Sage in several ways.

• Notebook graphical interface,

easily or faster in Sage that the others, and conversely. However, for most of what you will need
to do, the functionality and speed is about the same.
3
Though costs are an important and practical matter, we will be leaving the cost aside, and
arguing for Sage purely on the basis of quality, openness and customizability. However, it is
worth noting that the latest license for Mathematica is reported by Wikipedia to be at least
2500 US dollars. Sage is free.

326
 13.2. LONGTERM GOALS FOR SAGE

• Interactive command line,

• Programs: By writing interpreted and compiled programs in Sage /Python,

and

• Scripts: by writing stand-alone Python scripts that use the Sage library.

The first two mentioned will be discussed below. For the latter two ways of using
Sage , please see the Sage Tutorial [T] as they are more advanced than what is
needed here.

Here is a brief Sage example, to illustrate the ease-of-use and some capabilites.
(More examples will be given later, but for a more complete tutorial, please see
[T].) To find the area under the curve y = x2 from x = 0 to x = 1, your can type in
the following commands to see that Sage tells you the answer is 1/3 = 0.333....
Sage

sage: x = var(’x’)
sage: integral(xˆ2,x,0,1)
1/3
sage: n(integral(xˆ2,x,0,1))
0.333333333333333

If you use the Sage Notebook (described later) then you can use Sage to
create an interactive application which allows you to approximate this area using
mid-point based rectangles. This is illustrated in Figure 13.1.
Use your mouse to move the slider to vary the level of the approximation. The
Sage code can be found at [W].

13.2 Longterm Goals for Sage

• Useful: Sage ’s intended audience is mathematics students (from high
school to graduate school), teachers, and research mathematicians. The
aim is to provide software that can be used to explore and experiment with
mathematical constructions in algebra, geometry, number theory, calculus,

327
13.2. LONGTERM GOALS FOR SAGE

Figure 13.1: Approximate area under y = x2

numerical computation, etc. Sage helps make it easier to interactively

experiment with mathematical objects.
• Efficient: Be fast. Sage uses highly-optimized mature software like GMP,
PARI, GAP, and NTL, and so is very fast at certain operations.
• Free and open source: The source code must be freely available and read-
able, so users can understand what the system is really doing and more
easily extend it. Just as mathematicians gain a deeper understanding of a
theorem by carefully reading or at least skimming the proof, people who do
computations should be able to understand how the calculations work by
reading documented source code. If you use Sage to do computations in a
paper you publish, you can rest assured that your readers will always have

328
 13.3. THE SAGE COMMAND LINE

free access to Sage and all its source code, and you are even allowed to
archive and re-distribute the version of Sage you used.

• Easy to compile: Sage should be easy to compile from source for Linux,
OS X and Windows users. This provides more flexibility for users to modify
the system.

• Cooperation: Provide robust interfaces to most other computer algebra sys-

tems, including PARI, GAP, Singular, Maxima, KASH, Magma, Maple, and
Mathematica. Sage is meant to unify and extend existing math software.

• Well documented: Tutorial, programming guide, reference manual, and

how-to, with numerous examples and discussion of background mathemat-
ics.

• Extensible: Be able to define new data types or derive from built-in types,
and use code written in a range of languages.

• User friendly: It should be easy to understand what functionality is pro-

vided for a given object and to view documentation and source code. Also
attain a high level of user support.

13.3 The Sage command line

The session below shows and example of “tab-completion”: start typing the begin-
ning of a command and hit the TAB key. Sage will then return a list of possible
completions. Very handy!
When you start Sage you will get a small Sage banner and then the Sage
command-line prompt sage:. If you want to use the graphical user interface
(GUI), type notebook() at the prompt and hit return. If you are happy to work
at the command line, here is an example of what a short Sage session could look
like:
Sage

sage: 2ˆ3
8
sage: t = var("t")
sage: integrate(t*sin(tˆ2),t)
-cos(tˆ2)/2

329
13.4. THE SAGE NOTEBOOK

sage: plot[TAB]
plot plot_slope_field plotkin_bound_asymp
plot3d plot_vector_field plotkin_upper_bound

13.4 The Sage notebook

The Sage Notebook can be tried out for free by anyone with an internet connec-
tion and a good browser at http://www.sagenb.org (this also works with
the iPhone but not all cell-phones are configured for this).
The following screenshot illustrates a Notebook worksheet. Worksheets can be
saved (as text or as an sws file in Sage worksheet format), downloaded, emailed
(for use by someone else), shared (with “collaborators”), or published (if created
on a public Sage server).

• Connect to Sage running locally or elsewhere (via ethernet).

• Create embedded graphics (in 2- and 3-d).
• Typeset mathematical expressions using LATEX.
• Add and delete input, re-executing entire block of commands at once.
• Start and interrupt multiple calculations at once.
• The notebook also works with Maxima, Python, R, Singular, LATEX,
html, etc.!

Here are the commands used to create the output in the Notebook session in the

330
 13.4. THE SAGE NOTEBOOK

Figure 13.2: Sage screenshot

above screenshot:
Sage Notebook

a,b,c,d,x,y=var(’a,b,c,d,x,y’)
show(solve(a*xˆ2+b*x+c==0,x))
show(solve(a*xˆ3+b*x+c==0,x))
solve(a*x+b*y==0,c*x+d*y==0,x,y)

331
13.4. THE SAGE NOTEBOOK

Sage notebook screenshot (an uploaded *.sws file)

• If you enjoy playing with the Rubik’s cube, there are several programs for
solving the Rubik’s cube in Sage :

Figure 13.3: Sage notebook screenshot.

You can rotate the Rubik’s cube interactively with your mouse.

332
 13.5. A GUIDED TOUR

• If you are interested in experimenting with calculus, Sage has excellent sym-
bolic computation and graphics capabilities. This is a Notebook session (to be
typed in a notebook “cell”, then executed):
Sage Notebook

var(’x’)
RR = RealField(15)
f = sin(x)*eˆ(-x)
p = plot(f,-1,5, thickness=2)
pt_list = (RR(0),RR(0.25),RR(0.5),RR(0.75),RR(1),RR(1.25),RR(1.5),RR(1.75),\
RR(2),RR(2.25),RR(2.5),RR(2.75),RR(3),RR(3.25),RR(3.5))
@interact
def _(pt=pt_list):
dot = point((pt,f(pt)),pointsize=80,rgbcolor=(1,0,0))
fp = f.diff()
slope = fp(pt)
sp = plot(f(pt)+slope*(x-pt),(x,-1, 5), color=’green’, thickness=2)
html(’<font color=red>Tangent to y = exp(-x)sin(x) at x = %s</font>’%RR(pt))
show(dot + p + sp, ymin = -.5, ymax = 1)

When these are all typed in a single cell and executed, using javascript Sage
displays an interactive graphic (see Figure 13.4) with a slider bar which allows
you to vary the point at which the tangent line is drawn to the graph of f (x) =
e−x sin(x) using your mouse.
Such interactive commands are easy to write in Sage !

13.5 A guided tour

This section is a guided tour of some of what is available in Sage . For many
more examples, see the Sage Reference Manual [R], which has thousands more
examples. Also note that you can interactively work through this tour in the Sage
notebook by clicking the Help link.
(If you are viewing the tutorial in the Sage notebook, press shift-enter
to evaluate any input cell. You can even edit the input before pressing shift-
enter. On some Macs you might have to press shift-return rather than
shift-enter.)

13.5.1 Assignment, Equality, and Arithmetic

With some minor exceptions, Sage uses the Python programming language, so
most introductory books on Python will help you to learn Sage .

333
13.5. A GUIDED TOUR

Figure 13.4: Interact example

Sage uses = for assignment. It uses ==, <=, >=, < and > for comparison:
Sage

sage: a = 5
sage: a
5
sage: 2 == 2
True
sage: 2 == 3
False
sage: 2 < 3
True
sage: a == 5
True

Sage provides all of the basic mathematical operations:

Sage

sage: 2**3 # ** means exponent

8
sage: 2ˆ3 # ˆ is a synonym for ** (unlike in Python)
8
sage: 10 % 3 # for integer arguments, % means mod, i.e., remainder 1
sage: 10/4 5/2
sage: 10//4 # for integer arguments, // returns the integer quotient 2
sage: 4 * (10 // 4) + 10 % 4 == 10 True

334
 13.5. A GUIDED TOUR

sage: 3ˆ2*4 + 2%5

38

The computation of an expression like 3ˆ2*4 + 2%5 depends on the order

in which the operations are applied; this is specified in the “operator precedence
table” in Arithmetical binary operator precedence.
Sage also provides many familiar mathematical functions; here are just a few
examples:
Sage

sage: sqrt(3.4)
1.84390889145858
sage: sin(5.135)
-0.912021158525540
sage: sin(pi/3)
sqrt(3)/2

As the last example shows, some mathematical expressions return ‘exact’ val-
ues, rather than numerical approximations. To get a numerical approximation,
use either the function n or the method n (and both of these have a longer name,
numerical approx, and the function N is the same as n)). These take op-
tional arguments prec, which is the requested number of bits of precision, and
digits, which is the requested number of decimal digits of precision; the default
is 53 bits of precision.
Sage

sage: exp(2)
eˆ2
sage: n(exp(2))
7.38905609893065
sage: sqrt(pi).numerical approx()
1.77245385090552
sage: sin(10).n(digits=5)
-0.54402
sage: N(sin(10),digits=10)
-0.5440211109
sage: numerical approx(pi, prec=200)
3.1415926535897932384626433832795028841971693993751058209749

13.5.2 Getting Help

Sage has extensive built-in documentation, accessible by typing the name of a
function or a constant (for example), followed by a question mark:

335
13.5. A GUIDED TOUR

Sage

sage: tan?
Type: <class sage.calculus.calculus.Function tan>
Definition: tan( [noargspec] )
Docstring:

The tangent function

EXAMPLES:
sage: tan(pi)
0
sage: tan(3.1415)
-0.0000926535900581913
sage: tan(3.1415/4)
0.999953674278156
sage: tan(pi/4)
1
sage: tan(1/2)
tan(1/2)
sage: RR(tan(1/2))
0.546302489843790
sage: sudoku?
File: sage/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/sage/games/sudoku.py
Type: <type function>
Definition: sudoku(A)
Docstring:

Solve the 9x9 Sudoku puzzle defined by the matrix A.

EXAMPLE:
sage: A = matrix(ZZ,9, [5,0,0, 0,8,0, 0,4,9, 0,0,0, 5,0,0,
0,3,0, 0,6,7, 3,0,0, 0,0,1, 1,5,0, 0,0,0, 0,0,0, 0,0,0, 2,0,8,
0,0,0, 0,0,0, 0,0,0, 0,1,8, 7,0,0, 0,0,4, 1,5,0, 0,3,0, 0,0,2,
0,0,0, 4,9,0, 0,5,0, 0,0,3])
sage: A
[5 0 0 0 8 0 0 4 9]
[0 0 0 5 0 0 0 3 0]
[0 6 7 3 0 0 0 0 1]
[1 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0]
[0 0 0 2 0 8 0 0 0]
[0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 8]
[7 0 0 0 0 4 1 5 0]
[0 3 0 0 0 2 0 0 0]
[4 9 0 0 5 0 0 0 3]
sage: sudoku(A)
[5 1 3 6 8 7 2 4 9]
[8 4 9 5 2 1 6 3 7]
[2 6 7 3 4 9 5 8 1]
[1 5 8 4 6 3 9 7 2]
[9 7 4 2 1 8 3 6 5]
[3 2 6 7 9 5 4 1 8]
[7 8 2 9 3 4 1 5 6]
[6 3 5 1 7 2 8 9 4]
[4 9 1 8 5 6 7 2 3]

336
 13.5. A GUIDED TOUR

13.5.3 Basic Algebra and Calculus

Sage can perform various computations related to basic algebra and calculus: for
example, finding solutions to equations, differentiation, integration, and plotting.
See the “Sage reference manual” for more examples.

Solving Equations

Solving Equations Exactly

The solve function solves equations. To use it, first specify some variables;
then the arguments to solve are an equation (or a system of equations), together
with the variables for which to solve:
Sage

sage: x = var(x)
sage: solve(x2 + 3*x + 2, x)
[x == -2, x == -1]

You can solve equations for one variable in terms of others:

Sage

sage: x, b, c = var(x b c)
sage: solve([x2 + b*x + c == 0],x)
[x == (-sqrt(b2 - 4*c) - b)/2, x == (sqrt(b2 - 4*c) - b)/2]

You can also solve for several variables:

Sage

sage: x, y = var(x, y)
sage: solve([x+y==6, x-y==4], x, y)
[[x == 5, y == 1]]

In the following example, first we solve the system symbolically:

Sage

sage: var(x y p q)
(x, y, p, q)
sage: eq1 = p+q==9
sage: eq2 = q*y+p*x==-6
sage: eq3 = q*y2+p*x2==24

337
13.5. A GUIDED TOUR

sage: solve([eq1,eq2,eq3,p==1],p,q,x,y)
[[p == 1, q == 8, x == (-4*sqrt(10) - 2)/3,
y == (sqrt(2)*sqrt(5) - 4)/6],
[p == 1, q == 8, x == (4*sqrt(10) - 2)/3,
y == (-sqrt(2)*sqrt(5) - 4)/6]]

For numerical approximations of the solutions, you can instead use:

Sage

sage: solns = solve([eq1,eq2,eq3,p==1],p,q,x,y, solution dict=True)

sage: [[s[p].n(30), s[q].n(30), s[x].n(30), s[y].n(30)] for s in solns]
[[1.0000000, 8.0000000, -4.8830369, -0.13962039],
[1.0000000, 8.0000000, 3.5497035, -1.1937129]]

(The function n prints a numerical approximation, and the argument is the num-
ber of bits of precision.)

Solving Equations Numerically

Often times, solve will not be able to find an exact solution to the equation or
equations specified. When it fails, you can use find root to find a numerical
solution. For example, solve does not return anything intersting for the following
equation:
Sage

sage: theta = var(theta)

sage: solve(cos(theta)==sin(theta))
[sin(theta) == cos(theta)]

On the other hand, we can use find root to find a solution to the above equa-
tion in range 0 < θ < π/2:
Sage

sage: find root(cos(theta)==sin(theta),0,pi/2)

0.78539816339744839

Differentiation, Integration, etc.

Sage knows how to differentiate and integrate many functions. For example, to
differentiate sin(u) with respect to u, do the following:

338
 13.5. A GUIDED TOUR

Sage

sage: u = var(u)
sage: diff(sin(u), u)
cos(u)

To compute the fourth derivative of sin(x2 ):

Sage

sage: diff(sin(x2), x, 4)
16*x4*sin(x2) - 12*sin(x2) - 48*x2*cos(x2)

To compute the partial derivatives of x2 + 17y 2 with respect to x and y, respec-

tively:
Sage

sage:
sage:
sage:
2*x
sage:
34*y
x, y = var(x,y)
f = x2 + 17*y2
f.diff(x)
f.diff(y)

x sin(x2 ) dx
R
We move on to integrals, both indefinite and definite. To compute
R1
and 0 x2x+1 dx
Sage

sage: integral(x*sin(x2), x) # Sage always omits the ’’+C’’

-cos(x2)/2
sage: integral(x/(x2+1), x, 0, 1)
log(2)/2

1
To compute the partial fraction decomposition of x2 −1
:
Sage

sage: f = 1/((1+x)*(x-1))
sage: f.partial fraction(x)
1/(2*(x - 1)) - 1/(2*(x + 1))
sage: print f.partial fraction(x)
1 1
--------- - ---------
2 (x - 1) 2 (x + 1)

339
13.5. A GUIDED TOUR

13.5.4 Plotting
Sage can produce two-dimensional and three-dimensional plots.

Two-dimensional Plots
In two dimensions, Sage can draw circles, lines, and polygons; plots of functions
in rectangular coordinates; and also polar plots, contour plots and vector field
plots. We present examples of some of these here. For more examples of plotting
with Sage , see also the Sage Reference Manual [R].
This command produces a yellow circle of radius 1, centered at the origin:
Sage

sage: circle((0,0), 1, rgbcolor=(1,1,0))

You can also produce a filled circle:

Sage

sage: circle((0,0), 1, rgbcolor=(1,1,0), fill=True)

You can also create a circle by assigning it to a variable; this does not plot it:
Sage

sage: c = circle((0,0), 1, rgbcolor=(1,1,0))

To plot it, use c.show() or show(c), as follows:

Sage

sage: c.show()

Alternatively, evaluating c.save(’filename.png’) will save the plot to

the given file.
Now, these ‘circles’ look more like ellipses because the axes are scaled differ-
ently. You can fix this:

340
 13.5. A GUIDED TOUR

Sage

sage: c.show(aspect ratio=1)

The command show(c, aspect ratio=1) accomplishes the same thing,

or you can save the picture using c.save(’filename.png’, aspect ratio=1).
It’s easy to plot basic functions:
Sage

sage: plot(cos, (-5,5))

Once you specify a variable name, you can create parametric plots also:
Sage

sage: x = var(x)
sage: parametric plot((cos(x),sin(x)3),0,2*pi,rgbcolor=hue(0.6))

You can combine several plots by adding them:

Sage

sage:
sage:
sage:
sage:
sage:
x = var(x)
p1 = parametric plot((cos(x),sin(x)),0,2*pi,rgbcolor=hue(0.2))
p2 = parametric plot((cos(x),sin(x)2),0,2*pi,rgbcolor=hue(0.4))
p3 = parametric plot((cos(x),sin(x)3),0,2*pi,rgbcolor=hue(0.6))
show(p1+p2+p3, axes=false)

A good way to produce filled-in shapes is to produce a list of points (L in the ex-
ample below) and then use the polygon command to plot the shape with bound-
ary formed by those points. For example, here is a green deltoid:
Sage

sage: L = [[-1+cos(pi*i/100)*(1+cos(pi*i/100)),\
... 2*sin(pi*i/100)*(1-cos(pi*i/100))] for i in range(200)]
sage: polygon(L, rgbcolor=(1/8,3/4,1/2))

341
13.5. A GUIDED TOUR

(You don’t type the “...” above - they are filled in automatically by Sage when
you type \<shift-enter>, which is a way you can create a newline without
executing the Sage command.) Type show(p, axes=false) to see this
without any axes.
You can add text to a plot:
Sage

sage: L = [[6*cos(pi*i/100)+5*cos((6/2)*pi*i/100),\
... 6*sin(pi*i/100)-5*sin((6/2)*pi*i/100)] for i in range(200)]
sage: p = polygon(L, rgbcolor=(1/8,1/4,1/2))
sage: t = text("hypotrochoid", (5,4), rgbcolor=(1,0,0))
sage: show(p+t)

Calculus teachers draw the following plot frequently on the board: not just one
branch of arcsin but rather several of them: i.e., the plot of y = sin(x) for x
between −2π and 2π, flipped about the 45 degree line. The following Sage
commands construct this:
Sage

sage: v = [(sin(x),x) for x in srange(-2*float(pi),2*float(pi),0.1)]

sage: line(v)

Since the tangent function has a larger range than sine, if you use the same
trick to plot the inverse tangent, you should change the minimum and maximum
coordinates for the x-axis:
Sage

sage: v = [(tan(x),x) for x in srange(-2*float(pi),2*float(pi),0.01)]

sage: show(line(v), xmin=-20, xmax=20)

Sage also computes polar plots, contour plots and vector field plots (for special
types of functions). Here is an example of a contour plot:
Sage

sage: f = lambda x,y: cos(x*y)

sage: contour plot(f, (-4, 4), (-4, 4))

342
 13.5. A GUIDED TOUR

Three-Dimensional Plots
Sage produces three-dimensional plots using an open source package called
[Jmol]. Here are a few examples:
Yellow Whitney’s umbrella http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney umbrella:
Sage

sage: u, v = var(u,v)
sage: fx = u*v
sage: fy = u
sage: fz = v2
sage: parametric plot3d([fx, fy, fz], (u, -1, 1), (v, -1, 1),\
... frame=False, color="yellow")

Once you have evaluated parametric plot3d, so that the plot is visible,
you can click and drag on it to rotate the figure. Type parametric plot3d?
for more examples.

13.5.5 Some common issues with functions

Some aspects of defining functions (e.g., for differentiation or plotting) can be
confusing. In this section we try to address some of the relevant issues.
Here are several ways to define things which might deserve to be called “func-
tions”:
1. Define a Python function (as described for example in the Sage Tutorial
http://www.sagemath.org/doc/tutorial/tour_functions.html
or the Python docs at http://docs.python.org/tutorial/). These
functions can be plotted, but not always differentiated or integrated.
Sage

sage: def f(z): return z2

sage: type(f)
<type function>
sage: f(3)
9
sage: plot(f, 0, 2)

In the last line, note the syntax. Using plot(f(z), 0, 2) instead will give
an error, because z is a dummy variable in the definition of f and is not defined
outside of that definition. Indeed, just f(z) returns an error. The following will
work in this case, although in general there are issues and so it should probably
be avoided (see item 4 below).

343
13.5. A GUIDED TOUR

Sage

sage: z = var("z")
sage: derivative(f(z),z)
2*z
sage: plot(f(z), 0, 2)

At this point, f(z) is a symbolic expression, the next item in our list.
2. Define a “callable symbolic expression”. These can be plotted, differentiated,
and integrated.
Sage

sage: g(x) = x2
sage: g
# g sends x to x2
x |--> x2
sage: g(3)
9
sage: Dg = g.derivative(); Dg
x |--> 2*x
sage: Dg(3)
6
sage: type(g)
<class sage.calculus.calculus.CallableSymbolicExpression>
sage: plot(g, 0, 2)

Note that while g is a callable symbolic expression, g(x) is a related, but differ-
ent sort of object, which can also be plotted, differentated, etc., albeit with some
issues: see item 5 below for an illustration.
Sage

sage: type(g(x))
<class sage.calculus.calculus.SymbolicArithmetic>
sage: g(x).derivative()
2*x
sage: plot(g(x), 0, 2)

3. Use a pre-defined Sage ‘calculus function’. These can be plotted, and with
a little help, differentiated, and integrated.
Sage

sage: type(sin)
<class sage.calculus.calculus.Function sin>
sage: plot(sin, 0, 2)
sage: type(sin(x))
<class sage.calculus.calculus.SymbolicComposition>
sage: plot(sin(x), 0, 2)

344
 13.5. A GUIDED TOUR

By itself, sin cannot be differentiated, at least not to produce cos.

Sage

sage: f = sin
sage: f.derivative()
0

Using f = sin(x) instead of sin works, but it is probably even better to use
f(x) = sin(x) to define a callable symbolic expression.
Sage

sage: S(x) = sin(x)

sage: S.derivative()
x |--> cos(x)

Here are some common problems, with explanations:

4. Accidental evaluation.
Sage

sage: def h(x):

... if x<2:
... return 0
... else:
... return x-2

The issue: plot(h(x), 0, 4) plots the line y = x − 2, not the multi-line

function defined by h. The reason? In the command plot(h(x), 0, 4), first
h(x) is evaluated: this means plugging x into the function h, which means that
x<2 is evaluated.
Sage

sage: type(x<2)
<class sage.calculus.equations.SymbolicEquation>

When a symbolic equation is evaluated, as in the definition of h, if it is not

obviously true, then it returns False. Thus h(x) evaluates to x-2, and this is the
function that gets plotted.
The solution: don’t use plot(h(x), 0, 4); instead, use
Sage

sage: plot(h, 0, 4)

345
13.5. A GUIDED TOUR

5. Accidentally producing a constant instead of a function.

Sage

sage: f = x
sage: g = f.derivative()
sage: g
1

The problem: g(3), for example, returns an error, saying “ValueError: the
number of arguments must be less than or equal to 0.”
Sage

sage: type(f)
<class sage.calculus.calculus.SymbolicVariable>
sage: type(g)
<class sage.calculus.calculus.SymbolicConstant>

g is not a function, it’s a constant, so it has no variables associated to it, and you
can’t plug anything into it.
The solution: there are several options.
• Define f initially to be a symbolic expression.
Sage

sage: f(x) = x
# instead of f = x
sage: g = f.derivative()
sage: g
x |--> 1
sage: g(3)
1
sage: type(g)
<class sage.calculus.calculus.CallableSymbolicExpression>

• Or with f as defined originally, define g to be a symbolic expression.

Sage

sage: f = x
sage: g(x) = f.derivative() # instead of g = f.derivative()
sage: g
x |--> 1
sage: g(3)
1
sage: type(g)
<class sage.calculus.calculus.CallableSymbolicExpression>

346
 13.6. TRY IT!

• Or with f and g as defined originally, specify the variable for which you are
substituting.
Sage

sage: f = x
sage: g = f.derivative()
sage: g
1
sage: g(x=3) # instead of g(3)
1

Please see the Sage Tutorial for more details and examples.

13.6 Try it!

Sage users are a community. Please join us!

http://www.sagemath.org/
http://www.sagenb.com/

347
13.6. TRY IT!

348
 CHAPTER
FOURTEEN

Appendix: GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.3, 3 November 2008

Copyright
c 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

¡http://fsf.org/¿

Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this license document,
but changing it is not allowed.

Preamble
The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other functional and useful
document “free” in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy
and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially.
Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for
their work, while not being considered responsible for modifications made by others.
This License is a kind of “copyleft”, which means that derivative works of the document
must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public
License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software.
We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, be-
cause free software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals
providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to
software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or
whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for
works whose purpose is instruction or reference.

1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS

349
 This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium, that contains a notice
placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms of this License.
Such a notice grants a world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that
work under the conditions stated herein. The “Document”, below, refers to any such
manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as “you”. You
accept the license if you copy, modify or distribute the work in a way requiring permission
under copyright law.
A “Modified Version” of the Document means any work containing the Document or a
portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modifications and/or translated into another
language.
A “Secondary Section” is a named appendix or a front-matter section of the Document
that deals exclusively with the relationship of the publishers or authors of the Document
to the Document’s overall subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could
fall directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part a textbook of
mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any mathematics.) The relationship
could be a matter of historical connection with the subject or with related matters, or of
legal, commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them.
The “Invariant Sections” are certain Secondary Sections whose titles are designated,
as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that says that the Document is released
under this License. If a section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not
allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant Sections.
If the Document does not identify any Invariant Sections then there are none.
The “Cover Texts” are certain short passages of text that are listed, as Front-Cover
Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that the Document is released under
this License. A Front-Cover Text may be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be
at most 25 words.
A “Transparent” copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy, represented
in a format whose specification is available to the general public, that is suitable for re-
vising the document straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed
of pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing editor,
and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic translation to a variety of
formats suitable for input to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file
format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage
subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent. An image format is not Transpar-
ent if used for any substantial amount of text. A copy that is not “Transparent” is called
“Opaque”.
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain ASCII without markup,
Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML or XML using a publicly available
DTD, and standard-conforming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human
modification. Examples of transparent image formats include PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque

350
formats include proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by proprietary word
processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or processing tools are not generally
available, and the machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word
processors for output purposes only.
The “Title Page” means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus such following
pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this License requires to appear in the
title page. For works in formats which do not have any title page as such, “Title Page”
means the text near the most prominent appearance of the work’s title, preceding the
beginning of the body of the text.
The “publisher” means any person or entity that distributes copies of the Document to
the public.
A section “Entitled XYZ” means a named subunit of the Document whose title either
is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following text that translates XYZ in
another language. (Here XYZ stands for a specific section name mentioned below, such as
“Acknowledgements”, “Dedications”, “Endorsements”, or “History”.) To “Preserve
the Title” of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a
section “Entitled XYZ” according to this definition.
The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which states that
this License applies to the Document. These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be
included by reference in this License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any
other implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no effect on
the meaning of this License.

2. VERBATIM COPYING
You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either commercially or
noncommercially, provided that this License, the copyright notices, and the license notice
saying this License applies to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you
add no other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use technical
measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies you make or
distribute. However, you may accept compensation in exchange for copies. If you dis-
tribute a large enough number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.
You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and you may publicly
display copies.

3. COPYING IN QUANTITY
If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have printed covers)
of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the Document’s license notice requires

351
Cover Texts, you must enclose the copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all
these Cover Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the
back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as the publisher of
these copies. The front cover must present the full title with all words of the title equally
prominent and visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition. Copying
with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and
satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other respects.
If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit legibly, you should put the
first ones listed (as many as fit reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto
adjacent pages.
If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering more than 100,
you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque
copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy a computer-network location from which
the general network-using public has access to download using public-standard network
protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material. If you use
the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of
Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible
at the stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an Opaque
copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that edition to the public.
It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the Document well
before redistributing any large number of copies, to give them a chance to provide you
with an updated version of the Document.

4. MODIFICATIONS
You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under the conditions
of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release the Modified Version under precisely
this License, with the Modified Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing
distribution and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy of it.
In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:

A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct from that of the
Document, and from those of previous versions (which should, if there were any,
be listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as a
previous version if the original publisher of that version gives permission.

B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for
authorship of the modifications in the Modified Version, together with at least five
of the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer
than five), unless they release you from this requirement.

352
C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the Modified Version, as the
publisher.

D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.

E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications adjacent to the other
copyright notices.

F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving the public
permission to use the Modified Version under the terms of this License, in the form
shown in the Addendum below.

G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required Cover
Texts given in the Document’s license notice.

H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.

I. Preserve the section Entitled “History”, Preserve its Title, and add to it an item
stating at least the title, year, new authors, and publisher of the Modified Version as
given on the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled “History” in the Document,
create one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as given
on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified Version as stated in the
previous sentence.

J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to
a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations given in
the Document for previous versions it was based on. These may be placed in the
“History” section. You may omit a network location for a work that was published
at least four years before the Document itself, or if the original publisher of the
version it refers to gives permission.

K. For any section Entitled “Acknowledgements” or “Dedications”, Preserve the Title

of the section, and preserve in the section all the substance and tone of each of the
contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein.

L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and in
their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered part of the section
titles.

M. Delete any section Entitled “Endorsements”. Such a section may not be included
in the Modified Version.

N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled “Endorsements” or to conflict in

title with any Invariant Section.

353
 O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.

If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices that qualify as
Secondary Sections and contain no material copied from the Document, you may at your
option designate some or all of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to
the list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version’s license notice. These titles must be
distinct from any other section titles.
You may add a section Entitled “Endorsements”, provided it contains nothing but en-
dorsements of your Modified Version by various parties—for example, statements of peer
review or that the text has been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition
of a standard.
You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a passage of up
to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list of Cover Texts in the Modified
Version. Only one passage of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added
by (or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already includes
a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or by arrangement made by the
same entity you are acting on behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace
the old one, on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.
The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission
to use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modified
Version.

5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS
You may combine the Document with other documents released under this License, un-
der the terms defined in section 4 above for modified versions, provided that you include
in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmod-
ified, and list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license notice,
and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and multiple identical
Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sec-
tions with the same name but different contents, make the title of each such section unique
by adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher of
that section if known, or else a unique number. Make the same adjustment to the section
titles in the list of Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.
In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled “History” in the various
original documents, forming one section Entitled “History”; likewise combine any sec-
tions Entitled “Acknowledgements”, and any sections Entitled “Dedications”. You must
delete all sections Entitled “Endorsements”.

354
 6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released
under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various docu-
ments with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the
rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually
under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document,
and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.

7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT

WORKS
A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate and independent
documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or distribution medium, is called an
“aggregate” if the copyright resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal
rights of the compilation’s users beyond what the individual works permit. When the
Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to the other works in
the aggregate which are not themselves derivative works of the Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies of the Document,
then if the Document is less than one half of the entire aggregate, the Document’s Cover
Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the
electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form. Otherwise they
must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole aggregate.

8. TRANSLATION
Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may distribute translations of
the Document under the terms of section 4. Replacing Invariant Sections with translations
requires special permission from their copyright holders, but you may include translations
of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the original versions of these Invariant
Sections. You may include a translation of this License, and all the license notices in
the Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include the original
English version of this License and the original versions of those notices and disclaimers.
In case of a disagreement between the translation and the original version of this License
or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.
If a section in the Document is Entitled “Acknowledgements”, “Dedications”, or “His-
tory”, the requirement (section 4) to Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require
changing the actual title.

355
 9. TERMINATION
You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except as expressly
provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense, or dis-
tribute it is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License.
However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license from a particular
copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until the copyright holder ex-
plicitly and finally terminates your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder
fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to 60 days after the
cessation.
Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated permanently if
the copyright holder notifies you of the violation by some reasonable means, this is the
first time you have received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from that
copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the
notice.
Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the licenses of parties
who have received copies or rights from you under this License. If your rights have been
terminated and not permanently reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all of the same
material does not give you any rights to use it.

10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free
Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to
the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See
http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.
Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document
specifies that a particular numbered version of this License “or any later version” applies
to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that specified
version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software
Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may
choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If
the Document specifies that a proxy can decide which future versions of this License can
be used, that proxy’s public statement of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes
you to choose that version for the Document.

11. RELICENSING
“Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site” (or “MMC Site”) means any World Wide
Web server that publishes copyrightable works and also provides prominent facilities for

356
anybody to edit those works. A public wiki that anybody can edit is an example of such a
server. A “Massive Multiauthor Collaboration” (or “MMC”) contained in the site means
any set of copyrightable works thus published on the MMC site.
“CC-BY-SA” means the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 license pub-
lished by Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-profit corporation with a principal
place of business in San Francisco, California, as well as future copyleft versions of that
license published by that same organization.
“Incorporate” means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or in part, as part of
another Document.
An MMC is “eligible for relicensing” if it is licensed under this License, and if all
works that were first published under this License somewhere other than this MMC, and
subsequently incorporated in whole or in part into the MMC, (1) had no cover texts or
invariant sections, and (2) were thus incorporated prior to November 1, 2008.
The operator of an MMC Site may republish an MMC contained in the site under CC-
BY-SA on the same site at any time before August 1, 2009, provided the MMC is eligible
for relicensing.

ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your

documents
To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License in the
document and put the following copyright and license notices just after the title page:

Copyright c YEAR YOUR NAME. Permission is granted to copy, dis-

tribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Doc-
umentation License, Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free
Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and
no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled
“GNU Free Documentation License”.

If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts, replace the
“with . . . Texts.” line with this:

with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the Front-
Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST.

357
 If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other combination of the
three, merge those two alternatives to suit the situation.
If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releas-
ing these examples in parallel under your choice of free software license, such as the GNU
General Public License, to permit their use in free software.

358
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[F] Fractals,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractal

[G] William Granville, Elements of the differential and integral calculus,

http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Elements_of_the_Differential_and_Integral_Calculus

http://sage.math.washington.edu/home/wdj/teaching/calc1-sage/

[M] Sean Mauch, Applied Mathematics,

http://www.its.caltech.edu/˜sean/book.html.

[N] Newton’s approximation method

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton’s_method.

[R] Sage Reference Manual, available free at

http://www.sagemath.org/

[St] William Stein, Sage Mathematics Software (Version 4.1), The

SAGE Group, 2009,
http://www.sagemath.org.

[T] Sage Tutorial, available free at http://www.sagemath.org/

[W] Sage interact examples, available free from the Sagemath wiki at
http://wiki.sagemath.org/interact/calculus

359
 INDEX

dy
dx
, 45 Folium of Descartes, 139
hyperbolic spiral, 140
acceleration, 156 hypocycloid (astroid), 139
angle between two curves, 119 lemniscate, 145
arclength, 223, 225 logarithmic spiral, 147
arctan, 23 spiral of Archimedes, 147
argument, 5 Witch of Agnesi, 123
cylinder, volume formula, 318
binomial theorem, 317
dependent variable, 5
center of curvature, 301
derivative, 44
chain rule, 74, 242
difference scheme
circle of curvature, 293
centered, 283
circle, area formula, 318
forward, 283
composition, 72
differentiable, 44
concave down, 191
differential, 222
concave upward, 191 differentiating operator, 45
cone, volume formula, 319 differentiation, 45
constant, 1 chain rule, 62
continuous, 14 power rule, 60
continuous in an interval, 17 product rule, 60
critical point, 186 quotient rule, 60
critical value, 188 direction of a curve, 116
curvature, 285, 287 discontinuous, 15
curve, 18 domain, 6
cardioid, 139, 147
catenary, 129 equations of a line, 320
cissoid, 122 evolute, 308
cycloid, 134 exp, 18

360
 INDEX

finite difference equations, 282 multiple root, 148

function, 3, 5
decreasing, 183 normal line, 125
increasing, 183
piecewise-defined, 24 parameter, 130
composite, 72 parameters, 1
inverse, 74 parametric equations, 130, 154
piecewise-defined, 3 parametric equations of the path, 131
function:implicit, 107 point of inflection, 213
polar coordinate formulas, 320
geometric series, 318 prism, volume formula, 318
graph, 18 pyramid, volume formula, 318
greatest common divisor (GCD), 148
quadratic formula, 317
hypocycloid, 130
Rolle’s Theorem, 249
increment, 42 roots of polynomials, 148
independent variable, 5 rule for finding extremal values, 189, 191
indeterminate form, 259 rule for finding points of inflection, 213
inflection point, 213 rule for multiple roots, 148
rule for plotting curves, 216
law of cosines, 320
law of sines, 320 second derivative test, 191
Leibnitz’s Formula, 169 sign graph, 189
length of the normal, 125 sign test of the first derivative, 189
length of the subnormal, 125 sin, 18
length of the subtangent, 125 sphere, volume formula, 319
length of the tangent, 125 strategy for finding local extrema, 193
ln, 20 strategy for related rates, 229
logs subtangent, 125
addition rule, 318
power rule, 318 tan, 23
tangent line, 124, 125
maximum, 255 Taylor’s Formula, 276
maximum value, 186 Taylor’s formula, 254
Mean Value Theorem, 252, 253 Taylor’s Theorem, 276
Extended, 253, 254 total curvature, 286
minimum, 255 trigonometric function identities, 319
minimum value, 186 turning points, 186

361
INDEX

variable, 1
velocity, 153

362