Chapter 01 – Nature and Purposes of Assessment

Assessment in
Learning 1
Lesson 1: Commonly Used Terms in Testing

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

• familiarize the description of the terms commonly used in testing; and
Objectives • evaluate sample situations whether it is a test, measurement, assessment,
or evaluation.

This lesson deals with the discussion of the common terminologies related to
Introduction assessment in learning.
Test is a device used to measure what the students have learned before, during,
or after classroom activities. The process of attaching qualitative value to test results
is a function of evaluation. The interrelatedness of these terms cause the teacher to
commit an error in his statement. This is so because these terms, although different,
have significant relations in many ways. The difference and relatedness of these
terms need clarification. It is the objective of this chapter that education students or
even classroom teachers should possess a very clear perspective about the concepts
of test, measurement, assessment and evaluation – so that they can avoid making
mistakes by using these terms appropriately. To have a clear review about these
terms, the basic concepts in assessment and evaluation are hereby discussed
thoroughly.

Definition of Measurement, Test, Evaluation, and Assessment

Discussion 1.) Measurement

A process of quantifying test results. This process begins when the teacher
compares students’ responses with the presumably correct responses in the scoring
key. If a student’s response matches with that in the key, then his answer is correct;
if not, then his answer is wrong. The number of correct responses that each student
obtains in the test is considered as his raw score.

2.) Test
A set questions with an accepted set of presumably correct answers,
designed to gather information about some individual characteristics (Posner,
1995). This is a device used to indirectly measure the intangible aspects of students’
life. This device is also used to gather information about student’s learning progress.

3.) Evaluation
A process of attaching quality or value judgment to the quantity obtained
through the process of assessment. This quality is judged against the present
standard or on a comparison one’s performance with that of other people’s

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performances. This process makes the result of assessment more meaningful to
educational stakeholders.

4.) Assessment
A process of gathering information about students’ learning and then
analysing and interpreting them for the purpose of making decisions. They further
assert that assessment may involve, among others, activities such as administering
different kinds of written tests, observation of behaviour or performance,
examination of work samples, use of checklists, and interview.

Norm-and-Criterion-Referenced Interpretation
The different purposes of assessment also call for different approaches to
make the process comprehensive. In general, there are two approaches useful for
instructional purposes: (1) the norm-referenced and (2) the criteria-referenced
evaluations. A test score, to be meaningful, should be related to both norms and
criteria.
Norm-referenced assessment is a type of assessment designed to provide a
measure of performance that is interpretable in terms of an individual’s standing in
some known group. It is the comparison of an individual’s progress with the
performance of a specified group. If the score of the student is interpreted by
comparing his/her score to those of other individuals (a norm group), this would be
norm-referencing. The standard used for comparison are rankings and percentages
derived from the performance of the class as a whole. Hence, an individual is judged
as below average, average, above average, third from the top, or the best in class.
The norm-referenced evaluation is used in the following cases:
1. For subject matter that is not cumulative and students do not need to
reach some specified level of competency;
2. For selection purpose if the institution is constrained enrolment; and
3. For predicting degrees of success

Criterion-referenced assessment, on the other hand, is a type of assessment

designed to provide a measure of performance that is interpretable in terms of a
clearly defined and delimited domain of learning tasks. It is usually with a mastery
or competency point. This is used in subject areas that demand mastery and are
cumulative and progressively complex. This is also used in subjects that are
included in licensure examinations.
To polarize the distinction, it can be said that the focus of a normative score
is on how many of a certain student’s peers do not perform as well as he/she does;
the focus of a criterion-referenced score is on what a particular student can do.

Comparison of Norm-and Criterion-Referenced Assessments

Norm- and criterion-referenced assessments require specifications of the
achievement domain that needs to be measured, as well as a relevant, representative
sample of test items. Both use the same types of test items and the same rules of
writing, except for item difficulty. Their tests are judged by their validity and
reliability. The differences between the two reference assessments are shown in the
table.
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 Norm-referenced Assessment Criterion-referenced Assessment
• Covers a large domain of • Focuses on a delimited domain of
learning tasks learning tasks with a relatively large
• Emphasizes discrimination number of items measuring each
among individuals in terms of tasks.
relative levels of learning • Emphasizes descriptions of what
• Favors items of average learning tasks individuals can and
difficulty and usually omits easy cannot perform
items • Matches item difficulty to learning
• Used primarily, but not tasks without altering item difficulty
exclusively, for survey testing or omitting easy items
• Interpretations requires a clearly • Used primarily, but not exclusively,
defined group for mastery testing
• Interpretation requires a clearly
defined and delimited achievement
domain.

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Assessment Chapter 01 – Nature and Purposes of Assessment
in
Learning 1
Lesson 2: Purposes of Assessment

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

• recognize the purposes of assessments ; and
• cite examples in each of the purpose of assessment.
Objectives

Once measurements are taken of an educational quantity or quality of interest,

then the next step is to assess the status of that educational phenomenon. For
example, suppose that the quantity of interest is the level of Mathematics
performance of Grade 10 students in a school district. The proposed measurements
are test scores obtained by administering a standardized achievement test in
Introduction Mathematics for Grade 10 students in the district. The District office decided to
target an achievement level of 85% for the grade 10 students. Based on the
achievement test results, the school officials can assess whether their Grade 10
students are within a reasonable range of this target i.e. whether they are above or
below the achievement level target.

Purposes of Assessment
1. Assessment FOR Learning
Assessment FOR Learning happens during the learning, often more than
Discussion once, rather than at the end. Students understand exactly what they are to learn,
what is expected of them and are given feedback and advice on how to improve
their work. In Assessment for Learning, teachers use assessment as an investigable
tool to find out as much as they can about what their students know and can do,
and what confusions, preconceptions, or gaps they might have.
The wide variety of information that teachers collect about students’
learning processes provides the basis for determining what they need to do next to
move student learning forward. It provides the basis for providing descriptive
feedback for students and deciding on groupings, instructional strategies, and
resources.

Teacher’s Role in Assessment FOR Learning:

Assessment for learning occurs throughout the learning process. It is
interactive, with teachers:
• aligning instruction;
• identifying particular learning needs of students or groups;
• selecting and adapting materials and resources;
• creating differentiated teaching strategies and learning opportunities for
helping individual students move forward in their learning; and
• Providing immediate feedback and direction to student

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 Teachers also use assessment for learning to enhance students’ motivation
and commitment to learning. When teachers commit to learning as the focus
of assessment, they change the classroom culture to one of student success.

2. Assessment OF Learning
The purpose of this kind of assessment is usually SUMMATIVE and is
mostly done at the end of a task, unit of work etc. It is designed to provide evidence
of achievement to parents, other educators, the students themselves and sometimes
to outside groups (e.g., employers, other educational institution). All those
involved in the assessment of students must be competent to undertake their roles
and responsibilities. Assessment OF Learning is the assessment that becomes
public and results in statements or symbols about how well students are learning.
It often contributes to pivotal decisions that will affect students’ futures. It is
important, then, that the underlying logic and measurement of assessment of
learning be credible and defensible.

Teacher’s Role in Assessment OF Learning:

Teachers have the responsibility of reporting student learning accurately
and fairly, based on evidence obtained from a variety of contexts and applications.
Effective assessment of learning requires that teachers provide:
• a rationale for undertaking a particular assessment of learning at a particular
point in time;
• clear descriptions of the intended learning;
• processes that make it possible for students to demonstrate their
competence and skill;
• a range of alternative mechanisms for assessing the same outcomes;
• public and defensible reference points for making judgements;
• transparent approaches to interpretation;
• descriptions of the assessment process; and
• strategies for recourse in the event of disagreement about the decisions.

3. Assessment AS Learning
Through this process students are able to learn about themselves as learners
and become aware of how they learn – become metacognitive (knowledge of one’s
own thought processes). Students reflect on their work on a regular basis, usually
through self and peer assessment and decide (often with the help of the teacher,
particularly in the early stages) what their next learning will be. Assessment as
learning helps students to take more responsibility for their own learning and
monitoring future directions.

Monitoring Metacognition
➢ What is the purpose of learning these concepts and skills?
➢ What do I know about this topic?
➢ What strategies do I know that will help me learn this?
➢ Am I understanding these concepts?
➢ What are the criteria for improving my work?

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 ➢ Have I accomplished the goals I set for myself?

Teacher’s Role in Assessment AS Learning:

The teachers’ role in promoting the development of independent learners
through assessment as learning is to:
• model and teach the skills of self-assessment;
• guide students in setting their own goals, and monitoring their progress
toward them;
• provide exemplars and models of good practice and quality work that
reflect curriculum outcomes;
• work with students to develop clear criteria of good practice;
• guide students in developing internal feedback or self-monitoring
mechanisms to validate and question their own thinking, and to become
comfortable with ambiguity and uncertainty that is inevitable in learning
anything new;
• provide regular and challenging opportunities to practise, so that students
can become confident, competent self-assessors;
• monitor students’ metacognitive processes as well as their learning, and
provide descriptive feedback;
• Create an environment where it is safe for students to take chances and
where support is readily available strategies for recourse in the event of
disagreement about the decisions.

Feedback
Complex skills, such as monitoring and self-regulation, become routine
only when there is constant feedback and practice using the skills. Effective
feedback challenges ideas, introduces additional information, offers alternative
interpretations, and creates conditions for self-reflection and review of ideas…If
all feedback does is provide direction for what students need to do- that is, the
feedback doesn’t refer to students’ own roles in moving forward to the next
learning-they will perpetually ask questions like Is this right? Is this what you
want? Rather, feedback in assessment as learning encourages students to focus
their attention on the task, rather than on getting the answer right. It provides them
with ideas for adjusting, rethinking, and articulating their understanding, which
will lead to another round of feedback and another extension of learning.

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Assessment Chapter 1- Nature and Purposes of Assessment
in
Learning 1
Lesson 3: Basic Principles of Assessment

At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

• distinguish the basic principles of educational assessment; and
• determine what principle of assessment is reflected in the given situation.
Objectives
Let us begin this lesson by paraphrasing a story told by Frank Koch in
proceedings, the magazine of the Naval Institute, cited by Stephen Covey (1989) –
the author of the best-selling Seven Habits of Highly Effective People. This pertains
to maritime navigation. The story goes:

One Night a ship was sailing in the ocean, the man on the bridge (Third
Introduction Officer) shouted to the captain;

“Captain! Captain! There’s a light dead ahead and it won’t get out of our
way!”
The captain said, “Send the message!”
The message was sent, “Hard Starboard! Hard Starboard!”

In maritime navigation, “Starboard” is a command, so that when followed,

the ships navigating in opposite directions to take the right course so that their left
or port side is facing the target. This is Maritime Rule No. 14 on Head-on Situation
of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (1989) which
states that when two vessels are meeting on reciprocal courses so as to involve risk
of collision, each shall alter her course to starboard so that each shall pass on the
port side of the other.

However, the message was sent back, “Starboard yourself!”

The captain murmured, “I can’t believe this! Don’t they know who I am?
Send the last message!”

The message was sent, “Hard Starboard! This is the Mighty Missouri!”
(Missouri is one of the largest American Warship).

The message was sent back, “This is a lighthouse!”

Principles are lighthouses. They serve as our guides. They do not move.
They are permanent. We cannot break them. We can only break ourselves against
them (Covey, 1989). Assessment and evaluation are also guided by principles.
They serve as our lighthouses-references as we perform our function of evaluating
the outcomes of the teaching and learning process.

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 Assessment is an integrated process for determining the nature and extent of
student learning and development. This process will be most effective when the
following principles are taken into consideration (Gronlund, 1995):
Discussion
Principle 1 – Specifying clearly what is to be assessed is prioritized in an
assessment
The effectiveness of an assessment depends as much on a careful
description of what needs to be assessed as it does on the technical qualities of
assessment procedure that was used. Thus, the specification of the characteristics
to be measured should precede the selection or development of assessment
procedures.
Principle 2 – An assessment procedure should be selected because its
relevance to the characteristics or performance to be measured.
Assessment procedures are frequently selected on the basis of their
objectivity, accuracy or convenience. These criteria are important; however, they
are only secondary to the major question asked before assessment, which is
whether the chosen procedure is the most effective method of measuring the
learning or development that needs to be assessed.
Principle 3 – A comprehensive assessment of student achievement and
development requires a variety of procedures.
No single type of instrument or procedure can assess the vast array of
learning and development outcomes emphasized in a school program
Principle 4 – Proper use of assessment procedures requires an awareness of
their limitations for them to be used more effectively.
No test or assessment is composed purely questions or problems that might
be presented in a comprehensive coverage of the knowledge, skills, and
understanding relevant to the objectives of the course. On the other hand,
limitations of assessment procedures do not negate the value of the tests and other
types of assessments.
Principle 5 – Assessment is a means to an end, not an end in itself.
The use of assessment procedures implies that some useful purpose is being
served and that the user is clearly aware of this purpose. Assessment is best viewed
as a process of obtaining information on which to base educational decisions.

Numerous principles for effective assessment have been suggested by the

New South Wales (NSW) Board of Studies, 1996; NSW Department of School
Education, 1996: Brady, 1995; Eisner, 1993; Broadfoot, 1991; and Griffin and Nix,
1991. The following is a selection of those principles considered by the authors to
have the most value;

Principle 1 – Assessment should be a continuous and an integral part of

teaching and learning
Continuous assessment is necessary to provide regular feedback to
students. This information can also be used to modify the purpose of teaching

Principle 2 – Assessment should be varied to give students multiple

opportunities to demonstrate what they know.
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 The strategies should be as diverse as the scope of outcomes, and provisions
should be made to assess more than a solo performance.

Principle 3 – Assessment should be valid

They should accurately assess what they are designed to assess. Problems
of invalidity usually arise when assessment is based on imprecise statements of
educational intent

Principle 4 – Assessment should engage the learner

An effective assessment involves a democratic relationship between the
teacher and the student. It should enhance the students’ abilities of being self-
critical and taking responsibility for their own learning.

Principle 5 – Assessment should be diagnostic

The strategies used to assess students should indicate not only the result but
also the processes that resulted in an acceptable performance. Thus, the assessment
should show the students’ needs, strengths, and weaknesses.

Principle 6 – Assessment should value teacher judgment

Teacher judgment based on well-defined outcomes and classroom
experiences is a rich form of student assessment that should not be considered
secondary to formal setting

Principle 7 – Assessment should be situated

The strategies used to assess students should be reflections of what they
might encounter in the outside world

Principle 8 – Assessment should require students to display sensitivity to the

“wholes” rather than to discrete elements.
Methods of assessment should allow the students to see the larger picture
rather than a series of small, finite steps

Principle 9 – Assessment should have the same meaning for all teachers,
parents, and student
Teachers need to compare their interpretation of student performance, and
the assessment information should be communicated in such a way that it is
understood by all stakeholders.

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