Chapter 1

Types of Societies: General Classification

❖ Societies are generally classified into the following types:
• Hunting and gathering societies
• Pastoral societies
• Horticultural societies
• Agricultural societies
• Industrial societies
• Post-industrial societies

❖ Hunting and gathering societies: The earliest form of society. The members survive
primarily by hunting, trapping, fishing, and gathering edible plants. The majority of the
members' time is spent looking for and gathering food. A hunting and gathering society has
following characteristics:
1. Nomadic in nature: The people are constantly on the move in order to find food and water.
2. Not desire to acquire wealth: There is no strong desire among these people to acquire
wealth for two main reasons: (i) Firstly, no individual can acquire wealth for there is no
wealth to be acquired; (ii) Secondly, sharing is a norm in such societies.
3. Family is the primary institution: Family determines the distribution of food and how to
socialize children. Kinship is also important as the members of hunting and gathering
societies are mutually dependent upon each other.
4. Absence of political institutions: Statuses in these societies are equal and hence the
difference between the leader and followers is not there. Warfare is unknown to these
people as they have very little to fight out.
5. Limited or no division of labor: There is no scope of division of labor in these societies
except based on sex. There is gender-based division of labor but there is no gender
inequality. Men are typically responsible for hunting, and women are typically gatherers.
6. Simple religious belief: Their religion does not include a belief in a powerful God or
Godswho are active in human affairs. Sometimes they believe in evil spirits.
❖ Herding or Pastoral societies: These societies rely on products obtained through the
domestication and breeding of animals for transportation and food. Pastoral societies are
common in areas where crops cannot be supported, for example in North Africa. Unlike
hunting and gathering societies, pastoral societies only have to move when the land in which
the animals graze is no longer usable. Pastoral societies also allow for job specialization, since
not everyone is needed to gather or hunt for food. For example, while some people breed
animals, others are able to produce tools or clothing, which allows for specialization in these
areas. Herding society has following characteristics:
1. Relatively larger in size: In comparison with previous society, this society is larger in size
and may have hundreds or even thousands of members, due to their technological
inventionof the domesticated animal which can be used for human food and clothes.
2. Beginning of inequality: Since pastoralism contributes to the accumulation of surplus
resources, some individuals who have better access to surplus, become more powerful than
the others and pass their statuses to the descendants.
3. Nomadism coupled with trading: Their nomadic way of life often brings pastoralists
into contact with their groups. This helps them to develop trading. Goats, sheep, tents,
woven carpets, wools, simple utensils etc., constitutes their main objects of trading.
4. Pastoralism and the development of religious belief: In these society, people started to
believe in Gods or creator of them, who take an active interest in human affairs, and look
after the people who worship them. Judaism, Christianity and Islam- originated among
pastoral people.
5. Some technological changes:
a) Beginning of Warfare
b) Slavery
c) Generating ideas about private property and inheritance of wealth
d) Political and economic institutions begin to appear.

❖ Horticultural societies: A horticultural society is a social system based on horticulture, a

mode of production in which digging sticks are used to cultivate small gardens. These societies
formed in areas where rainfall and other conditions allowed them to grow stable crops. They
were similar to hunter-gatherers in that they largely depended on the environment for survival,
 but since they didn’t have to abandon their location to follow resources, they were able to start
permanent settlements. This created more stability and more material goods and became the
basis for the first revolution in human survival. Horticultural society has following
characteristics:
1. Domestication of plants: Horticulturists specialize in the domestication of plants such as
wheat, rice etc. More advanced horticultural societies have metal tools and weapons and
not ploughs.
2. Slash and Burn technology: The subsistence strategy of the horticulturists is “slash and
burn” technology. This people clear areas of land, burn the trees and plants they have cut
down, raise crops for 2 or 3 years until the soil is exhausted and then repeat the process.
3. Horticulturalists are better settled than Pastoralists: Unlike the pastoralists,
horticulturalists, are relatively better settled. They develop settlements that have larger
populations and migrate in search of better conditions.
4. More complex division of labor: This society assures better food supply of surplus.
Existence of surplus leads to specialization of roles.
5. Emergence of political institutions: The surplus production allows some wealthy
individuals to become more powerful than others. Warfare is more common. Horticultural
societies are also the first known societies to support the institution of slavery.
6. Creation of relatively elaborate cultural artifacts: Houses, thrones, or large stone
sculptures were made in these societies.
7. Some Rare Practices: Horticulture societies have some rare practices such as cannibalism,
headhunting and human sacrifice. Cannibalism is eating enemies’ skin as an act of ritual
revenge. Headhunting is taken as evidence of courage and skill of warrior. Human sacrifice
coincides with a change in the nature of religious beliefs.

❖ Agricultural societies: An agricultural society focuses on mode of production primarily on

agriculture and production of large fields. Agricultural society has following characteristics:
1. Cultivation of land through plough: With the use of the plough increased productivity
and made the increased yield more reliable. It brings to surface nutrients that have sunk out
of reach of the roots of plants. It also returns weeds to the soil to act as fertilizers. The use
of animal power to pull the plough enables a person to achieve great productivity.
 • Combining irrigation techniques with the use of the plough increased productivity
and made the increased yields more reliable.
• Introduction of plough in the cultivation of land increased food production
enormously.
2. Population size: Size of the agricultural societies is much greater than that of horticultural
and pastoral communities.
3. Appearance of cities: The specialists who engage themselves in non-agricultural activities
tend to concentrate in some compact places which ultimately led to the birth of the cities.
4. Emergence of elaborate political institutions: Agricultural societies lead to the
establishment of more elaborate social institutions. Court system of providing justice also
emerges.
5. Religion as separate institution: As societies become more and more complex, religion
requires full-time officials such as priests.
6. Evolution of distinct social classes: Two distinct social classes – those who own the land
and those who work on the lands of others- make their appearance on this society.
7. Enrichment of culture: More food is produced than required for subsistence, these
societies are able to support people whose sole purpose is to provide creative ideas to the
culture. Hence, poets, writers and artists are encouraged to continue their work.

❖ Industrial societies: An industrial society is a system in which large number of labor and
machinery is involved in production of goods and services. Industrial society has following
characteristics:
1. Industrial revolution and industrialism: Industrial revolution transformed much of the
Europe and United States by replacing essentially agriculturally based societies with
industrial societies based on the use of machines and non-animal resources to be harnessed.
Industrialism is based on the application of scientific knowledge to the technology of
production, enabling new energy sources to be harnessed.
2. Vast and rapid social changes: New technologies such as steam engine, atomic energy
tend to bring about social changes as the economic and other institutions constantly adjust
to altered conditions.
3. Population size: The high level of productivity of industrial societies further stimulates
population growth with increasing members living in cities and metropolitan areas.
4. Large scale division of labor: Industrial society creates thousands of new specialized jobs.
In this society statuses of politicians, teachers, doctors etc. could be achieved.
5. Less importance of family and kinship: Family loses many of its functions, it loses main
responsibility of educating the younger ones. Kinship ties are also weakened. It fails to
play an important role in unifying and controlling people.
6. Religious views and beliefs: Religion no longer play an important role in controlling the
behavior of people. The world no longer remains as God-centered world for it is looked
upon as the man-centered world.
7. Increasing importance of science & education: Science is looked upon as a promising
and an effective means of socio-economic progress. Similarly, education has evolved into
an independent and distinct institution.
8. Widening gap between rich and poor: The rich class which is known as the exploiting
class, and poor class as exploited class. The gap between these two classes is widening
day by day due to available limited resources.