BMEG201 –Biomedical

Instrumentation and
Design
Spring
Session
Week 5 – Electrodes
and Principles
 Biopotential electrodes
Any measuring apparatus that we use must be connected
somehow to the body in order for us to measure electrical
signals in that body

We call these connections biopotential electrodes – they carry a

small current across the interface between the body and the
measuring circuit

This figure shows an example of a measuring circuit linked to

biopotential electrodes to read an electroencephalogram (EEG).

Image: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/51873391_Wearable_and_Implantable_Wireless_Sensor_Network_Solutions_for_Healthcare_Monitoring/figures?lo=1
What are biopotential electrodes used
for?

VERY VERY SERIOUS QUIZ TIME!!

Time to get your revenge for last week!

Kahoot – Go to www.kahoot.it

I will give you a pass code to access the quiz

Give yourself a creative name and play

 What are biopotential electrodes used
for?
• They can be used to record signals
• They can be used to send signals
(stimulate tissue)

• Interface between body tissue and electronic measuring

circuit
• Usually made of a noble metal
• Come in different shapes eg: circular, rectangular,
needle etc
Common
• Coated with a salt
examples:
• Coupled to skin with electrolyte gel • EMG
• EOG
• EEG
• ECG
• Lots of others…
Image: Rodriguez et al., J of Diabetes Research, 2018.
 Structure of today’s lecture
1. Electrode- electrolyte interface
2. Polarisation
3. Polarisable and non polarizable electrodes
3a. Silver/Silver Chloride electrodes
4. Electrode behaviour and circuit models
5. Electrode-Skin interface
6. Types of electrode
6a. Body surface recording electrodes
Metal plate electrodes
Suction electrodes
Floating electrodes
Flexible electrodes
6b. Internal electrodes
Needle and wire electrodes
6c. Microneedles
6d. Electrode arrays
6e. Electrodes for stimulation
Learning Outcomes
• Describe the principles of the electrode-electrolyte interface
• Understand polarization and how it applied to electrodes
• Understand the operational principles of different types of biopotential electrodes
• Describe the circuit models used to represent the electrode-electrolyte and
electrode-skin interface
• Understand measurement artefacts at the electrode-skin interface
• Outline the application areas for different types of biopotential electrodes

• This lecture is based on: Chapter 5 from the Textbook: Medical Instrumentation
Application and Design by John G. Webster.
 Biopotential electrodes
• Many biological systems have electrical activity associated
with them.
• Bioelectricity is a naturally occurring phenomenon that arises
from the fact that living organisms are composed of ions in
various different quantities.
• Almost every organ in our bodies has some electrical signal
associated with it, but many are low level, and are not useful
or commonly measured in practice
• There are some body systems where these signals are used
for diagnostic purposes.
• You can see the common ones in this table…

Image: Neuman, M. R. “Biopotential Electrodes.” The Biomedical Engineering Handbook: Second Edition. Ed. Joseph D. Bronzino Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
 Biopotentials

Image: Thankor, N, Biopotentials and Electrophysiology Measurement,Johns Hopkins School of Medicine

 Biopotentials

Image: Thankor, N, Biopotentials and Electrophysiology Measurement,Johns Hopkins School of Medicine

 Electrodes for biophysical sensing

• Electrical conduction in medical instrument circuits -

- -
-
is electronic. -

• Electrical conduction in the body is ionic. Electronic Conduction

• Electrodes provide transduction between ionic and
electronic conduction. i.e. they are a transducer!
• Bioelectrodes are a class of sensors that - -
transduce ionic conduction to electronic conduction + + + +
- -
- +
so that the signal can be processed in electric + -
+ +
-
circuits. - +- +
Ionic Conduction
 1. Electrode-Electrolyte Interface
• For the rest of this section remember
that…
• Biopotential electrodes usually consist
of a highly conductive metal like silver,
interfaced to its salt and then connected
via an electrolyte gel to the body.
• Usually in addition, an electrolyte gel
very similar to the electrolyte in our
body is applied as a gel to the skin.
 1. Electrode-Electrolyte Interface
• Remember your high school
chemistry…?

• At the interface between the electrode

and ionic solution (electrolyte) a redox
reaction needs to occur to allow charge
to be transferred between the electrode
and the electrolyte
 1. Electrode-Electrolyte Interface
• Anode: electrode at which electrons leave the cell (and
oxidation occurs)
• Cathode: electrode at which electrons enter the cell
(and reduction occurs)
• At the electrode-electrolyte interface:
• The electrode consists of metallic atoms C.
• The electrolyte is an aqueous solution containing cations of
the electrode metal C+ and anions A–.
• Net current crosses the interface from left to right.

There is a double layer of charge distributions at the interface

 1. Electrode-Electrolyte Interface
• A chemical reaction at the interface drives these ion movements – in general:

• n is the valence of C (the cation material)

• m is the valence of A (the anion material)

• The dominating reaction can be inferred from the following:

• Current flow from electrode to electrolyte : Oxidation (Loss of e-)
• Current flow from electrolyte to electrode : Reduction (Gain of e-)
• Electrodes will perform better if process is reversible
• Overall there is no electronic or ionic charge across the interface between the electrolyte and electrode. There is
electronic charge displacement through the electrode and ionic charge displacement through the electrolyte.
• You can see the direction of current in the figures below, depending whether it is oxidation or reduction.
 1. Electrode-Electrolyte Interface
Half Cell Potential
• Half cells contain a conductive electrode and a
surrounding conductive electrolyte (e.g. a piece of
metal in solution containing ions of that metal).
• The chemical reaction that occurs on the surface of
the metal results in the electrolyte that is near the
metal having a different electrical potential to the
rest of the solution.
• One type of charge becomes dominant on the
metal and the opposite charge becomes dominant
in the electrolyte immediately next to the electrode.
 1. Electrode-Electrolyte Interface

Half Cell Potential

• This table shows half-cell potential for common
electrode materials at 25⁰C.
 1. Electrode-Electrolyte Interface
Standard electrode potential
• Electrochemistry
 1. Electrode-Electrolyte Interface
Example question
• An implantable biomedical device to be
developed includes a biocompatible battery which
consists of a silver and a zinc electrode placed in
muscular tissue. Calculate voltage output of the
proposed battery.

HAVE A GO AT SOLVING
 1. Electrode-Electrolyte Interface
We want the electrical potential between the electrodes
Use the table to identify Zinc and Silver half cell potentials
Are Zn and Ag biocompatible?

0.799 V - 0.763 V
 2. Polarization
• If there is current flowing in the electrode, half cell potential is altered
because there is polarisation of the electrode.
• Overpotential is the difference between the observed half-cell potential
with current flow and the equilibrium zero-current half-cell potential.
• Mechanisms that contribute to polarization:
Ohmic overpotential, 𝐕𝐫:
Concentration overpotential, 𝐕𝒄:
Activation overpotential, 𝐕𝒂:

• These mechanisms are additive 𝑉𝑝 = 𝐸 0 + 𝑉𝑟 + 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑎

• Polarisation and impedance of electrodes are the two most important electrode
properties to consider
 3. Polarizable and non-polarizable
electrodes
What happens to an electrode when a current passes between it and the
electrolyte?
Theoretically there are two possibilities:
• Perfectly polarizable electrodes
• Perfectly non-polarizable electrodes

Neither of these perfect theoretical scenarios can actually be made, but some real
ones come close (examples above)!
3. Polarizable and non-polarizable
electrodes
Perfectly Polarizable Electrodes Perfectly Non-Polarizable Electrodes
• No actual charge crosses the • Current passes freely across the
electrode-electrolyte interface when electrode-electrolyte interface, requiring
a current is applied. no energy to make the transition. These
• Charge distribution within the solution electrodes see no overpotentials.
near the electrode is changed allowing • No change in charge distribution in the
current to pass electrolytic solution adjacent to
• The current across the interface is electrode
a displacement current and the • Electrode interface impedance is
electrode behaves like a capacitor. represented as a resistor
Example : Platinum electrode (noble
Example: Ag/AgCl Electrode
metals – relatively inert)
 3a. Silver/Silver Chloride Electrodes
• Actual electrode that comes close to perfectly non-polarisable
• Easy to fabricate, practical for use in many biomed applications

Metal layer (silver) coated with

surface layer of ionic compound
made up of metal (silver) and
suitable anion (chlorine ions). This
is then immersed in the
Current Flow electrolyte containing the anion in
high concentration (chlorine ions)

Lead wire attaches to metal and

Ag/AgCl electrode, shown in cross section is insulated

Images: Textbook
 3a. Silver/Silver Chloride Electrodes
• Advantage of Ag/AgCl is that it is stable in liquid that has large quantity of
Cl- such as biological fluids
Behaviour of the electrode is
governed by two chemical
reactions:

Current Flow

Ag/AgCl electrode, shown in cross section

Images: Textbook
 3a. Silver/Silver Chloride Electrodes
• Fabrication can take place by:
• An electrolytic process
• Ag electrode serves as an anode and this is where the AgCl layer will be added.
• Another piece of Ag (much bigger) serves as the cathode.
• A circuit is set up to control the rate of reaction between them.
• Battery is connected and layer of AgCl is deposited until required thickness is
reached.
• Current will decrease as layer thickness increases
• Sintering
• Pressure and heat applied to powdered Ag/AgCl onto Ag lead wire.
• Silver powder increases conductivity
• Results in stronger and more reliable electrode
 3a. Silver/Silver Chloride Electrodes
Silver/Silver Chloride electrodes:
• Are less susceptible to motion artefact than polarizable electrodes
• Are less susceptible to changes to impedance due to frequency that polarizable
electrodes
• Exhibit less electrical noise than equivalent polarizable electrodes
• Are recommended for low voltage signals made up of low frequencies
4. Electrode behaviour and circuit
models

Images: Button, Vera,

and Eduardo
Costa. Principles of
Measurement and
Transduction of
Biomedical Variables,
Elsevier Science &
Technology,
2015. ProQuest Ebook
Central,
https://ebookcentral.pr
oquest.com/lib/uow/det
ail.action?docID=2009
774.
 4. Electrode behaviour and circuit
models
The characteristics of an electrode are:
• Sensitive to current density – will behave differently at different current densities
• Waveform and frequency dependent
• Sinusoidal currents used to estimate current behaviour
• Low noise
4. Electrode behaviour and circuit
models

Impedance as a function of
frequency for electrodes with
different layer thicknesses of AgCl

Images: Button, Vera, and Eduardo Costa. Principles of Measurement and Transduction of Biomedical Variables, Elsevier
Science & Technology, 2015. ProQuest Ebook Central,
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uow/detail.action?docID=2009774.
4. Electrode behaviour and circuit
models

Variation in impedance by frequency for an

example electrode made of unknown
material

Cut off frequency is about 100Hz for this

particular electrode
Stable impedance below about 50Hz or
above about 50kHz.

Images: Textbook
4. Electrode behaviour and circuit
models

Electrical characteristics of electrodes are

affected by many physical properties.

Image: Neuman, M. R. “Biopotential Electrodes.” The Biomedical Engineering Handbook: Second Edition. Ed. Joseph D. Bronzino Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
10 MINUTES
 5. Electrode-skin interface
In addition to the electrode-electrolyte interface, when using electrodes on the skin,
we must also consider the interface between the electrode and the skin.
Usually, a gel is used to couple the electrode to the skin which contains Cl- to
maintain good contact and reduce impedance.
But the skin itself also needs to be considered.

• Human skin tends to have a very high

impedance compared with other voltage
sources.
 5. Electrode-skin interface

This figure shows the equivalent circuit when we place an

electrode and gel against the skin.
 5. Electrode-skin interface
This is the full picture including the electrode and electrolyte as well as the skin

Images: Button, Vera, and Eduardo Costa. Principles of Measurement

and Transduction of Biomedical Variables, Elsevier Science &
Technology, 2015. ProQuest Ebook Central,
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uow/detail.action?docID=20097
74.
 5. Electrode-skin interface
Measurement Artefacts – offset voltage, motion artefact, polarization, liquid junction
potential

Images: Button, Vera, and Eduardo Costa. Principles of Measurement

and Transduction of Biomedical Variables, Elsevier Science &
Technology, 2015. ProQuest Ebook Central,
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uow/detail.action?docID=20097
74.
 5. Electrode-skin interface
Offset Voltage
• Half cell potential should be stable and constant for a given metal
electrode, but even 2 electrodes made form the same metal by the
same company can have different half cell potentials
• This can cause a current to flow between the electrodes causing an
undesired offset voltage between them.
• It can be mistaken for a physiological event
 5. Electrode-skin interface
Motion Artefact
• When a polarizable electrode is in contact with an electrolyte, a
double layer of charge forms at the interface.
• Movement of the electrode will disturb the distribution of the charge
and results in a momentary change in the half cell potential until
equilibrium is reached again.

Images: Button, Vera, and Eduardo Costa. Principles of Measurement and Transduction of Biomedical Variables,
Elsevier Science & Technology, 2015. ProQuest Ebook Central,
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uow/detail.action?docID=2009774.
 5. Electrode-skin interface
Polarization
• When current flows thourgh a real electrode
its half cell potential changes due to electrode
polarization.
• Remember the ohmic, concentration and
activation overpotentials we discussed earlier
are addititve

Images: Button, Vera, and Eduardo Costa. Principles of Measurement and Transduction of Biomedical Variables,
Elsevier Science & Technology, 2015. ProQuest Ebook Central,
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uow/detail.action?docID=2009774.
 5. Electrode-skin interface
Liquid Junction Potential
• On Ag-Ag/Cl electrodes there is a porous plug that separates
electrode filling solution from the external test electrolyte. If there is
a difference in ion concentrations between these 2 solutions there is
a liquid junction potential.
• This can also modify half cell potential

Images: Button, Vera, and Eduardo Costa. Principles of Measurement and Transduction of Biomedical Variables,
Elsevier Science & Technology, 2015. ProQuest Ebook Central,
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uow/detail.action?docID=2009774.
 6. Types of Electrode
6a. Body surface recording electrodes
• Metal plate electrodes
• Suction electrodes
• Floating electrodes
• Flexible electrodes
6b. Internal electrodes
• Needle and wire electrodes
6c. Microneedles
6d. Electrode arrays
6e. Electrodes for stimulation
6a. Body surface recording electrodes
Metal Plate
a) Curved plate used for application to limbs
b) Metal disk stuck down with surgical tape
c) Foam pad electrode like the ones used in ECG

Images: Textbook
6a. Body surface recording electrodes
Foam pad electrodes:
• Very common in clinic – who has had an ECG
before?
6a. Body surface recording electrodes
Suction Electrodes
A metallic suction electrode is often used as a
precordial (chest) electrode on clinical
electrocardiographs.

Images: Textbook
6a. Body surface recording electrodes
Floating Electrodes
• Metal disk is recessed
• Swimming in the electrolyte gel
• Not in contact with the skin
• Reduces motion artifact

Figure:
a) Recessed electrode with top-hat structure.
b) Cross-sectional view of the electrode in (a).
c) Disposable recessed electrode’s cross-sectional
view

Images: Textbook
6a. Body surface recording electrodes
Flexible Electrodes
• Aim to overcome the shortfall of rigid electrodes
not following curvatures of the human body
• One example is for monitoring of premature
babies who are tiny and have very delicate skin

Figure:
a) Carbon-filled silicone rubber electrode.
b) Flexible thin-film neonatal electrode.
c) Cross-sectional view of the thin-film electrode in (b).

Images: Textbook
6a. Body surface recording electrodes
Common difficulties with surface electrodes:
• Adhesive will not stick for long on sweaty or clammy skin surfaces.
• Require electrode change every 8 hours to avoid ischemia.
• Movement artefact
• Electrode position slips
 6b. Internal electrodes
• Electrodes can be used internally to detect biopotentials
• Percutaneous electrodes cross the skin layer
• Internal electrodes are connected to an implanted circuit
• These electrodes skip the skin barrier so they behave in a way dictated entirely by the
electrode-electrolyte interface.
• Extracellular fluid acts as the ‘gel’ to maintain the interface
• These electrodes would usually be custom designed for the application
 6b. Internal electrodes
Needle and wire electrodes
• No electrode/skin interface
• Behaviour is entirely electrode/electrolyte
• Closer to phenomena of interest

Figure:
a) Insulated needle electrode.
b) Coaxial needle electrode.
c) Bipolar coaxial electrode.
d) Fine-wire electrode connected
to hypodermic needle, before
being inserted.
e & f) Cross-sectional view of skin
and muscle, inserted fine-wire and coiled electrode.

Images: Textbook
 6b. Internal electrodes
Catheter tip or probe electrodes
• Placed in naturally occurring or surgically created cavity in body
• A metal tip or segment in the catheter or probe acts as electrode
• This metal makes contact with tissue
• A wire is run through the lumen of the catheter to connect
to other electronics

Image: https://www.aerjournal.com/articles/thermocoolr-smarttouchr-catheter-evidence-so-far-contact-force-technology-and-role
 6c. Microelectrodes
Measure potential difference across cell membrane – this allows us to understand
electrophysiology of these cells

Requirements
• Small enough to be placed into cell
• Strong enough to penetrate cell membrane
• Not damage the cell
• Typical tip diameter: 0.05 – 10µm
Types
• Solid metal - e.g.:Tungsten microelectrodes
• Supported metal (metal contained within/outside glass needle)
• Glass micropipette e.g.: Ag/AgCl electrode
 6c. Microelectrodes
Metal microelectrodes need a fine bore made of string
metal with an insulted tip (top figure)

Supported-metal electrodes use a combination of glass

and metal (bottom figures)

Example: Extracellular recording; typically in brain where

you are interested in recording the firing of neuron spikes.
 6c. Microelectrodes
Glass micropipette electrodes are another
modality

Intracellular recording; typically for recording

from cells, such as cardiac myocyte

Figure: A glass micropipette electrode filled

with an electrolytic solution:
a) Section of fine-bore glass capillary.
b) Capillary narrowed through heating and
stretching.
c) Final structure of glass-pipet microelectrode.
 6d. Electrode Arrays

Right: Examples of microfabricated electrode

arrays:
a) One-dimensional plunge electrode
b) Two-dimensional (matrix)
c) Three-dimensional

Figure left: Takeuchi, Kai, and Beomjoon Kim. “Functionalized microneedles for continuous glucose
monitoring.” Nano convergence vol. 5,1 28. 24 Oct. 2018, doi:10.1186/s40580-018-0161-2
 6e. Electrodes for Stimulation
• Follow the same general design as recording electrodes, but much
larger currents cross the electrode-electrolyte interface.
• Cannot be modeled as a series resistance and capacitance
• The body/electrode has a highly nonlinear response to stimulation
• Large currents can cause
• Cavitation
• Cell damage
• Heating
Types:
• Pacing
• Ablation
• Defibrillation

Image: https://miro.medium.com/max/300/1*kZtBy-eysQcg2w1fMG4PGg.jpeg
 Biomedical Applications
• You can see some common applications in this
table.
• More common applications will have lots of
commercially available electrode options eg: ECG
• Less common or research based measurements
may require fabrication of bespoke electrodes

Image: Neuman, M. R. “Biopotential Electrodes.” The Biomedical Engineering

Handbook: Second Edition. Ed. Joseph D. Bronzino Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
Practical Tips in Using Biopotential
Electrodes
• Construct electrode and lead that will be in contact with the electrolyte from the same
material to avoid additional polarization between different metals and potential corrosion

• When using pairs of electrodes use the same material for each electrode to keep half cell
potentials consistent

• Ensure electrodes are properly attached and that leads are not pulling on the electrodes
when in use, taping leads to the skin with some slack near the electrode can help

• Ensure system has adequate insulation for application – consider environment lead will
be used in

• Consider electrical noise from other equipment

• Check the input impedance of the biopotential amplifier

Practical Tips in Using Electrodes
• Biopotential electrodes should (circle correct response)

• Be good/poor conductors
• Have high/low impedance
• Should/Should not polarize when current flows through them
• Maintain/Not maintain good contact with the body
• Irritate/Not irritate the skin of the patient
• Be toxic/non toxic
• Be easy/hard to clean
• Be/Not be electrically insulated
• Be light/heavy
 Group Project Check in
• Where are you up to?
• What is the next group project assessment that is due?
• When is it due?

• We can spend some time now and I can answer any

questions.
Questions?