Received: 12 February 2016 | Revised: 6 June 2016 | Accepted: 26 July 2016

DOI 10.1111/jfpp.13173

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Critical conditions accelerating the deterioration of fresh

noodles: A study on temperature, pH, water content,
and water activity

Man Li1 | Meng Ma2 | Ke-Xue Zhu2 | Xiao-Na Guo2 | Hui-Ming Zhou2

1
School of Food Science and Engineering,
Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao,
Abstract
Shandong Province, 266109, People’s In this study, critical temperature, pH value, water content, and water activity inducing the acceler-
Republic of China ation of fresh noodle deterioration were determined. Total plate count (TPC) and L* value were
2
State Key Laboratory of Food Science and selected as the visualized parameters to characterize the deterioration of fresh noodles based on
Technology, School of Food Science and
our previous study. Results showed that the critical temperature leading to the initial acceleration
Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi,
Jiangsu Province, 214122, People’s Republic of fresh noodles was 208C–258C, critical water content was between 23% and 24%; the fastest
of China darkening rate was detected at pH 8.0–8.5, while microorganisms kept a high growth rate during
Correspondence the whole range of initial pH 6–10. In addition, shelf-life model was built based on the deteriorat-
Man Li, School of Food Science and ing dynamics at room temperature, showing that microbial growth could be well fitted by both
Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural
Gompertz and Logistic model, with higher fitting precision for Gompertz model and the fitting
University, Qingdao, Shandong Province,
266109, People’s Republic of China. equation was y 5 4.364 exp[2exp (1.032–0.086t)], R2 5 .98855; Meanwhile, the darkening of
E-mail: [email protected] (M. Li) fresh noodles could be fitted by quadratic polynomial model, with the fitting equation
or y 5 76.0629 2 0.0165x 1 5.98587x2, R2 5 .9814.
Ke-Xue Zhu, State Key Laboratory of Food
Science and Technology, School of Food Practical applications
Science and Technology, Jiangnan This article presents the dynamics during the deterioration of fresh noodles and the critical condi-
University, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, 214122,
tions (moisture content and water activity, pH value, and storage temperature) accelerating the
People’s Republic of China.
Email: [email protected] (K.X. Zhu) deterioration process. In addition, shelf-life model was built based on the deteriorating dynamics
of fresh noodles at room temperature. Based on these results, a shelf-life stable fresh noodle prod-
uct can be developed by applying different processing techniques and by keeping it in appropriate
conditions, which will provide great guiding significance for the production and preservation of
these products.

KEYWORDS
critical condition, deterioration, fresh noodle, shelf-life model

1 | INTRODUCTION traditional form of Chinese noodles, fresh noodle is now attracting

more people for its unique flavor and taste.
Noodles, as one of the major traditional cereal products in China and However, the major defect of fresh noodle is that it is extremely
several other Asian countries, are favored by consumers for their ease subject to deterioration, due to the high water content and abundant
of handling and cooking. Approximately 40% of wheat in China is used nutrients. This defect results in a quite short shelf-life if not stored
for various types of noodle production (Liu et al., 2015). under refrigeration, which therefore limits their manufacture and
For quite a long time, people could only buy dry noodles or instant spread (Li, Zhu, Guo, Peng, & Zhou, 2011). Ensuring quality retention in
fried noodles in supermarkets for ease of preservation. However, these fresh noodles continues to be a challenge; the short shelf-life of these
deep drying processes may largely decrease the flavor, texture, and products resulted in huge waste in food industry, as well as potential
even nutritional properties of noodle products. For this reason, as the food poisonings (Li, Zhu, Guo, Brijs, & Zhou, 2014).

J Food Process Preserv 2016; 1-7 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jfpp V

C 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. | 1
2 | LI ET AL.

Food preservation involves the action taken to maintain the experimental noodle machine (Model JMTD-168/140, Beijing, China)
desired properties or nature of foods within a period of time, to make for six to eight times to obtain dough sheets. The strands of resultant
it remain safe and pleasant to consume (Rahman, 2009). During food noodles were 1 mm in width and 0.8 mm in thickness. Two independ-
storage, microbial growth and deteriorative physical, chemical, and bio- ent fresh noodle samples were made and then each batch were regu-
chemical changes depend on many factors (Rahman, 2010), such as lated and analyzed (for three times) periodically. Samples were sealed
water content, food composition, preservatives, pH, and environmental in PA/PE bags to prevent air and water permeation and stored at the
or processing factors (temperature, pressure, electricity, package, gases specified temperature.
or vapors) (Rahman, 2009). Many research reported the effect of water
activity and storage temperature on food storage, concluding different 2.3 | Regulation of storage temperature
optimal conditions for different foods (Ji, Zhu, Qian, & Zhou, 2007;
The prepared fresh noodles were stored at 48C, 108C, 158C, 208C,
Rehman, Habib, & Zafar, 2002; Rehman and Shah, 1999). A stable food
258C, and 378C, respectively. Changes of total plate count（TPC）and
product can be developed by applying different processing techniques
L* value were determined regularly and the variation degree during
and by keeping it in appropriate conditions.
24 hr were calculated as microbial growth rate (TPC24 hr–0 hr 5 TPC24
For fresh noodle, water content, water activity, and acidity–alkalin-
hr 2 TPC0 hr) and darkening rate (DL0 hr–24 hr 5 L*0 hr 2 L*24 hr), based on
ity of noodle matrix, as well as the storage temperature play the most
which the critical temperature point or range was quantified.
important roles on their storage stability. Regulation of these parame-
ters is crucial for extending the shelf-life of fresh noodles. To maintain
2.4 | Regulation of water content and water activity
the natural flavor and texture, water content in fresh noodles must be
over 20%, with more water leading to better taste but reduced shelf- The newly produced fresh noodles were hung in a sterilizing room for
life (Fu, 2008). Thus effort should be channeled toward the develop- 0, 15, 30, 50, 80, 120, 160, and 200 min, respectively, to evaporate
ment of storage stability without compromising the desired quality water. The resultant noodles were determined for water content and
attributes. Generally, microbial growth and other chemical or biochemi- the corresponding water activity. Thus a series of moisture content
cal changes in the food system are more likely to occur at such opti- and water activity gradients for fresh noodles were obtained. The sam-
mum conditions. Deterioration reactions could be accelerated at a ples were stored at 258C 6 18C and the rate of microbial growth and
certain range, while food storage stability can be obtained outside this darkening was investigated, based on which the critical water content
range. Based on this, The objective of this study was to ascertain the and water activity were quantified.
dynamics during the deterioration of fresh noodles and the critical con- Moisture content was determined by the AACC moisture proce-
ditions (moisture content and water activity, pH value, and storage dure 44-15A (AACC, 2000). Water activity was determined using a
temperature) accelerating the deterioration process, which will provide Novasina Thermoconstanter (Model Labswift-aw, Novasina, Switzer-
great guiding significance for the production and preservation of fresh land) based on the manufacturer’s instructions; noodle samples were
noodle product. cut into small pieces and put in the sample cell, and the lid of the
machine was closed and the data was read until the alarm rang.
2 | MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.5 | Regulation of pH value
2.1 | Materials and proximate analysis
The pH values of fresh noodles were adjusted using potassium carbon-
High protein white wheat flour was manufactured by China Oil & ate and citric acid, which are permitted in noodle products according to
Foodstuffs Corporation (Hebei, China), in which the contents of mois- the Standards for Uses of Food Additive in China (GB/T 2760-2014).
ture, ash, and protein in which were 13.59%, 0.55%, and 13.0%, Then a series of pH gradients for fresh noodles were obtained. The
respectively. Potassium carbonate and citric acid were of analytical samples were stored at 258C 6 18C, and the microbial growth and dark-
grade and obtained from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co, Ltd, (Shang- ening rate were investigated, based on which the critical pH value
hai, China). point or range was quantified.

2.2 | Fresh noodle preparation 2.6 | Microbiological analysis

Under the condition of analog industrial production, the lab was steri- The fresh noodle sample (25 g) was placed into 225 mL of 0.85% asep-
lized using ultraviolet radiation, including all of the instruments and tic physiological saline (PA) and the mixture was homogenized using a
packing materials. The noodle formula consisted of wheat flour and dis- lab blender (Stomacher 400, Seward, England). Gradient dilutions were
tilled water with a proportion of 100: 34 (w/v). Noodle dough was prepared using PA. Then 1 ml of the appropriate dilution was pour
formed with a Kitchen Aid mixer (St. Joseph, MI) with the following plated onto sterile plate count agar plates (nutrient agar medium with
mixing parameters: first at 90 rpm for 120 s (low-speed), and then at tryptone, yeast extracts, and glucose), to determine the total aerobic
60 rpm for 360 s. The dough crumbles obtained was allowed to rest in plate counts (TPC). The plates were then incubated at 378C for 48 6 2
a sterilized plastic bag for 20 min, which were then passed through an hr (GB/T 4789-2010, 2010).
LI ET AL. | 3

FIGURE 1 TPC changes (a) and microbial growth rate (b) in fresh noodles under different storage temperatures; 48C,
108C, 158C, 208C, 258C, 308C, and 378C

2.7 | Color measurement of noodle sheets 3.1 | Effect of storage temperature on the microbial
A chroma meter (Model CR-400, Tokyo, Japan) with the CIE 1976 L*,
growth and darkening rate of fresh noodles
a*, and b* color scale was used to measure the color of fresh noodle 3.1.1 | Microbial changes
sheets. L* value is a measurement of brightness, which was reported as Temperature is considered as the most important environmental factor
the indicator of noodle darkening (Li et al., 2012). a* represents the determining most of the deterioration reactions in food system (Abel-
red-green coordinates (2 is green and 1 is red) while b* measures the lana, Benedi, Sanchis, & Ramos, 1999). Figure 1a shows the effect of
blue-yellow coordinates (2 is blue with 1 indicating yellowness) of a storage temperature on the TPC changes in fresh noodles during stor-
product. Samples were cut into pieces of approximately 5 cm in diame- age. Microbial growth got faster as temperature increased, and this
ter and measured within 5 min after cutting and during storage. concurred with the report of Ji et al. (2007) for Migao (steam-cooked
rice cake, a traditional Chinese food), and Kumudavally, Phanindraku-
mar, Tabassum, Radhakrishna, & Bawa (2008) for fresh mutton. TPC
2.8 | Determination of pH was over 106 CFU/g immediately after 24 hr as the storage tempera-
ture increased to 258C and above. In addition, TPC in all the samples
The sample (10 g) was homogenized in 90 ml of distilled water in a
(except 48C) increased most rapidly during the first 24–48 hr. Thus the
stomacher bag using a stomacher machine (Stomacher 400, Seward,
degree of microbial change during 24 hr was calculated as microbial
England) for 60 s to get a uniform mixture. The pH value was then
growth rate (TPC24 hr–0 hr) and summarized in Figure 1b. Under 48C,
measured using the pH meter (PHS-3C, Ruili Analysis Instrument Com-
microbial growth was significantly restrained and even showed a slight
pany, Shanghai, China).
decrease of TPC in the first few days (lag phase), which might be due
to the inadaptation to low temperature of some microorganisms. TPC
of 48C samples was still less than 106 CFU/g even after 20 days. More-
2.9 | Statistical analysis over, at lower temperature (48C and 108C), microbial growth in fresh
noodles presented a linear trend.
All of the experimental data were presented as the mean of at least
As shown in Figure 1b, the maximum slope of the microbial growth
three readings. Significant differences were verified by one-way analy-
rate curve was found at the critical temperature range of 208C–258C,
sis using SPSS statistical software (20.0, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). The
microbial growth rate dramatically increased even with a small temper-
p < .05 was considered statistically significant by using Duncan’s test.
ature change in this range. TPC increased slightly below 208C and no
Total plate count data in figures were transformed into logarithms of
significant difference was detected between 308C and 378C samples,
the number of colony forming units (CFU/g). Changes in microbial
with the microbial growth rate curve got steady.
growth and L* value under room temperature were fitted using Orign
8.0 to obtain the dynamical model of fresh noodle deterioration. 3.1.2 | L* value changes
Color is considered a major determinant of the marketability of fresh
noodles. For Chinese fresh noodles, a clean and bright appearance is
3 | RESULTS AND DISCUSSION desirable, whereas dark or gray colors are negative attributes (Li et al.,
2012). Another common fault of fresh noodles is that they are liable to
According to the results of our previous study (unpublished) using cor- darken, which results in products with a color that is less commercially
relation and factor analysis, TPC and L* value were selected as the acceptable. To improve shelf-life it is also desirable to stop or at least
visualized parameters to characterize the deterioration of fresh noo- slow the darkening. According to Asenstorfer, Appelbee, & Mares
dles, to investigate the deterioration rate responses to storage temper- (2010), noodle darkening can be measured by a change in the CieLab
ature, water content and water activity, as well as pH value. L* value, which is a function of the diffuse light reflectance (scattering)
4 | LI ET AL.

FIGURE 2 L* value changes (a) and darkening rate (b) of fresh noodle sheets under different temperatures; 48C, 108C, 158C, 208C,
258C, 308C, and 378C

and light absorption. Figure 2a presents the changes of L* value of With respect to food quality control and shelf-life extension, it is
fresh noodles under different storage temperature. Data were recorded important to be aware that it is much better and far more meaningful
at 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 24, 36, and 48 hr, respectively, during storage. to speak of water activity (aw) and not just of water content. Water
For all the temperatures investigated in this study, decrease in L* activity is even considered as the most important factor determining
value occurred mostly during the first 24 hr, specifically during the first whether and at which rate a microorganism will grow on foods of inter-
4 hr, which concurred with the report of Asenstorfer et al. (2010). In ,
mediate moisture (Fustier, Champagne, & Lamarche, 1998; Membre
addition, darkening of fresh noodles increased with increasing storage ne
Kubaczka, & Che , 1999).
temperature. The degree of L* value change during the first 24 hr was Figure 3 shows the microbial growth (a) and darkening rate (b)
calculated as darkening rate (L24 hr–0 hr) and presented in Figure 2b. changes as affected by water content and water activity (aw). Generally,
The maximum slope of the darkening rate curve was also found at proliferation of microorganisms increased with increasing water con-
208C–258C, which was quantified as the critical temperature range tent and water activity (Figure 3a). Microbial growth rate slightly
accelerating fresh noodle darken. increased when water content was under 23% (the corresponding
water activity was 0.92); TPC increased largely over the water content
of 24%, specifically at the range of 24%–26% (the corresponding water
3.2 | Effect of water content and water activity on the
activity was 0.93–0.94), even a small change in water content of this
microbial growth and darkening rate of fresh noodles
range will lead to dramatical increase of microbial growth rate.
Water content is a very important quality parameter for practically Darkening rate changes as the effect of water content and water
every food product, as well as for its ingredients (Abramovič, Jamnik, activity can be roughly divided into three stages (Figure 3b). When
Burkan, & Kač, 2008). Regulations dealing with food quality usually water content was less than 23.5% (corresponding water activity
refer to water content. It plays a very important if not decisive role on 0.927), darkening of fresh noodles was quite slow, L* value slightly
quality and especially on the shelf-life of almost every food product (p > .05) decreased during the first 24 hr. The amount of darkening
and material. As a type of high-moisture food, fresh noodle is no increased with the increasing water content, with significantly increased
exception to this general rule. darkening rate detected at water content of 24%–26% (p < .05). Then,

FIGURE 3 Effect of water content and water activity (aw) on the deterioration of fresh noodles; (a) microbial growth; (b) darkening
LI ET AL. | 5

FIGURE 4 Effect of pH value on the microbial growth rate (a) and darkening rate (b) of fresh noodles

more remarkable increase was observed with the moisture content over decreased the loss tangent, and resulted in the reduction in protein
26%. Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) has long been considered as a predomi- extractability. Whereas lactic acid had the opposite effect and resulted
nant factor leading to the discoloration in fresh Asian noodles and other in a dough with decreased proportion of solid-like behavior.
wheat products (Patrick, Anderson, & Morris, 2006). PPO was highly Addition of alkali and acid leads to the variation of pH values,
dependent on the matrix conditions including water content and water which affects microbial growth and other deterioration processes. And
activity. And according to Asenstorfer, Appelbee, & Mares (2009), solu- to the best of our knowledge, there are no reports in the literature
ble protein fraction was involved in the non-PPO darkening process. regarding the relationship between pH value and the deterioration rate
They also indicated that water in noodle formula influenced the protein of fresh noodles.
concentration and structure, which were related with the early noodle
3.3.1 | Microbial growth rate
darkening, because changes in the orientation of protein molecules and
protein structure may lead to a decrease in reflectivity and therefore a Addition of citric acid decreased the pH value while potassium carbon-
decrease in the L* value (Asenstorfer et al., 2010). ate increased the value. Effect of pH value on the microbial growth (a)
and darkening rate (b) is shown in Figure 4. The initial pH value of fresh

3.3 | Effect of pH value on the microbial growth and noodles without any incorporation was 6.60, which was quite suitable
for bacteria propagation. Microbial growth was significantly (p < .05)
darkening rate of fresh noodles
inhibited at lower pH values (under pH 5, Figure 4a), while high growth
Wheat flour noodles can be divided into two distinct categories based rate was detected with initial pH values ranging from 6 to 10. This was
on the presence or absence of alkaline salt or salts (Miskelly, 1996). because of the decrease in high pH values as a result of microbial activ-
The alkaline salt has a great impact on the color, flavor, and texture of ity during storage, which was thus insufficient to inhibit microbial
noodles, as well as microbial growth and storage stability. Alkaline noo- growth in fresh noodles. Thus, shelf-life of fresh noodle could only be
dles represent about 10% of total noodle production in China and have extended by incorporation of alkaline salts in the formula when pH val-
over 50 percent market in Japan (Fu, 2008). It is believed that the origi- ues are over 10. This leads to addition of large amount of alkali and
nal purpose of the incorporation of alkaline salts in fresh noodle for- may be undesirable taste for some consumers.
mula was to extend its shelf life by inhibiting microbial growth
(Miskelly, 1996), which gives noodles pH values ranging from about 9 3.3.2 | Darkening rate
to 11. Generally, inclusion of alkaline salts give fresh noodles a bright yellow
In addition, natural organic acids (such as citric acid, lactic acid, and color (Morris, Jeffers, & Engle, 2000), which is known as yellow alkaline
malic acid) have been developed as preservatives in high moisture noodles. Darkening of fresh noodles of all pH values occurred mostly
wheat-based food, which lead to low pH values (3–6) inadaptable for during the first 4 hr (data not shown). Noodle samples with different
microbial growth. pH values presented various darkening rates at room temperature,
Few researches have been conducted on the effects of alkali and with an optimum pH region for noodle darkening detected (pH 8.0–
acid on dough rheological properties and characteristics of fresh noo- 8.5). The bell-shaped curve shown in Figure 4b was generally recog-
dles. Ong, Ross, & Engle (2010) found that alkaline-carbonate noodle nized as the result of enzymatic reaction. According to Liang, Shang, &
doughs were harder in consistency, more elastic, and had higher viscos- Fu (2006), and the result of our previous study (unpublished), the opti-
ities when compared with conventional flour and water doughs. This mum pH value for PPO activity isolated from wheat flour was found at
may be due to the noticeably higher strength of glutenin macropolymer about pH 7.6, which was not completely consistent with the darkening
(GMP) extracted from alkaline doughs. Chu (2004) reported an increase region resulted in this study. It can be enunciated that the matrix has a
in farinograph development time and dough stability, and extensograph considerable effect on the pH optimum of the PPO enzyme (Asenstor-
maximum resistance with the addition of carbonates. Shiau & Yeh fer et al., 2010). In addition, other enzymes in wheat flour system may
(2001) indicated that Kansui (mixture of Na2CO3 and K2CO3) signifi- also play important roles in the darkening of fresh noodles (Liang et al.,
0
cantly increased the apparent viscosity and storage modulus (G ) and 2006).
6 | LI ET AL.

FIGURE 5 Growth rate models of fresh noodles at room temperature; (a) Logistic model fitting; (b) Gompertz model fitting

3.4 | Deterioration models at room temperature and Gompertz (b) fittings of microbial growth in fresh noodles under
room temperature (258C 6 18C) are shown in Figure 5. The curves are
Mathematical models are important tools for the analysis, monitoring,
shown to be the typical sigmoid shape, indicating that fresh noodles
control and optimization of biochemical and microbial processes in
are appropriate matrix for microbial growth. Both Logistic and Gom-
food (Stamati, Logist, Akkermans, Noriega, & Van Impe, 2016). These
pertz models can well fit the microbial growth patterns in fresh noo-
models have been typically used in view of product safety, product sta-
dles. Fitting equation for Logistic model was: y 5 4.364/[1 1 exp
bilization and process design and operation and are nowadays also
(2.1213 2 0.1239t)], R2 5 .96488; while for Gompertz model was:
extended toward food design (Saravacos & Kostaropoulos, 1996).
y 5 4.364exp[2exp(1.032 2 0.086t)], R2 5 .98855, with a higher fitting
In this study, microbial growth and darkening of fresh noodles
precision.
(without the regulation of water content and pH value) were taken as
the leading indicators, based on which the deterioration models were
developed at room temperature, for a more direct description of the
3.4.2 | Darkening model at room temperature
deterioration process of fresh noodles and providing references for the Polynomial expressions are one of the most commonly used models
application of preservation techniques. where biochemical response is a function of environmental factors.
Darkening of fresh noodles occurred mostly at the first 4 hr during
3.4.1 | Microbial growth model at room temperature
storage at room temperature (Figure 6), and then got slowly. Quadratic
Microbial kinetics play a key role in mathematical models as these polynomial model was shown to best fit the darkening curve (cubic and
kinetics determine the dynamic microbial evolution in time (McMeekin, quartic polynomial fittings were not shown), with the darkening equa-
2007). Modeling of bacterial growth kinetics enables one to describe tion calculated as y 5 76.0629 2 0.0165x 1 5.98587x2, R2 5 .9814. The
the behavior of microorganisms under constant environmental condi- fitting curve is presented in Figure 6.
tions (e.g., temperature, pH, or relative humidity) and hence appropriate
models are needed to extract parameters from such growth curves
(Chatterjee, Chatterjee, Majumdar, & Chakrabarti, 2015). Various math- 4 | CONCLUSION
ematical models are proposed to fit the microbial growth curves in
food systems, among which two typical models reported are the Logis- This is the first detailed study to quantify the critical matrical and envi-
tic model and Gompertz model (Peleg & Corradini, 2011). Logistic (a) ronmental conditions accelerating the deterioration of fresh noodles.
Based on the results of this study, noodle formula and storage condi-
tions can be regulated by manufacturers.
The deterioration of fresh noodles was shown to be condition-
dependent, the critical temperature region leading to the initial acceler-
ation was 208C–258C; critical water content was 23%–24%; darkening
occurred mostly at pH 8.0–8.5, while microorganisms maintained a
high growth rate with pH value ranging from pH 6 to 10. Based on
this, shelf-life model was built at room temperature, showing that
microbial growth could be well fitted by both Gompertz and Logistic
model, with higher fitting precision for Gompertz model and the fitting
equation was calculated as y 5 4.364exp[2exp (1.032 2 0.086t)],
R2 5 .98855; Meanwhile, the darkening of fresh noodles could be well
FIGURE 6 Quadratic polynomial fitting of the darkening rate of fitted by quadratic polynomial model, with the fitting equation
fresh noodle sheet during 24 y 5 76.0629 2 0.0165x 1 5.98587x2, R2 5 .9814.
LI ET AL. | 7

ACKNOWLE DGMENTS for enhanced nutritional and functional properties. Comprehensive

Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 13, 347–357.
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Founda-
Liang, J. L., Shang, X. W., & Fu, Z. X. (2006). Studies on factors of poly-
tion of China (Grant No. 31571871 and 31371849) and the
phenol oxidase activity in spring wheat flour. Grain Processing, 31,
Advanced Talents Foundation of QAU (Grant No. 1115018). 25–27. (in Chinese with English abstract).
Liu, R., Xing, Y. N., Zhang, Y. Q., Zhang, B., Jiang, X., & Wei, Y. M.
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