Climate change and biodiversity conservation: Nature based solutions in agricultural

landscapes.

Introduction

The different environment problems that are interconnected with the agricultural landscapes are
loss of biodiversity, deforestation, climate change, irrigation problems degradation of soil,
pollutants and waste. The “Nature-based solutions” are mainly the different actions for the
protection, restoration and sustainable management of the overall ecosystems. These solutions
are also help in addressing the different kinds of societal changes where there is the inclusion of
climate change, security of food, human health, security of water and reduction of disaster risk.

The application of “Nature-based Solutions (NBS)”in different countries can also help in
gaining “financial benefits” by which a particular country can become more “economically
benefitted. On the other hand, with gaining economic benefit, the pollution levelof nature can
also be decreased in an accurate manner by the application of NBS. Hence, there is also the
successful reduction of the global disasterthat is based on nature by which the emission of
“Carbon dioxide or (CO2)”also can be reduced by Biochar.As a result, the Global Warmingalso
can be declined in an appropriate manner.

The key “research questions” are listed below-

 The researcher will be analyzed the positive impacts of Nature-based Solutionsin various
different places whether in the different places the beneficial rate will be different or not.
 The findings of this research study will also include the different limitations (if any) that
have been found in the application of NBS previously. 
 The researcher will also be analysed whether all NBS implementation processes and the
requirement of “financial capitals” are similar or not. 
 This research study will also include which of the nature-based solutionis the best for the
appropriate maintenance of Biodiversity balance and what are their focus points.
 The researcher will also be investigated whether the result of the implementation of NBS
will be similar or not in case of focusing on any key point.
The researcher has analysed the different scientific sourcessuch as journal articles for collecting
appropriate information on the implementation processas well as themarket valueof all the NBS.
The researcher has also identified the “sustainability measures” of those selected NBS processes
in an accurate manner. There is also the inclusion of some self-created tablesthat are based on the
prediction of the researcher. The different limitations that have been found in the tables are also
included in this research by providing appropriate solutions and including the ways by which the
limitations can be solved as well. This can help in conducting future research on this similar
topic where there is the presence of more enhancement and enrichment.

Literature review

Concept regarding NBS: While ‘Nature-primarily based totally Solutions’ is a distinctly

new term, it encompasses a number of practices that during many instances were used for
decades. As in keeping with the opinion of Seddon et al. (2020), the nature-primarily based
totally answers are specifically primarily based totally on indigenous information or had
been recognized below exclusive names like conservation agriculture.Often, the term
‘Nature-primarily based totally Solutions’ is used as an umbrella idea to cowl a number of
atmosphere-associated techniques which include atmosphere-primarily based totally
adaptation, herbal weather answers, and inexperienced infrastructure. One of the
maximum not unusualplace and broadly used definitions of NBS comes from the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN): Nature-primarily based totally
answers were decided as a big motion that guarantees sports for protection, handling and
restoring changed or herbal ecosystems. The nature-primarily based totally answers are
helped in addressing the exclusive environmental issues. On the alternative hand, the
answers additionally assist in imparting exclusive biodiversity blessings, which also can
offer advantage to the well being of human (IUCN, 2016).Nature-primarily based totally
answers are described as moves stimulated through, supported through or copied from
nature, that assist exclusive societies to deal with numerous environmental, social in
addition to financial demanding situations in a sustainable way (DG Research and
Innovation, 2015).For instance, as in keeping with the opinion of Maes and Jacobs (2015),
the definition of nature-primarily based totally answers as any transition to a use of
atmosphere offerings with reduced enter of non-renewable herbal capital and improved
funding in renewable herbal processes. Eggermont et al. (2015) similarly cited that the
differentiation of 3 exclusive styles of nature-primarily based totally answers that
proportion the goal of enhancing the transport of a number of atmosphere offerings. There
is likewise the presence of answers of no or minimum intervention in ecosystems,
interventions in controlled ecosystems and landscapes that search for sustainability. Multi
capability in addition to advent of the change of ecosystems is generally assist in
constructing inexperienced or blue infrastructures.The European Commission has
described NBS as ‘answers which might be stimulated through, supported through or
copied from nature which have massive ability for power and resource-green.Practically,
NBS may be applied to make contributions to panorama sustainability, which additionally
sell environmental health (Eggermont et al., 2015). This Commission has additionally
emphasised that severa NBS outcomes in co-blessings for the economy, health,
surroundings, and society, hence gift greater green and cost-powerful answers than
conventional ways (European Commission, 2015). The NBS idea advocates the
incorporated control of the numerous atmosphere offerings and the residing sources in a
sustainable manner (Faivre et al., 2017).

NbS can variety in phrases of the way herbal or engineered an answer is, from defensive a
completely intact atmosphere (e.g. an old-increase woodland), restoring degraded
ecosystems (e.g. re-setting up conventional agroforestry), and imposing new ecosystems
(e.g. an engineered wetland) (Cohen-Shacham et al., 2016). An atmosphere offerings are
useful to human that furnished through herbal surroundings and wholesome atmosphere.
For examples, woodland ecosystems,agro ecosystems,grassland ecosystems, and aquatic
atmosphere are specifically atmosphere servicesthat are taken into consideration as an
technique. This technique additionally may be benefitted the complete atmosphere in
addition to flora and fauna undoubtedly thru oblique or direct procedures. In this regard,
a number of the ecosystems offerings are flood law, sickness outbreak, soil erosion, water
and meals. Along with that, atmosphere offerings are noticeably big for human lifestyles
because it consists of the imparting ofclean water and nutritious meals. This facilitates in
helping the crop pollination wherein there's the law of weather, sickness, soil formation in
addition to non secular and cultural blessings.What all NbS have in not unusualplace is
they are searching for to maximise the cappotential of nature to offer atmosphere offerings
that assist deal with a human challenge, including weather alternate adaptation, meals
manufacturing or catastrophe threat reduction (Matthews et al, 2019).

The IUCN has lately launched a international widespread for correctly deploying NbS,
which describes eight standards, which include interest to a societal challenge, financial
feasibility, biodiversity benefit and inclusive governance (IUCN, 2016). These standards
and related signs assist degree the electricity of interventions, through making sure that
NbS tasks are well designed and implemented.
Three types of NBS can be marked in the system; the first one is a minimal intervention of
ecosystems, some interventions of ecosystems and landscapes, and management of ecosystems
in hybrid ways. Several nature-based solutions are constructed based on these things. Minimal
intervention is maintained in this ecosystem and the objective of this system is to improve the
delivery of ecosystems both inside and outside of the conserved ecosystem (Seddonet al. 2020).
This can be exemplified through the protection of mangrove areas to avoid extreme weather
conditions. The second type of NBS refers to the management approaches to establishing a
multifunctional and sustainable ecosystem. The inclusion of innovative ideas in agriculture is
one example that can be incorporated. For example, the inclusion of various innovative
technologies in agricultural fields also helps in the reduction of pollution. Extensive management
of ecosystems or creation of new ecosystems is referred to here and the restoration of the highly
damaged ecosystem can be included here. Another type of NBS includes "ecosystem-based
management". As per the view of Rink and Schmidt (2021), in this process, the "integrated
coastal zone management” (ICZM) and the "integrated water resource management" (IWRM)
are included. In the ICZM the ecosystem is managed through political and geographical
boundaries. In this process, the sustainability of the ecosystem is maintained in the coastal areas.
On the other hand, in IWRM the sustainability of water is managed for social and economic
welfare. In addition, NBS underpinned with the aid of using surroundings offerings-primarily based
totally technique are proposed as facilitating the adoption of a proactive city wooded area strategy
(Davies et al., 2017). Fini et al. (2017) concluded that a community of vegetated, porous sidewalks might
also additionally represent a brand new synthetic surroundings (i.e., kind III NBS) that contributes to
enhance residing situations at the same time as decreasing the danger of intense typhoon water events.
In an observe in Cambodia, Lin and Qi (2017) determined that a hydro-dam, as an NBS, presents resilient
responses and complements sustainable urbanization for social development. The function of city parks
as NBS to offer more than one surrounding offerings and enhance the layout and control of
inexperienced infrastructure, emphasizing flora structure, composition and control is mentioned with
the aid of using Mexia et al. (2018) and Vieira et al. (2018). Similarly, an observed in Brazil ( Lamano
Ferreira et al., 2017) on heavy metallic concentrations in peri-city forests shows that NBS at town degree
disperse air pollutants. Many NbS arise immediately withinside the realm of agricultural manufacturing
and grazing control and are applied by and large with the aid of using farmers or producers. As
consistent with the opinion of Flynn and Traver (2013), the one-of-a-kind sports which can be associated
with NBS might also additionally create direct monetary gain to the producer. In phrases of elevated
yields or decreased costs, further to broader societal gain. If the advantages to the landowner are
enough, technical help and transition investment can be enough to gain lasting changes. In a observe
carried out in Africa, Peter et al. (2017) keep that perennial grains as an NBS provide smallholder
farmers a sustainable answer for boosting resilience and minimizing danger in confronting international
change, at the same time as mitigating social and edifice drivers of low and variable manufacturing.
Furthermore, Zölch et al. (2017), offer proof at the effectiveness of city inexperienced infrastructure as
NBS to adjust typhoon water and help planners/operators of sewage structures in choosing the simplest
measures for the implementation and estimation in their effects. Ecological biodiversity may be
described because the range that may be marked many of the herbal communities, habitats and the
range of ecosystems. It refers back to the form of animal and plant species mendacity collectively and
related via the meals webs and meals chains. The Horizon 2020 software foresees huge-scale pilots and
demonstration tasks of actual nature-primarily based totally answers, which ought to keep or growth
manufacturing of wellbeing and welfare at decrease costs, and provide capability for job-wealthy
innovation (e.g., BenDor et al. 2015). Concrete utility of nature-primarily based totally answers in a
studies and innovation schedule calls for a sharper definition of nature-primarily based totally answers,
capitalizing at the accrued expertise on surroundings offerings. Innovations in Argo ecology and
ecological intensification ought to growth productiveness at the same time as turning in possibilities for
professional hard work (Bommarco et al. 2013; Edwards et al. 2013). Relatively small increments of
nature-primarily based totally use of city structures, for example, with the aid of using enforcing
inexperienced roofs, wallet of nature, or sustainable city drainage structures, have the capability to
generate huge socioeconomic advantages. Here, nature-primarily based totally answers ought to
recognize an aid use transition in practical incremental steps, if guided with the aid of using a clean
imaginative and prescient and everlasting assessment. Development and assessment of nature-primarily
based totally answers consequently spans 3 necessities: (1) lower of fossil gas enter consistent with
produced unit, (2) decreasing of systemic trade-offs and growing synergies, and (3) growing hard work
enter and jobs. These aforementioned standards or necessities can assist to expertise the element of
NBS in an extra correct manner.

Wetland International, The Nature Conservancy, is some international examples of some NBS.
The overall activity of Wetland International is to mitigate management risk, food risks and other
disaster risks and the other organization is responsible for conducting several processes to
mitigate the problem of climate change.Society's development goal can be achieved through the
reformation of the natural aspect that is responsible for striking a proper balance in the
ecosystem (Keesstraet al. 2018). Reflection of cultural and social values is to be marked in
society. Major societal challenges like food, water security, and climate change, social and
economic development are considered in nature-based solutions.

Importance of Nature-Based Solutions:

Nature-primarily based totally Solutions can beautify ecosystems and species through growing habitat
diversity, restoring aquatic ecosystems and wetlands and enhancing the excellent and reliability of water
(Abell et al., 2017). FAO and TNC have compiled a Literature Review, Nature-primarily based totally
Solutions in Agriculture enables with inside the appropriate Sustainable Management and Conservation
of Land, Water and Biodiversity, which files literature reassess related to a number of nature-primarily
based totally practices(Bommarco et al. 2013). In particular, literature reasserts on NBS associated with
weather mitigation (i.e., discount of emissions and carbon sequestration) are a long way extra severe
and delve deeper in evaluation than NbS associated with weather adaptation, conservation of land,
water and biodiversity, and different environment offerings and co-blessings. In addition to the
principles for describing NBS, residences of the time period ought to be considered: Firstly, the time
period ‘nature-primarily based totally’ indicates that herbal environment strategies are essential for this
definition. Secondly, the time period ‘answer’ method fixing a selected trouble or challenge (Albert et
al., 2019). Generally, the NBS awareness at the blessings to people and their surroundings to permit for
sustainable answers which can reply to environmental modifications and risks with inside the long-time
period (Eggermont et al., 2015). The goal of this idea incorporates now no longer simplest safety
however additionally enhancing, restoring, creating, and designing new ecological networks (Scott et al.,
2016). The most important purposeful base of this nature-primarily based totally answer is human
society and nature. The standard mission of sustainable improvement of human society through
financial restructuring is the characteristic this is liable for having right manage of this interest and its
miles contemplated with inside the standard gadget (Calliariet al. 2019). Natural inexperienced methods
are liable for setting up an incorporated structure. The production of a synthetic gadget in an
inexperienced pathway is the goal of this nature-primarily based totally characteristic.NBS possesses
effective equipment to make towns more resilient, livable, and sustainable (Dush-kova&Haase, 2020).

Many of these practices align with an emerging field of practice called ‘regenerative agriculture’.
Conservation agriculture is a widely known term that includes a suite of practices like cultivation
of cover crops and shifts to reduced-tillage or zerotillage practices; these practices have been
deployed on approximately 125 M ha globally (Friedrich, Derpsch, Kassam, 2012). These
practices are also an integral part of existing sustainable management and climate-smart
approaches.

The NbS still have critical importance to agriculture, as they can generate important benefits in
the production of food and fiber and they often include agricultural producers as implementing
partners. Even when NbS are being implemented at an individual farm or local project, it is
important to plan for landscape scale deployment, both to maximize benefit and to understand
impact if actions are scaled up (Cohen et al, 2016). As an example of landscape-scale NbS,
ecosystems can be set aside and protected to preserve their natural functions and services. This
can include avoided grassland conversion, avoid forest conversion, and avoid coastal wetland
and other aquatic ecosystem impacts (Narayan et al, 2017). Often, these measures are
accomplished through the establishment and enforcement of protected areas but can be set asides
on agricultural lands as well.Land managers can also undertake reforestation, afforestation, fire
management, and restoration of coastal wetlands, aquatic ecosystems, peatlands and forests on
either public, tribal or private lands.

Nature-based Solutions can help farmers adapt and ensure food production is more resilient to
future weather extremes like droughts, heavy storms, or coastal flooding by enhancing soil health
and water retention, reducing soil erosion and buffering shorelines, as well as enhancing food
and nutrition security through diversified production systems and sources of income. They can
reduce use of chemical additives, which reduces production costs and creates safer foods (GCA,
2019). Nature-based Solutions can reduce carbon emissions from the food sector and store
carbon, most significantly by avoiding deforestation and conversion of natural habitat, by
conserving, restoring and sustainably managing aquatic ecosystems (e.g. watersheds, wetlands,
coastal mangroves, sea grass meadows and coral reefs) to enhance their role in carbon
sequestration. This also can happen by changing crop residue, cover crop and tilling practices in
ways that enhance the carbon retained in plants and soils (Griscom et al., 2017).
Today, however, the worldwide meals device is a ten trillion-greenback economic system that connects
7. five billion customers and a various array of extra than 1 billion meal producers (farmers, ranchers,
pastoralists, and fish harvesters). Currently, meal manufacturing makes use of over 50% of the earth’s
liveable land, with 1.1 billion ha in crop manufacturing and every other four billion ha in livestock, dairy,
and grazing (Ritchie and Roser, 2013). And worldwide meals call for is about to grow with the aid of
using 50% which includes a 70% growth in protein call for with the aid of using 2050 (OECD and FAO,
2018). As in step with the opinion of Griscom et al. (2017), the worldwide footprint, the worldwide
meals device, which includes investors, businesses, and especially agricultural producers, plays an
important function in addressing our weather and environmental demanding situations thru the
advertising and adoption of NbS.Transitioning to nature-primarily based totally agricultural practices can
yield full-size direct and oblique advantages to society and to farmers. However, for plenty of
agricultural producers, this transition entails an essential extrade withinside the methods wherein they
use their scarce land, aquatic assets (which includes freshwater and fish assets), hard work, and capital.
The prices of those modifications are instant and non-trivial, even as the advantages can take years to
manifest. NbS are gaining traction because of their included method and vast scope, which offer cost-
powerful options for herbal useful resource control and reaction to weather variability and extrude.
Some a hundred thirty nations have integrated surroundings control into their nationally decided
contributions, to address whether extrade(Griscom et al. 2017). In the agricultural landscapes and
ecosystems of Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), nature-primarily based totally methods aren't
new, however, have become more and more applicable in mild of the want to provide extra, even
withinside the context of reducing biodiversity and weather extrude.Yet, with over 35% of the world’s
region below agricultural control, it presents a first-rate ability to repair biodiversity, specifically, thru
sports that assist the survival of flora and fauna important for farming ecosystems. It additionally
promotes the conservation and sustainable use of soil biodiversity; the latter being a pressing
movement to be undertaken with the aid of using 2020 to boost up movement on Aichi Target 7. The
essential perception is that NBS can constitute extra green and cost-powerful answers than conventional
methods improve. NBS may be related to the sustainable use of nature and ecosystems protection,
sustainability and multifunctionality of ecosystems, and layout and control of the latest ecosystems (EC,
2015). In mild of the above, developing interest is being given to NBS as a device wherein ecosystems
and the offerings they offer are directed at addressing the growing demanding situations (e.g., weather
extrade, meals security, or financial competitiveness to expand extra sustainable and resilient cities)
societies face (Maes and Jacobs, 2015). The NBS method makes a specialty of the advantages to people
and their environment, making an allowance for sustainable answers that could reply to environmental
extrade and risks withinside the long-time period. Thus, NBS can assist us to continue to be inside a
secure running area for humanity, enhance neighborhood ecological and social sustainability, and assure
long-time period productivity. Countries globally have the possibility and duty to use NBS as a guiding
financial method closer to enhancing their use of herbal assets for the gain of nature and society (Maes
and Jacobs, 2015). Despite its exclusive scope and ambitions, the NBS method has to now no longer be
taken into consideration in isolation, for the reason that it has developed from the ‘inexperienced
infrastructure’ concept (Davies et al., 2006; Lafortezza et al., 2017; Pauleit et al., 2017). Specifically for
water policy, the current Blueprint to shield Europe's water assets indicated that inexperienced
infrastructures and nature-primarily based totally answers, consisting of herbal water retention
measures, can significantly make contributions to the provisioning of surroundings offerings and have to
be followed as measures with inside the implementation of the Water Framework Directive and the
Flood Directive thru the territorial planning.In Europe, making an investment in nature-primarily based
answers totally can result in extensive socio-financial advantages, provision of jobs, and low-carbon era
innovations, that is, to the sustainable economic system and improvement as envisaged with the aid of
using the EU Horizon 2020 vision (Maes and Jacobs, 2015).In order to help the implementation of
modern nature-primarily based totally answers in environmental control and land use planning,
valuation turns into essential. A valuation can talk over with monetization (assessing an economic price)
or an estimation of really well worth or importance (Dendoncker et al., 2014). In this case, valuing for
sustainability and for environmental selection-making calls for to account for ecological, social and
financial aspects, that are taken into consideration the 3 pillars of included valuation (Boeraeve et al.,
2014; Dendoncker et al., 2014; Gómez-Baggethun et al., 2014). One of the viable methodologies to gain
price integration is multi-standards analyses (MCA). MCA is a framework for exploring and rating the
overall performance of opportunity selection alternatives in step with a couple of objectives (Belton and
Stewart, 2002; Hajkowicz and Collins 2007). It can integrate an extensive collection of information (e.g.,
qualitative and quantitative) and opinions.
NBS in Agriculture:

Agriculture Nature-based Solutions (Ag NbS) have excessive capability to assist mitigate the
terrible consequences of weather extrade and defend biodiversity in running landscapes across
the world.As in keeping with the perspectives of Ritchie and Roser (2013), it's far evaluated that
making an investment in Agricultural NbS specially calls for a nuanced expertise of a selected
constraints that distinctive farmers face, consisting of farmers’ get right of entry to to herbal
resources, credit, markets, and infrastructure.It has been located that after farmer uptake of
promising Agricultural NbS, fulfillment specially calls for an correct surroundings. There is the
inclusion ofnon-governmental organizations (NGOs), policymakers, groups and others— loosely
coordinating their efforts and considerate coverage and institutional engagement to be able to
obtain preferred environmental and social influences at scale.Some of the nature-primarily based
totally engineered solutions already utilized in city making plans and water management (e.g.
inexperienced roofs, bio-infiltration rain gardens, flowers in road canyons) have tested to be
extra efficient, cost-effective, adaptable, multi-motive and long-lasting than the so-called ‘gray
infrastructure’ alternatives (e.g. Gill et al., 2007; Pugh et al., 2012; Ellis, 2013; Flynn and Traver,
2013; Raje et al., 2013). The paintings with the aid of using Panno et al. (2017) well-
knownshows that NBS in Italy are related to extra well being thru much less ego depletion all
through intervals of warmth stress. It has been reviewed with the aid of using Kabisch et al.
(2017a), that fitness final results from get right of entry to to inexperienced/blue areas as NBS to
assist lessen urbanization associated hazard factors.In its Green Infrastructure Strategy report, the
European Commission (EC) states that inexperienced infrastructure allows to keep away from
reliance on infrastructure. This is expensive to construct while nature can offer much less highly-
priced and long-lasting answers, in addition to supply fitness-associated and ecological benefits
(EC, 2013).Acknowledging the critical function that inexperienced infrastructure and
surroundings offerings offer for the surroundings and society, the EC’s Directorate-General (DG)
Research and Innovation these days released the idea of ‘nature-primarily based totally answers’
(NBS) as a manner of creating herbal ecosystems an critical a part of sustainable development
(EC, 2015). It is critical for interacting as an surroundings based on repeated land place
formations.

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NBS refers to the way of presenting solutions through natural aspects and this is to be
implemented through the sustainable process. Thus, in improving several natural aspects, the
inclusion of sustainable energy is expected. The overall possession is responsible for having
proper control of the overall process. Several effects of NBS, long term food security, water
management, and other systems like having proper control of the environment of an agricultural
field can be achieved through this practice. There can be marked several positive remarks and
this is responsible for having proper control of the completely sustainable activity for human
development (Seddonet al. 2021). Long term food security within urban and rural settings is
responsible for having proper control through NBS.

Some NbS approaches could have maladaptive effects, for example if reforestation or
afforestation is advanced through monocultures or low diversity plantations, it could reduce
habitat and biodiversity (Seddon et al., 2020). NbS must also be implemented in a way that
engages traditional, local cultural and scientific knowledge, produces societal benefits in a fair,
equitable and transparent way (Seddon et al., 2020). Fighting against emerging environmental
problems that are present throughout the globe can be battled through nature-based development.
Problems that have emerged after the emergence of several significant facts are dependent on the
effectiveness of having proper control of this overall project (Keesstraet al. 2018). The global
approach for the improvement in biodiversity loss, natural disaster, and food and water crisis in
several sectors of this area can be mitigated through such practice of nature-based solutions.

Important initiatives by small and medium level farmers can be implemented for having proper
control of the problem of food security. An innovative sustainable approach for mitigating the
problems is responsible for having proper control of the food problem rising here.As per the
views of Artmannand Sartison (2018), it is estimated that the usage of “Nature-based
Solutions” help in the achievement of “sustainable agriculture” where there is the elimination
of societal challenges. Less food wastage and a new study of farming having less wastage and
more energy are responsible for having proper control of different agricultural activities.The
upfront costs and short-term risks and uncertainty associated with a transition to nature-based
agricultural practices pose a significant barrier to adoption(EC, 2015). Short-term risks are
mainly defining issues those are impact for a short period. Besides this, uncertainty defines an
epistometic situation that involves unknown or imperfect situations and environments as well.

Cost is one major factor that influences the nature-based development system. The overall
presentation of the work is dependent on financial support and this is responsible for having a
large amount of upfront cost. Short-term effects are responsible for having proper care of the
overall possession of NbS (Pauleitet al. 2017). The overall solution is responsible for having
proper care of the overall system. “High operational budget” is one of the major risks that is
needed to be included for having proper and efficient control over the different agricultural
activities. For the farmers, policy instruments that help to reduce both risk and liquidity
constraints are key for achieving widespread adoption of nature-based agricultural
practices(Cohen-Shacham et al., 2016). Placing a strong emphasis on human and social values
and seeking to address inequalities by creating more opportunities for inclusion will be a key
element in the transition to resilience.

Governments and organizations worldwide, with the help of academia, are turning to nature to
mitigate the pressing environmental, economic and societal challenges caused by the
industrialization era. However, it can also be highlighted that focusing in NBS is considered as
new practice based on industrialization era.This thinking is based on the fundamental role that
nature plays through the provision of ecosystem services in supporting the economy as well as
the livelihood of citizens (e.g., CohenShacham et al., 2016; Lafortezza and Chen, 2016; Maes et
al., 2016; Kabisch et al., 2017a; Raymond et al., 2017). In this regard, the advantages of applying
an ecosystem services-based approach using green infrastructure have been widely described in
the scientific literature.

For example, Elmqvist et al. (2015) state that the benefits of investing in restoring green (and
blue) infrastructure in urban areas may not only be ecologically and socially desirable but also
economically advantageous. The overall project of sustainable development on natural pathways
is not possible to conduct through the presentation of the overall action and this is responsible for
having proper control of the activity. Financial support from the government is supportive for
having proper development of human society (Cousins, 2021). Non-government organizations
can take nature-based initiatives in several developments. Several problems like water and food
supply can be recorded and a natural way of solution is to be taken. The fund can be raised by
the NGOs to conduct this change.
NBS is likewise contingent on different concepts, together with atmosphere-primarily based
totally edition, inexperienced city infrastructure, and atmosphere services, inasmuch as those 3
are subsets of NBS main to maximize its advantages and integration (Pauleit et al., 2017). The
EC (2015) has proposed a set of moves for re-naturing towns via implementing NBS. These
include: (i) figuring out obstacles (e.g., regulatory) and allowing factors (e.g., leverage of
funding) to the shipping of NBS; (ii) elevating citizens’ awareness, engagement, and
empowerment; (iii) integrating research, coverage and the monetary region to offer the proof
base for NBS; (iv) scaling up NBS throughout Europe via a more remarkable complete proof
base; (v) growing new commercial enterprise and funding fashions in addition to the criminal
and institutional frame. NBS packages variety from the microscale (e.g., UV radiation as NBS to
deal with algae-polluted water; Chen and Bridgeman, 2017) to the macro-scale (e.g., grasslands
as NBS helping whether extrude edition at the Mongolian Plateau; Shao et al., 2017).

Figure 1: NBS in agriculture

(Source: Iseman and Miralles-Wilhelm, 2021)

As the figure reflects, different other aspects are necessary to have an idea of the cost and
efficiency. The figure explains the benefits and cost ratio of the nbs. Improvement of quality of
water, carbon sequencing per year, nitrogen reduction and cost is reflected here. Through proper
cropland nutrient management,forty-four million tons nitrogen can be reduced per year. 
Wild et al. (2017) recognition at the more than one ‘value’ of inexperienced infrastructure via way of
means of evaluating the blessings of city greening alternatives of NBS with the ones of different, extra
traditional styles of infrastructure integrating both ‘inexperienced and gray’ interventions. These in
addition to different case studies (i.e., Jerome et al. (2017), van der Jagt et al. (2017) and Guard et al.
(2018) on NBS control and community-primarily based totally governance models, respectively may be
applied as sound reference cloth for disseminating information at the effectiveness of NBS, which in flip
can also additionally assist their destiny uptake.The Nature-primarily based totally Solutions in
Agriculture allow in Sustainable Management and Conservation of Land, Water, and Biodiversity (2021)
giving an extensive suite of NBS that may be taken immediately with inside the context of the
manufacturing of meals and fiber, both via way of means of agricultural practitioners or on lands or
waters used for manufacturing. Many of those practices align with a rising subject of exercise called
‘regenerative agriculture. Nature-primarily based totally Solutions may be hired in terrestrial meals
manufacturing, forestry, and wooden control, or in freshwater, coastal or marine environments, to
decorate meals manufacturing, keep carbon, and hold the surroundings and related services. As in
keeping with the perspectives of Raymond et al. (2017), there's a prime project of Ag NbS is the way to
gain landscape- or ecosystem-degree impact, spotting that it's going to require coordination of more
than one actor, a mirrored image of public and personal benefit, and attention for complicated
interactions and affects at the one's large scales. A key exercise that complements biodiversity elements
in agricultural lands is the combination of bushes on farms. Trees on farms play an important position in
contributing to biodiversity conservation in agricultural landscapes through in-web web page
conservation, via way of means of connecting fragmented wild habitats and imparting stepping stones
among blanketed place networks and preserving soil biodiversity and Argo. Trees on farms are the
precise negotiation device to bridge the conservation and meal manufacturing agenda. Although bushes
on farms play an important position in accomplishing Arch Target, they're invisible in maximum National
Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs).

Implementation of NBS solutions:

NBS such as Grazing optimization, Biochar, Improved plantation, Improved rice

cultivation, Cropland nutrients management, Trees in croplandis implemented in various
areas and in some agricultural fields.The relationship between grazers and grasses depends on
several a biotic and biotic factors. The formation of biochar is to enhance the natural carbon
sequestration rate in the soil (Cousins, 2021). Plantation in several areas can also be conducted
for having proper control of the existence of the trees in one particular place. Nature-based
solutions are responsible for improved plantations in barred land. Improved rice cultivation can
be conducted through this presentation. Nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus are three
ingredients that are to be included in the soil and this can be achieved through these aspects.
Conservation agriculture, the farming system to avoid the loss faced because of the regenerated
and degraded land is conducted through NBS. Several trees like fuel wood, fodder trees, timber
trees can be cultivated through NBS and this is responsible for having proper control of the
overall cultivation system.

Improvement of the “forest management systems” that are related to NbS will help natural
forests in storing more carbon as well as help maintain the “wood production” in the longer
future. As suggested by Wan et al. (2019), "The process of Logging" should be stopped in some
delicate places where the wood production has already been lost and to cope up with this new
reforestation has been applied. “Integrated Forest Fire Management” (IFFM) includes a
systematic fire management approach toward the forests. They include both the traditional
approach of fire management through fire suppression and fire prevention and they also use the
prescribed fire as their tool, "forest law enforcement" and community involvement.

On a European scale, except for the primary reviews from the EC (2013, 2015), extra facts concerning
NBS packages can be derived from maximum latest publications:Nicolaides et al. (2017), who
recognition on new methods to enhance regulatory instruments, proportion first-rate business practices
and exhibit the long-time period price of NBS, and Kabisch et al. (2017b), who offer a compendium of
contributions searching at NBS for weather extrude variation in city areas. An evaluation via way of
means of Tomao et al. (2017) on per-capita woodland location in Attica, Greece, recognized priorities for
NBS at the metropolitan degree to sell sustainable urbanization. Bellamy et al. (2017) offer a modeling
framework to tell inexperienced infrastructure making plans as NBS with associated ecological benefits.
First and foremost, variation of financial subsidy schemes is required. Shifting the cutting-edge monetary
advertising of fossil-gas intake in the direction of renewable power and task advertising is a prerequisite
to permit improvement of nature-primarily based totally answers, despite the fact that there's the little
political will to do so. Second, for traders and practitioners to pick out for nature-primarily based totally
on traditional techniques, selections and choices ought to don't forget large temporal and spatial scales
and combine numerous values (Dendoncker et al. 2014; Menz et al. 2013; Adams 2014). Third,
ecological improvements are key to layout nature-primarily based totally answers which efficaciously
make contributions to sustainable financial growth. During the final decades, Europe has visible a surge
of studies and coverage tasks on atmosphere services, closely supported via way of means of the
European Commission through the “EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020” (European Commission 2011). :
From a systemic viewpoint, a herbal gadget includes noticeably effective and interconnected subsystems
thriving solely on renewable power, even as generating and recycling items in a noticeably powerful
way. These “ecosystems” evolve to numerous however domestically most effective equilibrium among
productivity, adaptability, and resilience. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), non-
governmental organizations, and multi-countrywide corporations (ex. the Business for Nature coalition)
understand a key function in reforming meal manufacturing to satisfy worldwide goals, in particular
through a transition to sustainable meals and agriculture systems, along with crop manufacturing,
livestock, forestry, and fisheries and aquaculture with inside the control of herbal resources (FAO, 2014).
Agriculture can rent Nature primarily based totally Solutions (Ag NbS), which shift effective landscapes
from drivers of environmental effect to environmental answer providers.

Benefits and Cost Structures of nature based solutions:

Grazing optimization:

Grazing is the process of feeding a herbivore and the long growing plants are generally the food
for that. It is a behaviouristic activity that is conducted within a specific ecological system
(Seddonet al. 2021). It has its effect on biodiversity and in the grazing system dead litter grass is
reduced and this is advantageous for species like birds. Grazing is considered to be responsible
for increasing biodiversity in comparison to meadows that are mown. Plants' responses to
herbivore and some species are recorded to develop a stronger compensatory mechanism through
grazing.Optimization of the whole process is possible as interaction of cattle and plants in the
land results in increasing biodiversity.Thus, to increase biodiversity, grazing instead
ofmineralmaintenance of meadows is preferable.

Benefits:
As opined by Wishart et al. (2021), the most benefit of including nature-based solutions is to
mark sustainable development and the overall financial budget of the development can be
maintained as per the planned budget.The products that are remaining after grazing optimization
is considered to be the fruitful materials that are responsible for increasing several nutrients in
the soil. The environmental benefit of grazing optimization lies in the products that are extracted
from the grazer (Watkinet al. 2019). Extracted substances as dung act as a natural fertilizer
increasing the quality of the soil. Potassium, nitrogen, phosphorus are the materials that are
added through grazing optimization. Accumulation of several organic elements is possible
through grazing optimization(Kabischet al., 2017). This is one environmental benefit of grazing
optimization. Biodiversity is the other aspect that is also supported by these sorts of activities
through avoiding monoculture in any field. More grassland birds, butterflies are noted to increase
in that area. Dead litter grass is reduced through grazing. Removal of dead litter grass through
grazing is supportive of decreasing obstacles for the living plants that are hard to maintain in
traditional system.

Cost structures:

The cost of grazing optimization largely depends on the market prices of several components that
are used within the grazing optimization process (Hashmiet al., 2017). Forge value is one
important aspect that is to be considered. Forge value is to be considered by assessing the quality
of the plants. Here the quality of the plants is to be considered and categorized in three different
aspects. Good, fair and poor forge value can be marked on these plants. Dependability as a
forage supply, palatability, nutritive contents the three aspects that are to be considered for
categorizing have proper forge value (McDowell et al. 2018). The overall “cost of the plants”
will be determined,as well as identified by the successful implementation of the different aspects.
The aspects are responsible for having total control over the plants. The price of several
ingredients as seed;wheat is to be included within the setting while calculating the production
cost and maintenance cost.

For example, with different nutrient values, the cost of the raw material for grazing optimization
will increase or decrease.The overall “cost of conducting” this work can be “1.4 billion” in
maintenance as well as optimisation of the effect of grazing on the agricultural area(Kabischet
al., 2017).The quality of the yield is the determining factor for the opportunity cost. However,
the palatability of the effects of grazing activity is the base for opportunity cost. As an instance
of measures, it has talked about "grazing optimization", this fact can only become clear in the
comparison of to meadows and these mown are considered as a late to their position.

As sources of measures, the elements of “water retention measures, ecosystem services” and
others are taken into consideration. “Water retention measures”, have stated their aim towards
safeguarding and sharpening the water shortages regarding the landscape structure into the soil,
resources of ecosystems, environmental features, features of water, and natural processes
(Pascualet al. 2021).  On the other hand, ecosystem services as a measure are identified as a
positive benefit to the people that the ecosystem has been providing the people. Here the benefits
of this measure can be direct and indirect or could be small and larger for the ecosystem (Kelly et
al. 2020). As examples of these services, “provisioning services or the provision of food,
regulating services, supporting services” and others have been identified. 

Intensive short duration grazing with the support of a high stocking density usually results in
rapid and uniform forage utilization. Several other aspects like biodiversity, mineral
maintenance, natural fertilizer increasing, forge value, production cost and maintenance costs
light interception are also to be considered, which are available for pasture regret in a short
period (Hashmiet al., 2017). Thus, the availability of this forge is to be marked by the assessment
of nutrients within the plants. Low stocking rate and density as the previous stage are the factors
influencing the whole process of intensive short duration grazing. High stocking rates within
long periods of pasture degradation is the reason beholds the intensity.But the increased time
duration will affect the level of intensity of grazing.
 Figure 2: Dryland wheat optimised grazing

(Source: Chelottiet al. 2020)

The figure reflects the cost of dry land grazing activity. The grazing activity is achieved to have
more control of wheat production. Different price that is to be paid for the grazing activity is to
be maintained in the figure. Probable cost for implementing dry land wheat grazing is to be
mentioned in the figure.

Case studies of grazing optimization

Case Authors Identical element costing Cost production

identification

Optimization Hao et al. climate change and grazing on the 3,69,35,094.30

schemes for (2018) ecosystem services Bangladeshi Taka (0.39
grassland million USD) costing
ecosystem based on per million
services under production
climate change

Optimizing Grazing exclusion with fences Cost of grazing inclusive

Sun et al.
grazing exclusion and exclusive cost that,
(2021)
practices to ৳2,741.21 per person
achieve Goal 15 (2,646.68 USD)
of the sustainable
development
goals

Climate change Gomez- Grazing by ruminant livestock Costing of the element

mitigation as a co- Casanovas 63,60,65,757.83 taka per
benefit of et al. (189150.00000
regenerative (2021) USD)hectares over the
ranching next 30 years of time
limit

Legacy effect of ZHANG et livestock grazing and especially 2000000Bangladeshi

grazing intensity al. (2020) over-grazing taka (6,54,891.12 USD)
mediates the
bottom-up
 controls of
resource addition
on soil food

Fertilizer and Gosnell et grazing return Cost of grazing

Impoverished al. (2020) returnthat is 150.49
Roots Required Bangladeshi taka (1.59
for Improving USD)
Wheat Yields and
Profits under
Climate Change

Table 1: Grazing optimization cost of five case studies

(Source: Self-created)
This table has developed with the help of five case studies to identify the cost and cost structure
of grazing optimization. As per the identifications of this case study it has seen that, grazing
optimization benefitted bio diversity by harvested the productive growth and benefits to the
animal in the ecosystem. This process of facilitated towards “improve land and pasture
conditions, enhance livestock production, and encourage an increase in forage utilization” to the
environment (Gosnell et al. 2019). These five case studies of grazing optimization have
developed their discussion via focusing on grazing optimization through cost and cost structure
and the cultivation of bio-diversity. Hence, it can be noted that cost predictions of optimization
specimens,  “Optimizing grazing exclusion practices”, “Climate change mitigation”, “Legacy
effect of grazing intensity mediates” and “Fertilizer and Impoverished Roots Required for
Improving Wheat Yields” have discussed though the benefits of grazing optimization to bio-
diversity cultivation (Kyrey et al. 2021). The cultivation of bio-diversity through grazing
optimization has been highlighted by its cost structure and cost production. 

Grazing optimization or grazing management is identified as significant tools to preserve insect

biodiversity in the ecosystem.  Over biodiversity, grazing pressure has shown its importance to
support grassland insect communities for the ecosystem services they provide. In the
“biodiversity-friendly rotation” continuous grazing has been seen as an innovative “rotational
grazing system.” This system has described that the subplots of biodiversity were excluded from
the domain of grazing for two months during the time of flowering of the plants. It has been seen
that Grazing optimization has affected the overall process of biodiversity in two different ways.
Those are cattle and sheep. In the sector of biodiversity, the implications of grazing optimization
have beneficiated it with the cultivation of shrubs inhibiting and enhancing the growth of “native
and non-native grassland plants.” It has also been seen that this has benefited by deducting the
competition from different nonnative plants because other desirable grasses and wildflowers in
the ecosystem can exist together and regenerate (Hamel et al. 2019). On the other hand, it has
also been analyzed that Grazing management and grazing optimization has influenced the overall
rate and timing of the cycling of nutrients in the ecosystem. In biodiversity cultivation, different
nutrients have become more available regarding the pasture rebirth in a short time period.  

Intensive grazing optimization has affected reduced the productivity of plans and it has deducted
the amount of carbon shortage in the soil. This optimization process of grazing has the intensity
of power overgrazing for the reduction of carbon loss towards the entire atmosphere as well as
towards climate change. Hence, it has been noted that this activity of grazing optimization has
affected or beneficiated climate change by reducing the amount of carbon. Hence, it has
beneficiated the climate via carbon loss in nature. Grazing optimization via rotational grazing
and bunched grazing, only beneficiate the carbon storage in nature. This practice has also
developed profits for ranchers, reduced erosion of soil, and developed the overall habit of
wildlife. As an effect of CO2 dimensions, it has also influenced the greenhouse gases from the
environment and helped the climate to clean its surface by the deduction of CO 2 and greenhouse
gas. It has also effect “belowground biomass production,” and this is conducive to the storage
related to the amount of carbon in nature (Li et al. 2021). On the other hand, it has also been
noted that improving the grazing practices has enhanced the “increase rates of carbon
sequestration” into nature. Therefore, it has affected climate change mitigations with the
adoption of ranch “moisture retention, nutrient cycling, and others to cultivate its beneficial
nature. 

Biochar:
Biochar is a process where the biomass (it is a process where making fuel from plant sources to
produce electricity or heat)is heated under oxygen-limited conditions and it is used widely in the
agricultural sector.Farm waste and wood are considered to be ideal for creating biochar. The
purpose of biochar is to enhance the natural carbon sequestration in soil (Marshall et al.
2018).The quality of the soil increases with the inclusion of biochar in the soil and it acts as a
fertilizer to a large extent.The farm waste is reduced by it and this is a natural way of improving
soil quality to enhance the effectiveness of conventional agriculture. This is made of dried wood
and dried plant materials (Aquijeet al. 2021). This has ample importance as a nature-based
solution of increasing the quality of soil for improved growth. Implementation of biochar, as a
“nature-based activity” is “USD 39.22” for 40 Mg/ha.Approximately 40mg of biochar is required
for maintaining overall costs as well as benefitsper hector of land and the cost for the
maintenance will be USD 39.22.

As per the view of Wang, (2019), it can be noted that biochar is an organic fertilizer that comes
from natural resources. This has been considered an alternative to mineral fertilizers. The
authentic composition has shown the application. It has shown the highest yield in the time of
two growth periods. This has followed the compositions of “biochar + compost mixture”. It can
be noted that this composition of biochar is adding additional minerals to fertilize it significantly
to increase the growth of the plant to mineral the fertilizers all alone. It has been seen that the
composition of biochar is identified as “A High-Performance Organic Fertilizer”, hence to some
extent; it is identified as a natural substance for the land in Greenland (Panahiet al. 2020). The
application of biochar can improve the overall fertility of the soil. It has been done based on two
significant mechanisms. These ar1e adding nutrients to the soil and to adding nutrients from the
soil. This has stated the usage of two compositions of “K, to a limited extent P, and many
micronutrients.” As the main advantages of these elements, the retained power of the nutrients
from the other sources has come front in the light (Díazet al. 2020). On the other hand, it has
stated some significant reasons for not including biochar in the place of biochar. Those are the
reasons: it has content with the elements of nutrients and biochar is made from different kinds of
woody components. 

Benefits:
There can be marked several benefits of including biochar within the soil.The benefits of
biochars are –(1) it helps to improve the soil fertility to growth a plant. (2) It converts and
consumed more carbon dioxide to improve the air. (3) It reduces the acidity of soil and maintains
the soil health. (4) It reduces the needs of pesticides. (5) It promotes the life of the microbes. It
also helps to allow the nutrient uptake by plants. (6) Biochar helps to prevent the methane and
carbon di-oxide. (7) It helps to eliminate methane and nitrous oxide from agricultural soils.(8) It
assists the effects of climate change.

1102 million tonsofcarbon dioxidesare available for increasing carbon storage in the soil with the
application of biochar. However, it is also to be noted that biochar production is the process that
can be marked as carbon-negative which means that the environmental existence of carbon is
decreased to a significant level (Chelottiet al. 2018). Such reduction of carbon is because of the
carbon bound in the soil. The increment of adaptability of biochar can be marked within the
process to mitigate the problem of climate change as the biochar has the capability to capture
carbon dioxide on the surface of the soil for more than a hundred years.Reduction in cost per
hectare is to be noted considering the sustainability of the products. However, the cultivation also
depends on the availability of a tropical climate with suitable monsoon rainfall. Thus, the cost
structures for different solutions vary and their significance varies.

Biochar is one nature-based solution that is used to maintain the moisture of the soil. One
environmental benefit of biochar is, its power of it to contain the carbon of the soil for the
longest time as compared to other practices exercised for decreasing carbon amount from
environment.It is estimated that apart from the carbon containment in the soil, increment of
SOM, soil phosphorous, sulphur and potassium contain of the soil.However, according to the
views of Lafortezzaet al. (2018), one of the major benefit of using biochar is the different
positive effects on the overall condition environment. Water retention is also to be considered as
a positive effect of this.The leaching of E-Coli is reduced, and the improvement takes place
because of that. Huge amount of potash and the increment in the ph level can be gained through
this practice (Van den Bosch and Sang, 2017). Soil acidity, greenhouse gas emissions from the
soil are the facts that are supportive of increasing the quality of water.

Cost structures:
 Figure 3: Cost of biochar production

(Source: Filiberto and Gaunt, 2019)

As the above figure reflects, the appropriate inclusion of charcoal in producing biochar is can be
beneficial. However, the felicitation that it provides may increase the demand of the product. But
considering the sustainability that can be achieved through the implementation of biochar, it is
marked as more profitable than including fertilizer in harvesting.The raw materials for biochar
production are largely collected from agriculture and forest waste (Rasapooret al. 2020). It is
thus to be noted that apart from these materials, the production of biochar also depends on other
aspects like processing of the material and exclusion of unwanted materials for the
implementation of these aspects. As marked by Iseman and Miralles-Wilhelm (2021), in the case
study, biochar production is important in this age as this is the way of having sustainable growth
and improved rice cultivation and other activities can be marked as effective production through
the implementation of such a nature-friendly approach. Near about, a 25% reduction in
production and maintenance cost can be marked through implementing biochar.However, the
cost of its raw materials determines the break-even carbon pricing support (Iseman and Miralles-
Wilhelm, 2021).
Case study analysis 

Case identification  Authors Identical Cost production 

 element
costing 

Biochar production from Belmonte et Labor cost per 10 USD day basis / one person 
agriculture residues  al. 2018 day 

Production of the biochar Struhs et al. Labor and Cost based on parameters and
from climate change  2020 operational cost PH level 
structure 

Renewable energy and the Albanese et al. Application and Labour cost based on the
application of biochar 2019 labor cost  application costing is that is
towards the application of 1,500.13 Bangladeshi Taka
climate change  (15.84 USD)

Production of biochar and Tisserant and Labour costing Percentage of labour costing is
biofuel to identify the Cherubini, with fuel minimum -17.5% 
market price  2019 production 

Biochar and agriculture González- Total labour 1,55,579.300 Bangladeshi Taka

production  Cencerrado et cost  (1,55,579.38 USD)is the labor
al. 2020 cost of per year and 10000 is
the labour cost of per ton 

Table 2: Labor cost of five case studies

(Source: Self-created)
The above table 2 has been made with the identification of different case studies of biochar and
its production and agriculture based on the accurate understanding of nature. In terms of
discussing the overall cost, this has selected five cases based on this understanding. This has
made its identical costing based on biochar production from agriculture residues, Production of
the biochar from climate change, renewable energy and the application of biochar, production of
biochar and Biochar, and agriculture production. These are approached to identify costing of
biochar production.In the different case studies, one of the most common elements is the higher
cost of labour.
As per these case studies, it has been seen that, high temperatures and increased air pollution
affect and impacted the overall workers' ability to do their allocate labour and can limit te
working hours of the labours. Productivity would take a further hit in case these events become
more frequent with climate change. As per the view of these case studies, it would be seen that,
this approach of labour cost would develop the economy by implementing the process of climate
change over these (Sun et al. 2021). On the other hand, labour cost with the prospective of
economy has also benefited bio diversity with “food plants, pollination, pest control, nutrient
provision, genetic diversity, and disease prevention and control.”

“Valuation of a specific product” is mainlydependent on the overall “efficiency of the product”,

which helps in bringing more positive changes. On the other hand,the time for conducting the
change is to be considered. The value of biochar production is to be controlled by considering
not only the applicability of bio char, but at the same time, several by-products coming from it
are also to be considered (Hashmiet al., 2017). This is to be noted that applicability and
efficiency of the product are to be considered for evaluating the value of the product. Renewable
energy sources are one of the by-products of biochar. The value of biochar increases if the by-
products are also considered. The use of renewable energy from biochar can be used as the fuel
in the vehicles (Iseman and Miralles-Wilhelm, 2021). Thus, addition of these products within the
existing system is essential for calculating its applicability in business.It is also to be noted that
not only the main products but the by-products from this process also increase the efficiency of
this process. Thus, considering several other products, the cost implementation is to be
calculated. The net profit of these by-products will be increased significantly (Chelottiet al.,
2017). Production cost will be supported by the total cost that can be collected through these
processes. However, the cost of the “raw materials” mainly determines and identifies the overall
carbon pricing (Iseman and Miralles- Wilhelm, 2021).

The inclusion of biochar considering its efficiency in contributing in a positive way is considered
by Mancuso et al. (2021). Plantation in the forest area is also to be considered. Economic
activities regarding several forests activity is to be considered within the existing scenario.
However, it is also to be noted that sustainable increment in the quality of the soil is to be
maintained through the inclusion of biochar and valuation should consider this aspect of
sustainability. However, sustainable improvement in the quality of soil is marked here.

Plantation in forest is to be considers in economic way. Economic activities are considered to

improve the forest culture and images. The financial support helps to maintain the quality of
soils. Biochar can be considered as an aspect of achieving proper sustainability performance.

Improved rice cultivation:

Rice cultivation can be improved throughout the world through implementing proper nature-
based solutions. This is possible to conduct through the incorporation of biochar and other
aspects. Alternate wetting and drying rice fields are responsible for having proper care of the
land which will be responsible for the high growth of rice (Seddonet al. 2021). The “nature-
based solutions” can help in the reduction of flooding in a specific area by planting several trees
as well as hedges. This helps in the increment of “water absorption” by which there is the
improvement of “rice cultivation”.Such nature-based activities will cost around 913 billion per
hectare.Mandalet al. (2020) stated that there are three factors that needed for increasing rice
productivity are –

 Reduce the gap between what achieve the highest farm yield on they grow and what
farmers harvest currently.
 NbS helps in the improvement of rice cultivation by draining the rice fields that are
flooded during the “mid-season”.
 Reduce the uses of pesticides.

Benefits:

More emissions of greenhouse gasses are recorded in rice production in comparison to other
grains. Moreover, thirty per cent emission of methane is recorded from rice cultivation. Apart
from these, the most water-consuming farming is marked to be rice production. However, as
observed by Raymond et al. (2017), improved rice production through including several other
supporting nature-based solutions is beneficial from an environmental point of view. Hence, it
can be stated that the addition of biochar into the entire soil prior to the rice cultivation can help
in the reduction of the emission of “Greenhouse Gases (GHG). Thus, it is to be noted that the
inclusion of biochar in the soil before cultivating rice is supportive of reflecting greenhouse
gasses. The quality of the ground can be improved by including several bio composts. The
carbon content of the soil increases, and supporting this, from an environmental point of view,
soil pollution is reduced to a large extent (Van den Bosch and Sang, 2017). Thus, biodiversity is
taken care of through the proper process of soil care for improved rice cultivation.

Cost structures:

Improved rice cultivation can cost 84, 880 Bangladeshitakaper hectare yearly,and this estimation
is relevant for the UDP users.This amount becomes 902.77 dollar in international
domain.However, the inclusion of several nature-based solutions has been helpful for having
total control of these aspects. For example, the inclusion of biochar is cost-effective considering
its sustainability (Stuart et al., 2018). It is to be noted that several other things are to be
considered for having proper control of the whole aspect. 52% of global land is marked to be in a
vulnerable position, and several aspects are to be noted that are responsible for this vast damage.

Improved rice production and its cost are categorized into several departments within which this
whole task depends. However, the cost of several raw materials is to be considered for having
total control of the cost. Seed is one of the materials that are important for rice cultivation. As per
the opinion of Kadarusman and Herabadi (2018), it is estimated that the inclusion of the different
technical tools can be the reason for the increment of the overall financial budget. It is to be
noted that the water management system is to be controlled within it. The water inclusion system
and water drainage system are to be considered to be the most important steps for improved rice
cultivation. This is to be noted that the growth of grains and other aspects are responsible for
having proper control of all these aspects. Residue incorporation also demands different budget
allocations. Rice cultivation is considered to be a major economic activity within the particular
setting. However, it is to be noted that cultivation in conventional ways will cost $7,000 to
$12,000 per acre. Application of fertilizer is applicable for one time. Thus, the cost in terms of
investment is applicable for one season. However, inclusion of nature-based solutions not only
increases productivity, but the effect of changes of such inclusion sustains for a long time.As per
the thinking process of Kremen and Merenlender, (2018), it can be noted that the maximum
number of users of the resources that have occurred by the effectiveness of the resources can be
able to utilize its full resources towards biosystems. This utilization of the bio-system is
considered an index toward ecosystem-related functioning. It can be noted that optimal values
related to diversity are dependent on the intensity of the flow of the resources and the instability
of the circumstances. More specifically, the term optimal is considered a decision rule that
describes the “constraints of the environment.” 

Technical aspects are responsible for having proper control of all these facts, and several other
things are also to be considered for having more control of production cost. Total production cost
is to be subtracted from the total collection from cultivated rice. However, a one-time investment
in the nature-based solution is helpful for marking sustainable development, and there are several
aspects that are to be considered within this process. The market price of the grain and total
cultivated rice is the main asset for calculating the cost of the whole production. Improved rice
cultivation also includes a huge amount of water in the existing system. There is a lack of water
in several countries of Asia. However, quality water and adequate amount of water are to be
implemented within the action. As marked by Mancuso et al. (2021), the inclusion of proper
nature-based fertilizer and several other aspects is helpful for improving the quality of the soil.

Cropland nutrient management:

The “cropland nutrient management” mainly takes a place when there is the application of
different “synthetic fertilisers” to various croplands, then there is the release of excessive
nitrogen towards the atmosphere or can be carried away through the water. The action is also
responsible for managing amendments, manure and organic by-products and this is responsible
for increasing nutrient value in the overall croplands to increase the growth of the nutrients
(Lyuet al. 2020). Jerome et al. (2017) stated that overall practice thus includes the right amount
of natural soil nutrient enhancer, at the right time. Placement and source of implementing the
overall activity are also responsible for effective outcomes in the cultivation. This
aforementioned approach is mainly based on nature and costs around 20 billion per hectare.

Benefits:

Cropland nutrient management considered several aspects of the soil. Soil, water, the pattern of
the crop production in that land is regarded in this process. Thus, it is helpful for maintaining the
quality of the soil (Castellanos et al. 2020). Environmental point of view, several nutrients is
added to the ground for having proper control of the task. However, it is also possible to improve
the quality of water. There are many way to improve water quality for the harvesting plants.
Farmers use lakes, rivers and groundwater for agricultural use. Water need to improve and play
the key role in this farming improvement. There are some processes to improve the water
quality, they are farmyard management, pesticides, fertiliser and nutrient management and land
management.

The water management in agricultural is achieved by – (1) reduction the water loss, (2)
efficiency of irrigation system; (3) better use of the water , (4 ) innovation in fertilizations, (5)
reuse the waters uses in marginal like waste water , saline water or run of water for agriculture.

Overall less water can be consumed in this process. Through examining these aspects, different
types of crops are recommended for a particular kind of soil. Thus, the quality of the soil
increases (Van den Bosch and Sang, 2017). Because of different harvesting crops, the monotony
of farming is reduced, which contributes to maintaining biodiversity. As marked by Depietri and
McPhearson, (2017), reduction of the volatilizing effect of nitrogen gas can be noted within the
process. Such decrease of these gasses is important for having proper control of these aspects.
This is to be noted that less emission of nitrogen is beneficial for the environment.

Cost Structures:

Cropland nutrient management is essential for having total control of sustainable development
through nature-based solutions. It is to be noted that the use of synthetic fertilizer is responsible
for emitting unwanted gas into the environment to a large extent. The plants have an exact
quantity of nitrogen, and thus, an extra quantity of nitrogen is to be emitted into the air. The
release of nitrogen from the soil later takes the shape of nitrogen dioxide, which is considered
three hundred times more dangerous than any other general greenhouse gas. It is to be noted that
several proper managements of nutrients are necessary for maintaining the quality of the soil
(Frey et al., 2018). Through cropland nutrients management, the right amount of nutrients is
applied to the soil.

However, there are several steps in which the nutrients in the soil can be managed, and
consideration of cost will consult each of these steps. Nutrient management is directly treated,
and thus the nature of the soil is to be tested first (Kadarusman and Herabadi, 2018).
Accordingly, the rest of the process is to be regained. Before treatment of the soil through
implementing nature-based solutions, the crop sequence is to be considered. Rotation of
harvesting, drainage system, and existing crop disease is the factors that are to be considered for
having proper control (Iseman and Miralles-Wilhelm, 2021). Proper assessment is necessary for
designing the right amount of nutrients for every field. 44 M ton nitrogen per year can be
reduced by controlling harvesting, drainage system, and existing crop disease(Brancalionet al.
2021). Harvesting, drainage system, and existing crop disease are to be noted that every step of
research requires a different allocation. Soil nutrient enhancement is to be implemented within
this process and this has cost 25 million in taka.

Several other by-products are also to be marked here that can be used for further activities.
Maintenance of proper pH factors in the soil is also necessary, which requires other allocation.
However, the budget for nutrient management in the cropland is constituted through these
practices. The overall cropland area is mainly reduced by 33%for the degradation of land such as
for land erosion. There are several other aspects that are to be regarded for having total control of
these activities. Thus, the initial cost of these factors may increase if sustainable development is
to be marked; however, it is also evaluated that the overall cost in the upcoming years is also
needed to be calculated for measuring the actual valuation process (Yang et al. 2021). The
sustainability of these ingredients andthe total cost of initial production are needed to be
measured. But the reduction in cost for maintenance of soil quality fertilizer is also to be
considered here accordingly. Nature-based solutions are marked for sustainable development.
The initial cost for management of several other cost-related factors is going to be balanced by a
reduction of cost in future.

Trees in Cropland Agro-forestry:

Certain specific trees are planted in the cropland and several applicable products are accumulated
from such plantations. Windbreaks, several fruit trees, timber trees, medicinal trees are cultivated
in this land to have thebetter andmaximum output in an accurate manner (Maracahipes-Santos et
al. 2020). The different activities that are based on nature can help in the mitigation of
“unemployment issues” in different areas worldwide.
A key practice that enhances biodiversity aspects in agricultural lands is the integration of trees
on farms. Trees on farms play a crucial role in the increment of contribution towards biodiversity
conservation in different agricultural landscapes by in-site conservation as well as by connecting
wild habitats that are fragmented. This also supports inproviding stepping-stones between
protected area networks and conserve soil biodiversity and agro biodiversity. The different kinds
of tress that are present on farms are mainly the proper and accurate negotiation tool. This helps
in bridging the gap between the overall “conservation” and the “food production agenda”.

Benefits:

Trees in cropland are a great way of using the barren land and enriching environmental assets.
The various uses of trees in cropland support environmental financial aspects. Biodiversity is
also increased through the inclusion of such trees (Van den Bosch and Sang, 2017). This has two
benefits. Firstly, from an environmental point of view, this reduces the chance of soil erosion.
Secondly, it is also effective for having proper and accurate control over the wind. The
destructive flow of current can be marked through it. However, planting mixed trees is preferable
in the cropland. This is to be noted that several other factors are to be included within the system.
Implantation of different types of trees is necessary for having proper control of the bio diverse
presentation of trees (Wishartet al., 2021). Apart from these two aspects, human society has also
benefited from the cost of the wooden trees in the cropland. Human society benefited by tree
croplands by two ways- economically and socially. Economic benefits –increase the
maintenanceof food outputs, fertilizer, timber and fuel wood; increase the income which is
coming from farmand reduce the crop failure, monoculture system. Social benefits –Improve the
employment and higher incomes in rural areas; improve the food quality and nutrient value; and
improve upland communities through elimination of farm activities. Integration of trees in
agriculture can be ensured by it and thus, the habitat value of the area is increased to a large
extent.

Cost structures:

It has been found that, in Cropland Agro-forestry, there is the inclusion of different cost
structures as there is the inclusion of the overall cost of different kinds of seeds, labour,
irrigation, fertilisers and many other things. Huge amounts of carbon absorption by the trees are
considered to be one important factor that contributes much to the nature-based solution (Otte
and Vik, 2017). Diversified production, soil erosion, moisture maintenance are the factors that
are responsible for having proper control of these actions. Six hundred eight million hectares of
land is cultivated in the land, and there are several other aspects for which these things can be
maintained.Agro forestry system can be implemented within 322 million hectaresland thatwould
cost 30,28,57,77,620.00 in taka. This contributes much in controlling the temperature
worldwide.Some “distinguishing features” for the appropriate cost estimation are listed in the
followingpoints-

(1) Farmershave to estimates costs for each country.

(2) They should include a forest station to pasture and cropland.
(3) Return the production of agriculture the cost estimates is needed for the future development.
(4)They should develop the new set of establishment costs for forest department in each country.
(5)Theyhave to build a forest station in each country where the moisture and temperature
availability growth the forest growth.
The promotion of the integration of trees into cropland is the united task. However, the cost of
these will be divided into several parts. Firstly, research of suitable trees that can be planted in
the cropland is to be marked. This step mainly requires less financial budget (Zariet al. 2019).
However, after the selection of suitable trees, several other aspects are to be noted for having
proper control. The cost of saplings of the selected trees and the total area that will be covered by
the trees are to be considered for having total control of the work. However, the overall time
taken by the labours is needed to be measured for calculating the overall value of all the
processes.
Valuation of these processes will also consider the sustainability and potentiality of these
aspects. This is to be noted that 1040 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions can be stopped
from cultivating proper crops in the cropland (Sharma et al. 2018). It is to be noted that a
significant amount of money can be generatedfrom this cropland cultivation, and there are
several aspects responsible for this huge adoption. Primary investment is to be done for
purchasing the trees. As the trees in cropland are cultivated in the area that are out of that
entire“cultivated area”, and the trees in the cropland mainly are the “wild trees”, hence,there is
more scope for biodiversity in the particular area (Kumar et al. 2017). More ecosystem services
can be marked within these factors, and it is to be noted that several aspects are responsible for
having proper control of these actions (Iseman and Miralles-Wilhelm, 2021). Thus, through
investing a similar amount of money, there will be the presence of more services as well as
returns. This is responsible for increasing the value of trees in the cropland. Several developing
countries have the potential of income of about one million dollars in the existing system.

The implantation of trees in the cropland is necessary for having proper control of the work. The
water level will be increased through the plantation of trees. Thus, along with having adequate
control of these aspects, financial gain and water management, and these two factors will be
conducted thoroughly (Mancusoet al., 2021).There are five ways to conduct the finance for
farming. They are – (1) directly purchase farmland- - it consider to purchase farmland directly.
Even if you are not afarmer, the farmland can produce high returns. (2) Buy stocks– Purchase
stocks in fertilizations,seeds,processing, direction or equipments.(3) Real estate investment trusts
- Purchase the expenses go with farming. These expenses are equipment,seeds, supplies and
paying labours, tractors etc. (4) Mutual funds and ETFs (exchange-traded funds) - if you cannot
buy to purchase stocks then the yield give you highest returns. Therefore, you can focus on
mutual funds. (5) Invest in farm debts- Farmers take debt each year because the industry is
expensive. The expenses equipments like tractors, they have to pay back it in several years.The
aforementioned processes are helped in understanding the different aspects of “cost structure”.

For water managements uses in farming,they are some ways to use water without loss in
farming–(1) adoption of the best Practices of irrigation;(2) improve the practices of agriculture;
(3) water conservation practice; (4) policy of integration and intervention.

Improved plantation:

Timber is planted throughout the globe and it is recorded for having seven per cent of total forest
plantation. This is responsible for extending harvest rotation circles and absorption of more
carbon is reduced through improved plantation (Ishaq, 2018). Van den Bosch and Sang, (2017)
stated that “harvest rotation lengths” mainly extend to “257 million hectares” and this is one way
of improving the overall cultivation method based on nature.

Benefits:
Being an ecological estate, plantation plays an important role in having proper control of the
environmental factors. However, a plantation in a cut forest is responsible for reduced
biodiversity (Pauleitet al., 2017). Several other factors are to be included within the system. The
inclusion of several nature-based solutions for improving soil conditions where there is also the
inclusion of the improvement of overall “ecosystem services” of a country (Van den Bosch and
Sang, 2017). Plantation has several monetary aspects attached to it. A monetary aspect is an
economy based production for agricultural and mass, a large farms called plantation. Plantation
economy is based on the cash exporting crops like a source income. The inclusion of native trees
as the core aspect for the cultivation is supportive of having proper control of biodiversity. Non-
native trees play the role of coordinators that are responsible for having adequate control of these
aspects. The rotation period (healthy rotation refers to the time of 30 years) is necessary for
having proper management of the environmental improvement. Harvest rotation length is
increased here through improved cultivation and profitabilityincreases accordingly.

Cost Structures:

Improvement in sustainable agriculture practices is also responsible for contributing much to the
environmental factors. It is possible to have proper control of these actions through two major
management systems. Firstly, there is less possibility of loss because of the initial investment.
Extension in harvesting rotation circle is to be marked as one of the significant actions for
improving plantation. Secondly, management of the production cost of the forest is also
necessary for having proper control of all these actions (Iseman and Miralles-Wilhelm, 2021).
This is to be noted that more emphasis on the green economy is to be conducted. A green
economy conducted as a – (1) maintain the growth of economic throughnational, regional and
sub regionalareas. (2) Green economy focuses on the technology, green finance and
investments.Here are several aspects that are to be maintained to match the global scenario in the
agricultural field.

Improved cultivation is the field where several steps can be included to increase the efficiency of
natural aspects in natural ways. The very inclusion of fertilizer can be changed, and the inclusion
of biochar can be considered here. Biochar costs USD 39.22 for 40 Mg/ha. The initial cost of a
nature-based solution may seem to be much. But it is to be noted that nature-based solutions are
the solutions that are responsible for having more control of all these aspects. The sustainable
effect of biochar is supportive of long-term benefits.

The selection of types of crops and their market value are two other factors that are to be
considered for the valuation of this process. The type of grains and their market value is to be
evaluated for having total control of this process. Change in the market value of these crops is
responsible for changing the budget scenario. The place of cultivation is also necessary to
control, and several aspects are to be maintained here for having proper control of several other
actions. The place considers the market value of the end result. Through proper management of
several croplands and through implementing improved plantation practice, 257 million USD
revenues can be generated. This would become 257000000 takain the sectors of Bangladesh.One
million can be saved through proper commencement, and there are several aspects that are
responsible for having proper control of all these activities. This one million Bangladeshi taka
will be generating(1000000 USD).As marked by Mancusoet al. (2021), improvement in the
plantation will also support water contained in the soil. Several water losses can be avoided
through it.
Chapter 4: Discussion

Introduction

The chapter introduces nature-based solutions in the management of agricultural landscapes and
looks for avenues of climate and biodiversity conservation. It has dealt with the primary findings
of the research review and tries to link the main questions outlined in the review with the
findings. The prime consideration here is to explore the essentials of various nature-based agro
solutions and draw an apt comparison between them. The advantages and disadvantages each
solution hold and their cost aspects have also been dealt with in detail. Finally, the main findings
and their implications have been shown as per the research review.

Main findings

The primary findings in the research review include the general perceptions about the nature-
based solutions, their importance and their role in agricultural landscapes. The implementation of
those solutions and the various cost-effective estimates has shown a varied approach to the
research review to explore the main constituent of the topic.

NBS and their importance

The concept of NBS encompasses areas of conservation solutions in several fields. It includes
planning and management of water resources, air pollution control, effective agriculture
management, and biodiversity management. The importance of all nature-based solutions lies in
the benefits they offer and the way how they help in the efficient management of various
resources. They significantly increase species diversity and help in the restoration of the aquatic
ecosystems, including wetlands and sustainable management of both the desert and marine life.
Private bodies, government agencies and bodies and other civil societies undertake the
implementation of the solutions.

The nature-based solutions have a great role to play in the context of agriculture as they accrue
important benefits for the agricultural sector besides promoting future solutions to the existing
problems. The solutions could ensure increased income for the farmers and food security (Epelde
et al. 2022). The agricultural landscapes may become resilient with the adoption of various
nature-based solutions by warding off the use of additives and chemicals.

NBS in Agriculture
The nature-based solutions in the context of agricultural landscapes include sustainable
management and conservation of land and biodiversity. They help in mitigating the negative
effects of climate change. They protect biodiversity and maintain a balance in agricultural
ecology. They are useful in mitigating the long-term impacts of adverse natural occurrences and
can foster long-term benefits for the agricultural sector. It has also been found that, while the
farmers do adopt and need the nature-based solutionsfor the increment of their
overall“production capacity”, the collective efforts of the non-governmental organizations, civil
society, policymakers, and panchayat bodies are also considered to be essential (Meselheet al.
2020). The implementation of the solutions is also of huge importance in considering their use
in the agricultural landscape. The benefits of various nature-based solutions are thus listed as
follows:

● Disaster risk reduction

● Sustainable water management
● Long-term food security
● Resilient and cost-effective agricultural practices
● Decreased use of pesticides and fertilizers
● Establishment of resilient cities
● Providing “long-term food security”
● Protection and restoration of “natural ecosystem”, thus help in biodiversity
Hence, nature-based solutions are of prime importance in agriculture and may be promoted
through sustainable methods and practices.

Benefits and cost structures

One of the most significant benefits related to the adoption of nature-based solutions isgrazing
optimization.This herbivorous activity helps in reducing the dead litter and increases the
biodiversity of the area where it is carried on. The optimization of this activity may promote
interaction between animals and the natural environment and thus resulting in a biodiversity
increase.

In discussing the cost structures, the grazing optimization cost structure largely depends upon
the market price of the components that are used in this process. It has been estimated that the
grazing process optimization can be costly as high as 1.4 billion USDin its maintenance. The
annual cost of the ecosystem services may cross around 16-54 trillion USDas valuewhile the cost
structure of biochar production may vary as per the raw material cost and year breakup. The cost
structure as has been determined for rice cultivation may reach up to as high as 84880as per the
Bangladeshi taka. This amount will become 902 USD in international way.In conventional uses,
the estimation may show the amounts of $ 7000 to $ 12000per acre per year. The cost for the
cropland nutrient management may be recorded as being 20 million USDper hectare.

It is also to be kept in mind that the cost for the trees planted in croplands will be based on the
implementation stages while improved plantation may also be on this line. Thus, it may be said
that the grazing optimization and ecosystem services cost is high and is more than any other area
in real terms. The cost for cropland nutrient management also seems to be at par with the above-
mentioned two solutions. It is proved rice cultivation seems less costly than other solutions and is
thus a suitable option (Sowińska-Świerkosz and García, 2021).

As per the view of Sintayehu, (2018), it can be noted that in the circumstances of the
environment biochar can make some “substantial breakthroughs” in terms of reducing the
emission of the greenhouse effect, the effect of global warming, deduction soil, “nutrient
leaching losses, sequester atmospheric carbon” into the surface of soil and others. Moreover, it
can be noted that the process of biochar has facilitated the fertility of the soil; due to this, the
overall growth of plants can become stimulated.  Due to this implication, plants are becoming
healthier and those healthy plants in the environment can transfer more “carbon dioxide (CO2)”
for the benefit of the environment. 
On the other hand, according to the thinking process of Morelli et al. (2020), it has been analyzed
that the application of grazing optimization can affect the plants to deal with environmental
issues associated with ecological science. This has affected the overall rate of timing and the
cycling of nutrients. It has been seen that lands that are filled with grazing optimizations are able
to arrange food for people, can be able to secure the clean water process with the wildlife habitat,
and can also store the range of carbon in the soil. This activity of keeping the soil can help
towards the overall mitigation process of climate change. 
As a benefit of rice cultivation, its lower production cost towards the “labour costing, water
saving, and the higher yield” has been evaluating a positive effect on the financial condition of
the farmer. On the other hand, as the benefit of rice cultivation, its impact on greenhouse gas
emissions related to staple foods has also been taken into consideration here. These cultivated
rice approaches provide more protein in comparison to animal-based food elements.  As per the
vire of Morelli et al. (2020), it has been stated that, as an element of NBS solutions, the improved
plantation has benefited the environment with its “protection to Ozone Layer, Conserve Energy
resources, Provide Habitat” and others have been taken into consideration. 
As per the view of Gomez-Casanovas et al. (2021), it has been noted that the case study of
“Climate change mitigation as a co-benefit of regenerative ranching” has been discussing the
importance of climate change as well as improper utilization of natural resources. Hence, it can
be stated that this has benefited thenatural features of “topography” towards the sandy as well
as“loamy soil”. This has benefited this whole discussion by investigating the “interrelation
between ecosystem services in future climate and grazing scenarios”.  It has been seen that the
case study of “sustainable development goals” has discussed the features of extreme and harsh
weather conditions of the environment. This study has placed its overall discussion on the
cultivation of sustainable development goals. This has implemented its beneficial approach
towards stating guidelines and awareness to the human cultivated against the extreme weather
condition. 
According to the view of Hao et al. (2018), it can be noted that this case study has discussed the
consequences of Optimization schemes based on “grassland ecosystem services”. This has
cultivated its discussion over the process of climate change and its effect on the environment.
This has stated its overall discussion to provide benefit to the environmental systemin a complete
manner. This has been discussed that the “overgrazing, intensive agricultural production,
deforestation, and urbanization”, related to the services of driving force for the ecosystem
services.  It has been found out that, another case study of grazing optimization has discussed the
consequences of “mediates the bottom-up controls” related to its resources over the soil food in
nature. This has benefited the availability of “nitrogen (N) and water” on a large number of
scales. This has displayedthe additional treatments of “Nitrogen and Water” in a detailed
manner. On the other hand, the case studies of biochar have displayed their discussion towards
the beneficial approach of their cost structure for further findings.
Discussion of grazing optimization and discussion over biochar have been mainly discussed in
this project. Hence, mainly comparison between biochar and grazing optimization can be
evaluated here. It has been seen that biochar is capable of producing “solid by-product material”
through a “dry carbonization” procedure. This has included elements like “pyrolysis” and others.
On the other hand, grazing optimization can positively impact the plants and make them deal
with environmental issues which are associated with ecological science. In comparison to
grazing, biochar is more efficient towards overall cost structure. Hence; over the benefits of NBS
solutions, the implementation of biochar over grazing optimization has been approached. 
The cost structurefor all the nature-based solutions is to be counted and compared based on
their use options and adaptability. Not everywhere, the solutions are appropriate, nor are there
enough developments in this respect in every corner of the world. Thus, the general cost
structure is estimated as per the significance of ace and effectiveness in a specific area and then
is considered for a general view. The types of crops and their market values are significant
indicators for the valuation of the cost structure. A change or deviation in the market value of a
solution may also lead to an alteration in the budget.

Linking with the main questions

The research questions that have been answered in the review are primarily concerned with the
relevance and suitability of nature-based solutions in agriculture as well as other sectors. It can
be stated that there is an importance for all the associated stakeholdersthe existence of suitability
as well as affordability of those solutions can yield the desired benefits. It sought to answer the
questions comprehensively by including the advantages, disadvantages, benefits and the entire
budget scenario for each of the solutions.Research review of prior findingshas adequately
reflected all the possible requirements and has effectively answered all the queries and concerns
related to the nature-based solutions, their use and adaptability and their affordability in the
agricultural landscape.

The research findings showed compact answers to all the issues that were around the solutions in
agriculture. It has not only made a detailed analysis of the nature-based solutions, their benefits,
importance and their usefulness for a particular situation but has also illustrated the effectiveness
of these solutions in channelizing the resources to bring in sustainable environmental practices.
The questions regarding the benefits of the solutions in various areas are well addressed with
examples from diverse sources. However, the most “significant questions” were regarding the
“cost structure” or “budget scenario” in the implementation ofthe solutions in suitable places.
Through a detailed and insightful analysis, these questions have also been answered with ample
source evidence and assessments. A general reflection on all the solutions and their effectiveness
in terms of market value and suitability shows that the questions of all the required variables are
solved and adequately addressed.

The research has tried to find out the best possible combination of solutions to the itching
problems of degraded land, unsustainable land and water management and increased biodiversity
loss happening simultaneously, in particular, in every corner of the world. Besides throwing
enough light on the maintenance of the balance, the research has also addressed the key aspects
of sustainable land and water practices as well as increasing the role of biodiversity. In
addressing the key areas of sustainable agricultural practice, it can be expected that the
researcherhardly leaves any scope for further modifications; thus, it been able to shed ample light
on the required concerns and queries. In this respect, the research may be said to be successful in
dealing with all the variables connected to the research topic and builds a linkage between each
one of them.

End result
To conclude, it may be that the research is concerned primarily with the various benefits,
adaptability, importance, benefits and costs of the budget connected to then suitable agricultural
solutions, which are nature-based. It has delta primarily in showing the inter linkages between
the cost measures, effectiveness in the present situation and their adaptability in agricultural
practices. The research is built on the basics of sustainable agricultural practices and showed
some effective though at times costly approaches to solving the pressing problems of agricultural
land degradation and increased loss of biodiversity. It has been well addressed how these
solutions can effectively be implemented in bringing about vast changes in the agricultural
landscapes by promoting other sustainable practices with it. The advantages of such analysis are
that they provide a clear solution to the existing problems and bring in requisite variables which
may aid in further research in this field. The discussed NBS solutions are capable of deducting
the certain effect of climate change. NBS solutions are restoring and giving protection to the
overall “coastal ecosystems”. Those solutions have discovered the influence of renewable energy
usage, Conserve energy usage, and Electrify elements over the climate change solutions. The
inclusion of several dimensions thus makes the research successful and multi-dimensional. It is
expected that the research shall guide thousands of other future researchers related to the field.
Chapter 5: Conclusion

This chapter is going to be concluded the different outcomes that come from the previous
chapters, its findings, and its analysis. The previous chapter has discussed the findings of data
that have come from the cost structure evaluation of this assessment. However, it can be noted
that, the discussion of the findings and analysis is not capable of stating a conclusion to its
outcome. Here is the application of chapter five drawn. This chapter is going to draw a
conclusion towards the findings and analysis of its previous chapter. This chapter is going to
discuss the implications of the concerned topic after that; it is also going to discuss the
connection between the findings with the literature discussion, recommendations, and limitations
to draw a conclusion to the overall discussion.

Implication

It has seen that the main concern of this discussion has created to implement the findings from
the discussion of literature and from the outcome of findings and analysis. Its implication in the
findings and analysis is connected with the evaluation and comparison of means of the cost
structures numerics. The application of cost structural numerics has aimed to find probable
solutions to NBS practices (Chausson et al. 2020). The implication of the cost structure has
calculated with values of the raw materials, optimization of the gazing, overall costing of the
projects.

Linking the findings with the literature

It has seen that this overall assessment has discussed the definition of “Nature-based Solutions”,
the importance of “Nature-based Solutions”, NBS in agriculture, its implications of it, its benefits
and the overall cost structure of “Nature-based Solutions”. All of these have discussed to
mitigate the objective of - Climate change and biodiversity conservation is mainly needed
nature-based solutions in agricultural landscapes. From the discussion of the literature, it has
been found that the nature of “Nature-based Solutions” is not an old term to discuss (Seddon et
al. 2020). This is comparatively a new one to discuss in the process of encompassing the range of
significant practices. It has also found that this concept of NBS is also known as umbrella
concept, towards nature-based approaches to climate outcomes. As per the thinking process of
Cousins et al. (2021), it has stated that this discussion has discussed to fulfil the aim of
developing, restoring, creating, and generating structure for the new networking sides of the
ecological systems.

There is the presence of some of the significant elements that have presented in the sectors of
NBS. These are “ecosystem-based adaptations, green infrastructures, ecological engineering,
ecosystem services” and others. Linked with the discussion it has been found that, this
assessment has discussed “water retention measures, ecosystem services'', and others as
significant measures to define the cost structural evaluation. As per the view of Ferreiraet al.
(2020), it has seen that the importance of NBS has discussed in the domain of sustainable
management with the sources of Land, Water, and Biodiversity elements. In the connection with
the literature, it has been found out about the optimization of grazing, and cost structure
numerals as beneficial approaches in this manner.

Topics for future research

This research study covers almost all the areas related to nature-based solutions but the
limitation of the nature-based solution needs to be investigated. The limitations were
notinvestigated during this research study in an accurate manner, which is why the authorities
have not been able to determine the usefulness of the nature based solutions (Cousins, 2021). In
the research study, it also can be found that the impact of nature-based solutions on the
economic condition of a specific countryis an unexplored area. This topic is also a great
opportunity for future researchers to conduct their research. By exploring the impact of nature-
based solutions on the economy, the researchers would be able to obtain a better understanding
of the research topic.

Limitations

The lack of numeric datais the first identified limitation of this research work. In this research
work, only descriptive information has been accumulated but the researcher identifies that the
accumulation of numeric data would have added more value to this research work. The research
study also identifies that thetime to conduct the research work was short. It has been found
that the reseracher would have been able to conclude the overall research work more
efficientlyby excluding the different limitations. The third limitation of this research study is that
itdid not focus on any specific organization, which is using different kinds of “nature-based
solutions”. By focusing on a specific organization, the authority would have been able to receive
better quality data.

It can be noted that as a limitation of the “Climate change mitigation as a co-benefit of

regenerative ranching” discussion the discussion over only grassland ecosystems toward climate
change has been taken into consideration. This has discussed only the future implication of
climate and grazing scenarios. However, it did not discuss the path of future implications in
detail. It has been found that the case study of sustainable development goals has limited its
descriptive discussion of the action and activity of these stated goals and how these have affected
climate change and human civilization. However, there is no primitive information on those
applied sustainable goals in the action. As per the thinking process of Demertzis and Iliadis,
(2018), it has been analyzed that most of the case studies have limited their discussion to their
past research findings. Hence, as a significant limitation of those case studies their limited
resources in terms of discussion have been taken into consideration. On the other hand, as
another limitation, the adoption of hypothetical situations in those case studies has been
approached. Most of the case studies have taken the help of hypothetical positions hence, due to
this lack of authentic data resources have been seen there. 

Recommendations for further research

● In this research study, the authority would like to recommend the authority include
more numeric data so that the research topic can be explored with greater efficiency
(Cousins, 2021). By accumulating more numeric data, the research work would have got
an improved opportunity to identify the factors.
● The research work would like to recommend the authority to determine an
organization. It is because by determining an organization the authority can focus on the
research topic better.
 ● The timespan to complete this research work was limited and very short. Therefore,
the authority would like to recommend the authority take more time to accumulate data
and conduct the analysis process.

Conclusion

In this research work, the discussion has been on "Climate change and biodiversity conservation:
Nature based solutions in agricultural landscapes". The implication of the NBS also has been
extensively discussed. All the findings have been linked efficiently with the literate. This
research work elaborately discusses the topics that could be included in further studies. The
research study has not discussed the limitation of the nature-based solutions. The limitation of
the plant based solution is a topic that has the potential to be further explored. The lack of
numeric data has been identified as the first limitation of this study. The second limitation of this
study is the limited time span to conduct the research work. The third limitation is that the study
has not determined any organization to gather information. Therefore, the authority has
recommended including more numeric data, determining an organization, and conducting the
study with more time.
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