Dmu 009

Human Reproduction Update, Vol.20, No.4 pp.
485–500, 2014
Advanced Access publication on March 9, 2014 doi:10.1093/humupd/dmu009
The kisspeptin-GnRH pathway in

human reproductive health and disease
Karolina Skorupskaite 1,†, Jyothis T George 2,†,
and Richard A Anderson1,*
1
MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, The Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Crescent,
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/humupd/article/20/4/485/834154 by guest on 30 June 2023

Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK 2Diabetes Trials Unit, Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Oxford,
Churchill Hospital, Headington, Oxford OX3 7LJ, UK
*Correspondence address. Tel: +44 (0) 1312426386; Fax: +44 (0) 1312426197; E-mail: [email protected]
Submitted on December 11, 2013; resubmitted on February 10, 2014; accepted on February 17, 2014
table of contents
...........................................................................................................................
† Introduction
† Methods
† Discovery of the kisspeptin and KNDy neuronal network
KISS1 gene, peptide and its receptor
Functional neuroanatomy of kisspeptin signalling
† Kisspeptin and the regulation of GnRH secretion
Kisspeptin stimulates gonadotrophin release in humans
Kisspeptin operates upstream of GnRH neurones and coordinates GnRH and LH pulsatility
Men and women show sexual dimorphism in their response to kisspeptin
Kisspeptin mediates negative sex steroid feedback
Kisspeptin may also mediate estrogenic positive feedback
Kisspeptin stimulates gonadotrophin release in disease models
Continuous exposure to kisspeptin can cause desensitization
† Kisspeptin and puberty
† Kisspeptin and metabolism
† Clinical applications of KNDy manipulation
Manipulation of KNDy neurones to stimulate HPG axis
Manipulation of KNDy neurones to inhibit HPG axis
† Conclusions
background: The discovery of kisspeptin as key central regulator of GnRH secretion has led to a new level of understanding of the neu-
roendocrine regulation of human reproduction. The related discovery of the kisspeptin-neurokinin B-dynorphin (KNDy) pathway in the last
decade has further strengthened our understanding of the modulation of GnRH secretion by endocrine, metabolic and environmental inputs.
In this review, we summarize current understanding of the physiological roles of these novel neuropeptides, and discuss the clinical relevance
of these discoveries and their potential translational applications.
methods: A systematic literature search was performed using PUBMED for all English language articles up to January 2014. In addition, the
reference lists of all relevant original research articles and reviews were examined. This review focuses mainly on published human studies but also
draws on relevant animal data.
results: Kisspeptin is a principal regulator of the secretion of gonadotrophins, and through this key role it is critical for the onset of puberty, the
regulation of sex steroid-mediated feedback and the control of adult fertility. Although there is some sexual dimorphism, both neuroanatomically
†
The authors consider that the first two authors should be regarded as joint first authors.
& The Author 2014. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
486 Skorupskaite et al.
and functionally, these functions are apparent in both men and women. Kisspeptin acts upstream of GnRH and, following paracrine stimulatory and
inhibitory inputs from neurokinin B and dynorphin (KNDy neuropeptides), signals directly to GnRH neurones to control pulsatile GnRH release.
When administered to humans in different isoforms, routes and doses, kisspeptin robustly stimulates LH secretion and LH pulse frequency.
Manipulation of the KNDy system is currently the focus of translational research with the possibility of future clinical application to regulate
LH pulsatility, increasing gonadal sex steroid secretion in reproductive disorders characterized by decreased LH pulsatility, including hypothalamic
amenorrhoea and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Conversely there may be scope to reduce the activity of the KNDy system to reduce LH
secretion where hypersecretion of LH adds to the phenotype, such as in polycystic ovary syndrome.
conclusions: Kisspeptin is a recently discovered neuromodulator that controls GnRH secretion mediating endocrine and metabolic inputs
to the regulation of human reproduction. Manipulation of kisspeptin signalling has the potential for novel therapies in patients with pathologically
low or high LH pulsatility.
Key words: kisspeptin / kisspeptin-neurokinin B-dynorphin / GnRH / LH pulsatility

judged to be relevant. Relevant abstracts from recent scientific meetings
Introduction were included in the review.
Since its discovery, hypothalamic secretion of GnRH has been robustly
established as the key pathway that initiates and controls reproductive
function. Whilst the pivotal central role played by GnRH remains undis- Discovery of the kisspeptin and
puted, a number of functional limitations of the GnRH neuronal network KNDy neuronal network
have been identified. For example, in rats, GnRH neurones lack estrogen
receptor (ER)-alpha (Herbison and Theodosis, 1992), the principal ER, KISS1 gene, peptide and its receptor
thus suggesting the need for an intermediary signalling pathway mediating KISS1, the gene encoding kisspeptins, was originally identified in 1996 as a
gonadal feedback. suppressor of metastasis in human malignant melanoma (Lee et al.,
It was only a decade ago that the discovery of the obligate role of kis- 1996). As it was discovered in Hershey (PA, USA), the gene was
speptin in human puberty revolutionized current understanding of the named after the famous chocolate ‘Kisses’ produced in the town. The
neuroendocrine regulation of human reproduction (de Roux et al., SS in KiSS1 acknowledges that it is a ‘suppressor sequence’.
2003; Seminara et al., 2003). Kisspeptin, a hypothalamic peptide The KISS1 gene is localized to chromosome 1q32 and has four exons,
coded by the KiSS1 gene, is a novel neuromodulator that acts upstream the first two of which are not translated (West et al., 1998). The gene
of GnRH, and is sensitive to sex steroid feedback and metabolic cues. Kis- encodes the precursor 145 amino acid peptide, which is cleaved to a
speptin is now recognized as a crucial regulator of the onset of puberty, 54 amino acid protein (West et al., 1998). To acknowledge its metastasis
the regulation of sex hormone-mediated secretion of gonadotrophins, inhibitory properties, the 54 amino acid transcript was named ‘metastin’
and the control of fertility (Pinilla et al., 2012). The related discovery of (Ohtaki et al., 2001). This can be further cleaved to 14, 13 and 10 amino
a reproductive role for neurokinin B has stimulated further interest in acid peptides. The 54 amino acid and the shorter peptides belong to the
the field. The same functional neuronal network secretes kisspeptin RF amide group of peptides, sharing the C-terminal sequence of
and neurokinin B—now called kisspeptin-neurokinin B-dynorphin Arg-Phe-NH2, and are now collectively referred to as kisspeptins
(KNDy) neurones as they also co-secrete dynorphin, a well-established (Kotani et al., 2001).
opioid inhibitor (Goodman et al., 2007). Exogenous kisspeptin has been In 2001, kisspeptin was identified as a ligand for the orphan G-protein
administered to healthy volunteers and a limited number of patients, with coupled receptor 54 (GPR54), which was first described in the rat brain
a view to restoring reproductive function in certain conditions. and subsequently in human (then named AXOR12 and hOT7T175)
In this review, we summarize current understanding of the physiologic- (Lee et al., 1999; Muir et al., 2001; Ohtaki et al., 2001), now termed
al regulation of GnRH pulse frequency by kisspeptin, and appraise the KISS1R (Gottsch et al., 2009). KISS1R maps to chromosome 19p13.3
clinical relevance of the discoveries of kisspeptin and neurokinin B. The and includes five exons, encoding a 398 amino acid protein with seven
focus will predominantly be on human findings, using animal data hydrophobic trans-membrane domains (Muir et al., 2001). It has an
where human studies are lacking but where there is direct translational amino acid sequence close to that of the galanin receptor family (40%
potential. identity), although it does not bind either galanin or galanin-like
peptide (Lee et al., 1999). Upon binding by kisspeptin, KISS1R activates
phospholipase C and recruits secondary intracellular messengers, inosi-
Methods tol triphosphate and diacylglycerol, which in turn mediate calcium release
and protein kinase C activation to mediate kisspeptin’s function (Muir
A systematic literature search was performed using PUBMED for all English
et al., 2001; Liu et al., 2008; Constantin et al., 2009). Activation of
language articles published up to January 2014 using the terms ‘kisspeptin’
and ‘reproduction’. The search was performed without limitations by Kiss1r results in a biphasic increase in intracellular calcium, with a rapid
species although subsequent priority was given to human studies, where increase followed by a more sustained second phase (Min et al., 2014).
available. The initial search identified 390 manuscripts, which were used as To maintain this second phase and therefore sustain signalling, kisspeptin
background material for the review. In addition, the reference lists of all rele- receptor trafficking involving internalization, recycling and recruitment
vant original research articles and reviews were examined and selected if from an intracellular pool, is required (Min et al., 2014). Without
Kisspeptin pathway in human reproduction 487

Figure 1 Schematic diagram showing the neuroanatomy of the kisspeptin-GnRH pathway and the relationship between KNDy neurones and GnRH
neurones in humans and rodents. Kisspeptin signals directly to the GnRH neurones, which express kisspeptin receptor. The location of kisspeptin
neurone populations within the hypothalamus is species specific, residing within the anteroventral periventricular nucleus (AVPV) and the arcuate
nucleus in rodents, and within the preoptic area (POA) and the infundibular nucleus in humans. Kisspeptin neurones in the infundibular (humans)/
arcuate (rodents) nucleus co-express neurokinin B and dynorphin (KNDy neurones), which via neurokinin B receptor and kappa opioid peptide receptor
autosynaptically regulate pulsatile kisspeptin secretion, with neurokinin B being stimulatory and dynorphin inhibitory. Negative (red) and positive (green) sex
steroid feedback is mediated via distinct kisspeptin populations in rodents, via the AVPV and the arcuate nucleus, respectively. In humans KNDy neurones in
the infundibular nucleus relay both negative (red) and positive (green) feedback. The role of the POA kisspeptin population in mediating sex steroid feedback
in humans is incompletely explored. ME, median eminence; +, stimulatory; 2, inhibitory; ERa, estrogen receptor alpha; PR, progesterone receptor; Kiss1/
KiSS1, kisspeptin; NKB, neurokinin B; Dyn, dynorphin.
receptor trafficking, the kisspeptin receptor undergoes desensitization GnRH is secreted into the portal circulation in a coordinated and pulsatile
following an initial acute phase (Min et al., 2014). Since the discovery of manner. Similarly, kisspeptin neurones are located in the rostral preoptic
kisspeptin-KISS1R signalling, many different terms have been used to area and the infundibular nucleus in the human hypothalamus (Rometo
describe its components. The nomenclature used in this review for et al., 2007; Hrabovszky et al., 2010). The anatomical distribution of kis-
kisspeptin and its receptor will be that recently recommended by speptin neurones and their appositions with other hypothalamic endo-
Gottsch et al. (2009). crine networks are described below. Areas of incongruity between
data from human studies and those carried out in other species are
also highlighted.
Functional neuroanatomy of kisspeptin
signalling Kisspeptin neurone localization in humans
GnRH neurones extend from the preoptic area through to the infundibu- Initial studies of the neuroanatomical distribution of kisspeptin neurones
lar nucleus (homologue to the arcuate nucleus in other species) of the in the human brain carried out in autopsy samples from premenopausal
hypothalamus in humans, whereas in rodents GnRH neurones reside and post-menopausal women localized KISS1 expression to the infun-
predominantly in the preoptic area (Lehman et al., 1986; Schwanzel- dibular nucleus only (Rometo et al., 2007). A more recent study, using
Fukuda and Pfaff, 1989; Clifton and Steiner, 2009) (Fig. 1). GnRH both male and female autopsy samples, has confirmed the localization
axons project from these nuclei to the median eminence, where of the majority of kisspeptin cell bodies in the infundibular nucleus, but
identified a second dense population of kisspeptin cells in the rostral pre- functions of the two kisspeptin populations (Ojeda et al., 2010; Tello
optic area (Hrabovszky et al., 2010). et al., 2010).
Whilst kisspeptin neurones are located in the infundibular/arcuate
nucleus across all species, including humans, the rostral population is Kisspeptin neurone populations differ in physiological function
species specific (Clarkson and Herbison, 2006; Pompolo et al., 2006; KNDy neurones of the infundibular/arcuate nucleus influence the activ-
Ramaswamy et al., 2008; Clarkson et al., 2009; Hrabovszky et al., ity of GnRH by acting on both GnRH cell bodies and neurosecretory
2010). In rodents, the rostral population is located in the anteroventral terminals (Krajewski et al., 2005; Ciofi et al., 2006; Ramaswamy et al.,
periventricular nucleus (AVPV) and the periventricular nucleus (PeN), 2008) (Fig. 1). KNDy neurones make direct contact with GnRH cell
the continuum of this region known as the rostral periventricular bodies and dendrites in humans and project to the median eminence
region of the third ventricle (RP3V) (Clarkson and Herbison, 2006; in rodents, sheep and monkeys (Krajewski et al., 2005; Ciofi et al.,
Clarkson et al., 2009) (Fig. 1). In contrast, humans and ruminants lack 2006; Clarkson and Herbison, 2006; Ramaswamy et al., 2008; Dahl
this well-defined RP3V population and have more scattered kisspeptin et al., 2009). KNDy cells act synergistically to produce coordinated
cell bodies within the preoptic region (Pompolo et al., 2006; Oakley and pulsatile GnRH secretion by controlling the neuroactivity of other

et al., 2009; Hrabovszky et al., 2010). Unlike in humans and ruminants, KNDy cells, as inferred from a reciprocally interconnected KNDy cell
Kiss1 mRNA was not detectable in the preoptic area in the adult network within the arcuate nucleus in the sheep and rat (Foradori
rhesus monkey (Ramaswamy et al., 2008). et al., 2002; Burke et al., 2006; Lehman et al., 2010). This is supported
Kisspeptin axons form dense pericapillary plexuses in the human infun- by the expression of neurokinin B receptors and the kappa opioid
dibular stalk, the site of neurosecretion of GnRH (Hrabovszky et al., peptide receptor (the receptor for dynorphin) within the KNDy cells,
2010). Axo-somatic, axo-dendritic and axo-axonal contacts between but not the kisspeptin receptor, which predominantly co-localizes with
kisspeptin and GnRH axons were also demonstrated in the infundibular GnRH neurones (Krajewski et al., 2005; Navarro et al., 2009; Herbison
stalk, in keeping with data from rodents, sheep and monkeys, where kis- et al., 2010) (Fig. 1). This implies that the stimulatory role of neurokinin B
speptin and GnRH neuronal networks are in close proximity (Clarkson and the inhibitory action of dynorphin autosynaptically coordinate the
and Herbison, 2006; Ramaswamy et al., 2008; Smith et al., 2008a; Hra- pulsatile release of kisspeptin, which in turn drives the pulsatile secretion
bovszky et al., 2010; Uenoyama et al., 2011). GnRH neurones express of GnRH and LH (Navarro et al., 2009).
Kiss1r mRNA (Irwig et al., 2004; Han et al., 2005; Messager et al., Kisspeptin-mediated GnRH stimulation is sex steroid dependent. Es-
2005). These findings indicate direct involvement of kisspeptin in the trogen and progesterone modulate kisspeptin activity at both the AVPV
neurosecretion of GnRH. However, in humans as well as other species nucleus and the arcuate/infundibular nucleus through sex steroid recep-
studied to date, not all GnRH neurones receive kisspeptin neurone tors (Ciofi et al., 1994; Goubillon et al., 2000; Foradori et al., 2002; Smith
contacts and the incidence of these contacts seems low (Clarkson et al., 2005; Franceschini et al., 2006) (Fig. 1). It is becoming clear that not
and Herbison, 2006; Ramaswamy et al., 2008; Smith et al., 2008a; only do kisspeptin neurones mediate both negative and positive sex
Hrabovszky et al., 2010), suggesting a subtle regulation of GnRH secre- steroid feedback, but also that distinct subgroups, which are species spe-
tion by kisspeptin and other neuropeptides. cific, are involved in these two critical regulatory functions, described
more fully below (sections: Kisspeptin mediates negative sex steroid
Kisspeptin neurone populations co-express other neuropeptides feedback and Kisspeptin may also mediate estrogenic positive feedback).
There is considerable overlap in the distribution of kisspeptin, neurokinin In rodents, the AVPV and the arcuate nucleus respond to positive and
B and dynorphin in the hypothalamus, with frequent colocalization. negative sex steroid feedback, respectively (Smith et al., 2005, 2006b,
Mapping of kisspeptin and neurokinin B neurones was similar in the Herbison, 2008), whereas in humans, the infundibular nucleus alone
infundibular nucleus of post-menopausal women, prompting the identi- relays sex steroid signalling (Rometo et al., 2007; Oakley et al., 2009)
fication of a subpopulation of kisspeptin neurones which express neuro- (Fig. 1). Thus while there is less marked anatomical differentiation
kinin B and dynorphin in the human infundibular nucleus (Rometo et al., of the two feedback pathways in humans, it remains possible
2007; Hrabovszky et al., 2010). This unique region expressing kisspeptin, (and perhaps likely) that the two functions are mediated by different
neurokinin B and dynorphin is conserved across species and resides in neurones.
the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus in sheep and rodents (Burke et al.,
2006; Goodman et al., 2007; Navarro et al., 2009). Neurokinin B and Kisspeptin neurones show sexual dimorphism
dynorphin are, however, absent from the kisspeptin population in the There is evidence for sexual dimorphism in kisspeptin pathways in the
preoptic area/RP3V. These infundibular (human)E/arcuate (rodent human, probably reflecting these functional differences discussed
and ruminant) nucleus neurones which co-express all three neuropep- above. Female hypothalami have significantly more kisspeptin fibres in
tides are referred to as KNDy neurones (Cheng et al., 2010) (Fig. 1). the infundibular nucleus and ventral periventricular zone than are seen
KNDy neurones in rats and sheep also co-localize with the glutamate in men (Hrabovszky et al., 2010). There is also a striking sex difference
transporter-2, and glutamate has been implicated in mediating estrogen in the number and expression of kisspeptin cell bodies, which are
positive feedback resulting in the pre-ovulatory GnRH surge. Whether observed in the rostral periventricular zone of the female only
KNDy cells express glutamate receptors remains to be determined (Hrabovszky et al., 2010). Likewise only a few kisspeptin cell bodies
(Pompolo et al., 2003; Ciofi et al., 2006). Kisspeptin neurones in the pre- are present in the infundibular nucleus in males in contrast to the abun-
optic area/RP3V are not KNDy neurones, but in the mouse AVPV they dant kisspeptin cell bodies in females (Hrabovszky et al., 2010). Similarly,
co-express tyrosine hydroxylase (the key regulatory step in dopamine sex differences have been reported in the arcuate nucleus of the sheep
synthesis) (Oakley et al., 2009). This differential expression of neuropep- (Cheng et al., 2010). Pre-ovulatory positive sex steroid feedback is
tides reflects complex signalling within the hypothalamus and distinct unique to the female, and the adult female mouse and rat hypothalamus
contain 10-fold more kisspeptin neurones than males in the RP3V region, studies described above. Kisspeptin causes depolarization of and
whereas the arcuate nucleus responsible for negative sex steroid feed- increases in firing rate of GnRH neurones in vitro (Han et al., 2005;
back does not display such dimorphism (Clarkson and Herbison, 2006; Zhang et al., 2008); kisspeptin stimulates the secretion of GnRH in hypo-
Kauffman et al., 2007). thalamic explants (Thompson et al., 2004; Tovar et al., 2006); c-Fos
immunoreactivity (a marker of neuronal activity) (Matsui et al., 2004;
Han et al., 2005) and the expression of GnRH mRNA is up-regulated
Kisspeptin and the regulation within the cell bodies of GnRH neurones following the kisspeptin expos-
of GnRH secretion ure (Novaira et al., 2009; Oakley et al., 2009). In sheep, intracerebroven-
tricular infusion of kisspeptin caused a dramatic increase in the
Kisspeptin is a potent stimulator of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal cerebrospinal fluid GnRH content and simultaneously in serum LH and
(HPG) axis in both animal models and humans. Kisspeptin signals directly FSH (Messager et al., 2005).
to the GnRH neurones through the action on the kisspeptin receptor to Some studies suggest that kisspeptin directly stimulates pituitary gona-
release GnRH into the portal circulation, which in turn stimulates the se- dotrophs to release LH and FSH, based on the expression of Kiss1 and

cretion of LH and FSH from the gonadotrophs of the anterior pituitary. Kiss1r genes in gonadotrophs, the secretion of gonadotrophins from pi-
Evidence for this comes from multiple sources. Since GnRH cannot be tuitary explants treated with kisspeptin (Kotani et al., 2001; Navarro
measured in the peripheral circulation, LH pulse frequency remains a et al., 2005b, Gutierrez-Pascual et al., 2007; Richard et al., 2008) and
widely used and a well validated surrogate of hypophyseal GnRH pulsa- the detection of kisspeptin (although in low levels) in the hypophyseal
tility as each GnRH pulse is associated with an LH pulse (Clarke and portal circulation in the sheep (Smith et al., 2008b). The ability of kisspep-
Cummins, 1985). tin to induce gonadotrophin release from the pituitary fragments might
be explained by the pharmacological concentrations of kisspeptin used
Kisspeptin stimulates gonadotrophin release (Navarro et al., 2005a, Gutierrez-Pascual et al., 2007). Whilst kisspeptin
in humans may have a direct stimulatory action on gonadotrophs, indirect stimula-
Kisspeptin stimulates the secretion of both LH and FSH in the human, tion through enhancing GnRH secretion appears to be the principal
although the effect on the former is much more marked (George and physiologic pathway for the stimulation of gonadotrophin secretion
Seminara, 2012). Kisspeptin-54 was first administered in healthy (Gottsch et al., 2004; Irwig et al., 2004; Smith et al., 2008b).
men by intravenous infusion (4 pmol/kg/min (0.023 mg/kg/min) for The physiological role of kisspeptin in the regulation of GnRH secre-
90 min) and resulted in a robust and dose-dependent increase (from tion was further demonstrated by studies using a kisspeptin antagonist
0.25 pmol/kg/min (0.001 mg/kg/min) to 12 pmol/kg/min (0.07 mg/ (Millar et al., 2010). Kisspeptin-induced GnRH neurone firing was abol-
kg/min)) in LH, and less marked rises in FSH and testosterone (Dhillo ished by the kisspeptin antagonist (Irwig et al., 2004; Liu et al., 2008;
et al., 2005). Kisspeptin-54 clearance showed first-order kinetics with Roseweir et al., 2009). Kisspeptin is needed for the pulsatile release of
a half-life of 27.6 + 1.1 min (Dhillo et al., 2005), which compares with GnRH, as when injected into the median eminence of pubertal rhesus
about 4 min for kisspeptin-10 (Jayasena et al., 2011). The potency of kis- monkeys, kisspeptin antagonist suppressed both mean GnRH and
speptin to stimulate the secretion of gonadotrophins and its preferential GnRH pulses (Roseweir et al., 2009). Kisspeptin modulates the secretion
effect on the release of LH has been consistently observed when kisspep- of GnRH at the arcuate nucleus, the site of the GnRH pulse generator:
tin is administered by different routes (intravenous or subcutaneous) and kisspeptin antagonist reduced LH pulse frequency when administered
types of exposure (single boluses or continuous infusion), in different iso- to the arcuate nucleus but not when administered to the preoptic area
forms (kisspeptin-54 and kisspeptin-10), to men or women or in different in the rat (Li et al., 2009).
disease models (Dhillo et al., 2005, 2007; Jayasena et al., 2009, 2010, That the effect of kisspeptin on LH release was prevented by pretreat-
2011, 2013a, b; Chan et al., 2011, 2012; George et al., 2011, 2012, ment with GnRH antagonist further points to the action of kisspeptin up-
2013; George and Seminara 2012; Abbara et al., 2013; Young et al., stream of GnRH (Gottsch et al., 2004; Shahab et al., 2005). Although
2013). Figures 2 and 3 summarize knowledge of the stimulatory effect there are no studies in humans administering GnRH antagonist followed
of exogenous kisspeptin on the secretion of LH in humans to date. by kisspeptin, the direct action of kisspeptin on GnRH neurones is in-
While kisspeptin stimulates LH release 2- to 3-fold in most circum- ferred from consistent findings in rodents and nonhuman primates.
stances, the stimulatory effect on FSH is much smaller and is less consist- Humans with ‘inactivating’ mutations in kisspeptin and/or its receptor
ent (Dhillo et al., 2005, 2007; George et al., 2011, 2012; Jayasena et al., show hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and delayed puberty (de Roux
2011; Chan et al., 2012). A more potent effect of kisspeptin on LH secre- et al., 2003; Seminara et al., 2003), whist those with ‘activating’ mutations
tion than FSH in humans is concordant with studies in rodents (Thomp- undergo precocious puberty (Teles et al., 2008; Silveira et al., 2010), sug-
son et al., 2004; Navarro et al., 2005a). gesting that kisspeptin modulates GnRH pulsatility.
Kisspeptin increases LH pulsatility in humans

Kisspeptin operates upstream of GnRH
As GnRH secretion is pulsatile, the effect of kisspeptin on the character-
neurones and coordinates GnRH and LH istics of that pulsatility (as reflected in LH pulses) has been investigated.
pulsatility Intravenous infusion of kisspeptin-10 (1.5 mg/kg/h (1.1 nmol/kg/h)
Kisspeptin acts directly on GnRH neurones for 9 h) in healthy men (George et al., 2011) and kisspeptin-54 (subcuta-
Evidence that kisspeptin exerts its stimulatory function on gonadotroph- neous bolus 0.3 nmol/kg (1.76 mg/kg) and 0.6 nmol/kg (3.5 mg/kg)) in
in secretion through a direct action on the hypothalamic GnRH system is healthy women (Jayasena et al., 2013c) increased LH pulse frequency and
provided by findings from animal studies, consistent with the anatomical amplitude. The ability of kisspeptin to enhance LH pulsatility has also

Figure 2 Kisspeptin stimulates LH secretion in healthy men (filled squares) and women (filled circles). The stimulatory effect of kisspeptin on LH secre-
tion is shown in both healthy men and women, when kisspeptin is administered in different isoforms (kisspeptin-54 and kisspeptin-10) and by different
protocols (intravenous or subcutaneous, single boluses or continuous infusion). Note that stimulated LH values are either mean LH or peak LH concentra-
tions depending on how the data are originally presented. Where authors do not state exact LH concentration following kisspeptin administration, this was
obtained from the relevant figures. 0% change in LH secretion is reported if no statistically significant change in LH secretion was reported and authors do not
show actual LH concentrations. iv, intravenous; sc, subcutaneous; BD, twice daily; Implanon, etonogestrel contraceptive implant; COCP, combined oral
contraceptive pill.
been demonstrated in human reproductive disorders, including in hypo- the anatomy of the kisspeptin system described above may underlie
thalamic amenorrhoea (Jayasena et al., 2013a), in hypogonadal men with this intriguing observation and even determine the frequency of GnRH
type 2 diabetes (George et al., 2013) and in neurokinin B signalling defects secretion in women across the normal menstrual cycle. This variability
(Young et al., 2013), described more fully below. Kisspeptin not only in the frequency of GnRH pulsatility is central to the differential regulation
drives the pulsatile secretion of GnRH, but also appears to reset the of LH and FSH (McNeilly et al., 2003) and thus ovarian follicle develop-
hypothalamic clock of GnRH pulsatility in men. Acute injection of ment, the correct selection of a single dominant follicle for ovulation,
kisspeptin-10 delayed the next endogenous LH pulse by the interval and the luteal phase with limited follicle development.
that would be observed between the two consecutive endogenous LH
pulses (Chan et al., 2011). However, the same kisspeptin dosing protocol
did not support the ability of kisspeptin to reset the GnRH pulse gener-
Men and women show sexual dimorphism
ator in women across the different phases of the menstrual cycle (Chan in their response to kisspeptin
et al., 2012). The authors suggest that the GnRH pulse generator in men Men and women display sexual dimorphism in their response to exogen-
operates differently to women and that it is the changes in the sex steroid ous kisspeptin (Fig. 2). Whilst kisspeptin potently stimulates the release
milieu across the menstrual cycle in women that might be responsible for of LH in men, the effect of kisspeptin is more variable in women and
this discrepancy (Chan et al., 2012). The marked sexual dimorphism in depends on the phase of the menstrual cycle. It has been proposed
that in the early follicular phase, the impact of exogenous kisspeptin is ERs, suggesting that a separate population of neurones acts as a mediator
limited due to high endogenous kisspeptin activity (Chan et al., 2012), al- to relay the ovulation-inducing message from gonads to the hypothalamic
though this is speculative. Sex steroid-deficient post-menopausal women GnRH neurones. Recent evidence suggests that KNDy neurones appear
were more responsive to kisspeptin-10 than women in the early follicular to constitute this ‘missing link’, mediating both negative and positive sex
phase (George et al., 2012) (Fig. 2). Women taking combined estrogen steroid feedback.
and progestogen contraceptives showed a minimal response to Kisspeptin in the infundibular nucleus mediates negative feedback of
kisspeptin-10 (George et al., 2012), contrasting to the larger response estrogen in humans (Fig. 1). In post-menopausal women kisspeptin neu-
in the physiological luteal phase (Dhillo et al., 2007) (Fig. 2). These rones in the infundibular nucleus were hypertrophied and expressed
complex relationships suggest that other mechanisms, in addition to more KISS1 mRNA than in premenopausal women (Rometo et al.,
the absolute or relative levels of estrogen and progesterone, appear to 2007). These hypertrophied neurones expressed both ESR1 (encoding
regulate kisspeptin sensitivity across the menstrual cycle and clearly ER alpha) and neurokinin B mRNA, had increased expression of neuro-
there remains much to be learnt regarding these inter-relationships. kinin B and showed a similar distribution to that of kisspeptin neurones
The expression of kisspeptin receptor in different sex steroid environ- (Rance et al., 1990; Rance and Young, 1991). The suggestion that kis-

ments has not been described in primates and data in lower species speptin and neurokinin B in the infundibular nucleus act synergistically
remain contradictory (Navarro et al., 2004a, Yamada et al., 2007; Li to mediate estrogen negative feedback is supported by animal data,
et al., 2012). Changes in pituitary sensitivity to GnRH and sex steroid showing an up-regulation of Kiss1 mRNA expression in ovariectomised
feedback at that level (Hall et al., 1994; Shaw et al., 2010) add to the com- rodents, sheep and monkeys in the arcuate nucleus (equivalent to the in-
plexity of analysis of in vivo studies. fundibular nucleus in humans) but not in more rostral areas, and that this
The sexual dimorphism in the responsiveness of men and women has was prevented by E2 replacement (Oakley et al., 2009; Lehman et al.,
been elegantly illustrated using the different isoforms of kisspeptin (Jaya- 2010). Consistent with this, the intracerebroventricular administration
sena et al., 2011). Men respond to modest doses of both kisspeptin-54 of kisspeptin antagonist prevented the LH rise in castrated rodents
and kisspeptin-10. In a study of healthy women in the early follicular (Roseweir et al., 2009). Similarly, ovariectomy increased and estrogen re-
phase, kisspeptin-10 administered as an intravenous bolus, subcutane- placement reduced neurokinin B gene expression in the infundibular
ous bolus or as an intravenous infusion did not result in a detectable nucleus of monkeys (Abel et al., 1999; Sandoval-Guzman et al., 2004).
LH response (Jayasena et al., 2011) (Fig. 2). In another study however, These findings together imply that estrogen mediates its negative feed-
a low-dose intravenous bolus of kisspeptin-10 induced an LH response back by suppressing kisspeptin and neurokinin B release from KNDy neu-
in normal women in the early follicular phase (George et al., 2012). rones, which reduces their stimulatory input to GnRH neurones (Fig. 1).
These differences may have been methodological—as the Jayasena The converse, i.e. inhibitory, involvement of the opioid component of
et al. (2011) protocol did not involve baseline sampling. In the study by this signalling system has long been recognized. The colocalization of
George et al. (2012), a 10-min baseline LH sampling for 180 min was dynorphin in at least some kisspeptin and neurokinin B-containing neu-
employed prior to kisspeptin administration, enabling comparison of rones in the human is discussed above (section: Kisspeptin neurone
LH secretion before and after kisspeptin-10 infusion in the same individ- populations co-express other neuropeptides). Naloxone, an opioid re-
ual. Given the small sample number, small effect size and inter-individual ceptor antagonist, increased serum LH levels in late follicular and luteal
variability in baseline LH, this lack of baseline data to enable phases of the menstrual cycle (Quigley and Yen, 1980; Shoupe et al.,
intra-individual comparisons diminishes statistical sensitivity to identify 1985). This effect was not apparent in post-menopausal and oophorec-
small changes in LH. A small but significant increase in LH in response tomized young women, whereas replacement of estrogen or progester-
to kisspeptin-54 administered intravenously or subcutaneously in the one restored the ability of naloxone to release LH (Melis et al., 1984;
early follicular phase was also observed (Dhillo et al., 2007; Jayasena Casper and Alapin-Rubillovitz, 1985; Shoupe et al., 1985). The endogen-
et al., 2011), indicating that the response to the longer isoform is substan- ous opioid peptide dynorphin mediates this role physiologically, and
tially more robust, perhaps reflecting its longer half-life. Sexual dimorph- inhibited GnRH and LH pulse frequency following progesterone admin-
ism in the kisspeptin system is also seen in rodent models: females have istration (Ferin et al., 1984; Karsch, 1987; Goodman et al., 2004). In con-
significantly more kisspeptin neurones than males in the AVPV nucleus trast, the opioid receptor antagonist naltrexone increased serum LH
(Oakley et al., 2009). This sexual variation in anatomical distribution of concentrations and LH pulse amplitude in women with hypothalamic
the kisspeptin pathway and the response to kisspeptin administration amenorrhoea (Genazzani et al., 1995). The relative deficiency of dynor-
may reflect sexually dimorphic roles of kisspeptin, notably in the gener- phin signalling as part of negative estrogen feedback in the post-
ation of the pre-ovulatory LH surge, which is unique to the female. menopausal and oophorectomized states would appear a likely explan-
ation for the lack of response to naloxone in hypergonadotrophic states,
in contrast to potentially increased dynorphin signalling contributing to
Kisspeptin mediates negative sex steroid the hypogonadotrophic state in hypothalamic amenorrhoea. It is
feedback however possible that already near maximal LH secretion in sex
Patterns of GnRH and subsequently LH secretion across the menstrual steroid deficient post-menopausal and oophorectomized women
cycle are modulated by gonadal steroid feedback. During the follicular would account for the inability of naloxone to further stimulate gonado-
phase of the menstrual cycle GnRH activity and thus LH secretion is trophin release although kisspeptin-10 induced LH secretion in post-
limited by estradiol (E2)-mediated negative feedback (with additional menopausal women (George et al., 2012). In post-menopausal
action on pituitary gonadotrophs) (Karsch, 1987; Shaw et al., 2010). women, the expression of prodynorphin mRNA in the infundibular
The basis for the change to positive feedback with elaboration of the mid- nucleus is reduced (Rometo and Rance, 2008). The role of dynorphin
cycle LH surge has long been unclear. GnRH neurones do not express as a mediator of sex steroid negative feedback is consistent with data
from the ewe, where dynorphin is coexpressed with kisspeptin and neu- KNDy neurones may have a role in positive estrogen feedback. In
rokinin B, both of which show a high degree of colocalization with ER sheep, the neurokinin B receptor agonist senktide increased LH secre-
alpha and progesterone receptors in the arcuate nucleus, and the expres- tion close to levels seen during the pre-ovulatory LH surge (Billings
sion of prodynorphin mRNA is suppressed by ovariectomy (Goubillon et al., 2010). KNDy neurones do not mediate positive estrogen feedback
et al., 2000; Foradori et al., 2002, 2005; Franceschini et al., 2006; in rodents based on their location in the arcuate nucleus only (Burke et al.,
Goodman et al., 2007). This is distinct from the apparent situation in 2006; Goodman et al., 2007; Navarro et al., 2009). Other neurotrans-
rodents where, despite colocalization of KNDy neurones with both es- mitters may also contribute to the kisspeptin-mediated LH surge, as
trogen and progesterone receptors, dynorphin does not seem to kisspeptin populations in the preoptic area/RP3V and the infundibular/
mediate estrogen negative feedback (Navarro et al., 2009). arcuate nucleus co-localize with different peptides (see above section:
In summary, it appears that in humans KNDy neurones mediate nega- Kisspeptin neurone populations co-express different neuropeptides).
tive sex steroid feedback in the infundibular nucleus by suppressing the
secretion of kisspeptin and neurokinin B and stimulating the secretion Kisspeptin stimulates gonadotrophin release
of dynorphin, which act synergistically to reduce the activity of the in disease models

GnRH neuronal system, and thus gonadotrophin secretion. In addition to being a potent stimulator of LH secretion in healthy men
and women, the ability of kisspeptin to induce LH release in human
Kisspeptin may also mediate estrogenic disease models characterized by low gonadotrophin secretion has
been investigated (Fig. 3).
positive feedback
Estrogen feedback switches from negative to positive in the late follicular
phase to induce the GnRH/LH surge at the time of ovulation. However, Hypothalamic amenorrhoea
the neuroendocrine mechanisms involved in this critical physiological Hypothalamic amenorrhoea is characterized by slow GnRH pulsatile se-
event have been unclear. Emerging data suggest that although the nega- cretion, resulting in a preferential decline in LH compared with FSH se-
tive feedback of sex steroids is mediated by KNDy neurones in the infun- cretion and low ovarian follicular activity. As, by definition, this is a
dibular/arcuate nucleus, the positive feedback of sex steroids is more functional rather than pathological condition, it might be readily cor-
site and species specific (Fig. 1). rected by administration of kisspeptin to increase GnRH secretion.
Recent data support a potential role for kisspeptin in generating the Hypothalamic amenorrhoea was the first disease model used to
ovulatory LH surge in humans. Kisspeptin-54 (subcutaneous in doses explore the therapeutic potential of kisspeptin-54, which when admini-
of 1.6– 12.8 nmol/kg (9.4– 75 mg/kg), used instead of hCG during an strated as subcutaneous bolus at 6.4 nmol/kg (37 mg/kg) resulted in a
FSH/GnRH antagonist assisted conception ovulation induction proto- 10-fold increase in LH and 2.5-fold increase in FSH secretion, both to
col, induced an LH surge and triggered oocyte maturation, with subse- normal physiological levels (Jayasena et al., 2009) (Fig. 3). However,
quently a live term birth reported (Abbara et al., 2013). Repeated this increase in gonadotrophins did not translate into a significant eleva-
twice-daily administration of kisspeptin-54 shortened the menstrual tion in E2 secretion, suggesting that folliculogenesis was not restored,
cycle and advanced the onset of the LH peak in healthy women (Jayasena confirmed by ovarian quiescence on ultrasound scan (Jayasena et al.,
et al., 2013b). This is in keeping with data from animal models. Kisspeptin 2009). The lack of ovarian activity may relate to the limited effect on
administration results in an early LH surge in sheep, and conversely ad- FSH secretion and the short timescale of study. Despite the initial stimu-
ministration of kisspeptin antiserum or antagonists to rats and sheep pre- lation of LH and FSH secretion, when kisspeptin-54 was injected twice
vented or blunted the LH surge (Kinoshita et al., 2005; Caraty et al., 2007; daily for 2 weeks, these increases were not sustained with LH falling to
Clarkson et al., 2008; Pineda et al., 2010). pretreatment levels, suggesting tachyphylaxis (Jayasena et al., 2009,
The anatomical site of kisspeptin that relays positive sex steroid feed- 2010) (see section: Continuous exposure to kisspeptin can cause desen-
back is different in rodents compared with humans and other species. In sitization). However, sustained secretion of gonadotrophins at physio-
rodents the AVPV nucleus is the location of estrogen positive feedback, logical levels was achieved with intermittent subcutaneous injection of
which is not matched in humans, other primates and sheep, where kis- kisspeptin-54 twice weekly (6.4 nmol/kg (37 mg/kg)) for 8 weeks, al-
speptin neurones in the infundibular/arcuate exert this function though it did not result in increased E2 secretion or follicular de-
(Fig. 1). The expression of Kiss1 mRNA in the AVPV nucleus is dramat- velopment (Jayasena et al., 2010). It has subsequently been shown
ically increased after estrogen replacement and at the time of the that an infusion of kisspeptin-54 (0.01 nmol/kg/h (0.059 mg/kg/h) to
GnRH/LH surge (Smith et al., 2005, 2006b). There are no studies 1 nmol/kg/h (5.9 mg/kg/h)) for 8 h in women with hypothalamic amen-
looking at the anatomical region of kisspeptin expression that mediates orrhoea can induce LH pulsatility with a 3-fold increase in LH pulse fre-
estrogen positive feedback in humans and evidence comes from other quency and mass per pulse (Jayasena et al., 2013a). The ability of the
species, which, like humans, have no homologous area to the AVPV increased gonadotrophin secretion, and perhaps the relative effects of
nucleus. In sheep, the expression of Kiss1 mRNA in the arcuate LH and FSH, to bring about ovarian activity and menstrual cycles will de-
nucleus is markedly enhanced during the pre-ovulatory LH surge termine the therapeutic application of kisspeptin in this condition.
(Smith et al., 2008b). In rodents the AVPV nucleus receives afferent In all the studies above, regardless of the dose and route of administra-
fibres from the suprachiasmatic nucleus, the location of circadian tion, the LH response to kisspeptin is 5-fold greater in hypothalamic
clock, which coordinates and provides precise timing for the LH surge amenorrhoea than in healthy women in the early follicular phase. This
and the kisspeptin system in now being integrated into our understanding is consistent with data from a rodent model of undernutrition showing
of the neurobiology of this system across species, including the human up-regulated hypothalamic Kiss1r mRNA expression (Castellano et al.,
(Christian and Moenter, 2010; Khan and Kauffman, 2012). 2005). Altered GnRH sensitivity is unlikely as the effect of GnRH on

Figure 3 Increase in LH secretion following the administration of kisspeptin in human disease models. The stimulatory effect of kisspeptin on LH secretion
is shown in reproductive endocrine disorders, when kisspeptin is administered in different isoforms (kisspeptin-54 and kisspeptin-10) and by different pro-
tocols (i.v. or s.c., single boluses or continuous infusion) as indicated. Note that stimulated LH values are either mean LH or peak LH concentrations de-
pending on how the data are originally presented. Where authors do not state an exact LH concentration following kisspeptin administration, this is obtained
from the relevant figures. BD, twice daily; T2DM, type 2 diabetes; NKB (TAC3), neurokinin B; NKB3R (TAC3R), neurokinin B receptor.
LH secretion is similar in hypothalamic amenorrhoea and healthy women hypogonadism, which was sustained for the duration of the infusion
in the early follicular phase (Jayasena et al., 2009; George et al., 2012). (11 h) with no evidence of a decline in LH (i.e. no desensitization) over
that timescale (George et al., 2013). Importantly, serum testosterone
Hypogonadism in men with type 2 diabetes was also elevated into the normal physiological range (George et al.,
Men with type 2 diabetes often have low testosterone concentrations, 2013). The ability of kisspeptin to robustly increase LH pulsatility with
and inappropriately low LH indicating a hypothalamic/pituitary basis an associated increase in testosterone is very encouraging, but the poten-
(George et al., 2010). As with hypothalamic amenorrhoea, increasing tial of kisspeptin to maintain gonadotrophin and sex steroid release
LH secretion by administration of kisspeptin might therefore have thera- for longer periods of time relevant to therapeutic use has yet to be
peutic potential. This has been explored in a small number of such men, determined.
investigating the response to both bolus administration and infusion of
kisspeptin-10 (George et al., 2013) (Fig. 3). Kisspeptin-10 intravenous Neurokinin B signalling deficiencies
bolus administration (0.3 mg/kg (0.23 nmol/kg)) increased LH secretion Patients with loss-of-function mutation in neurokinin B (TAC3) and its re-
2-fold in diabetic hypogonadal men, i.e. of the same magnitude as in ceptor (TAC3R) show hypogonadotropic hypogonadism characterized
healthy men with peak mean LH 10.7 IU/l and 14.5 IU/l, respectively by failure to progress through puberty (Topaloglu et al., 2009). It is pos-
(George et al., 2013). An infusion of kisspeptin-10 for 11 h at a higher tulated that inability of neurokinin B in an autocrine and/or paracrine
dose (4 mg/kg/h (3.1 nmol/kg/h)) produced a more profound 5-fold manner to stimulate kisspeptin secretion results in low GnRH pulse fre-
increase in LH release (George et al., 2013), also comparable to the re- quency with correspondingly low LH and gonadal steroid levels but
sponse in healthy men (George et al., 2011). Kisspeptin-10 also stimu- normal or near-normal levels of FSH typically seen in these patients. Neu-
lated LH pulse frequency in diabetic men with hypogonadotropic rokinin B, being potentially upstream of kisspeptin in neuroendocrine
signalling, makes kisspeptin an attractive therapeutic agent to restore An alternative explanation for this observation is that at that high dose
GnRH secretion in patients with defects in the neurokinin B system. kisspeptin might have stimulated another RF-amine receptor, such as go-
Indeed, continuous infusion of kisspeptin-10 (1.5 mg/kg/h (1.1 nmol/ nadotrophin inhibitory hormone receptor, known to have an inhibitory
kg/h) for 12 h) in two patients with TAC3 and two patients with TAC3R effect on GnRH and LH (George et al., 2011).
mutation stimulated the LH response 2.5-fold (Young et al., 2013) Consistent with these findings, intermittent administration of kisspep-
(Fig. 3). Overall, the LH response to kisspeptin was more limited than tin results in sustained GnRH and LH pulsatility. Intermittent administra-
that achieved in healthy men using the same protocol (George et al., tion of kisspeptin-10 in juvenile male monkeys (intravenous hourly for 2
2011) with lower LH mass per pulse, although pulse frequency was nor- days) and juvenile female rats (intracerebroventricular twice daily for 5
malized, consistent with complex neuropeptide interactions associated days) caused precocious puberty (Navarro et al., 2004b, Plant et al.,
with KNDy neurone function rather than a linear hierarchy, as described 2006). Kisspeptin-54 (6.4 nmol/kg (37 mg/kg/h)) injected twice
above. Nevertheless, a significant increase in testosterone levels in male weekly sustained the secretion of gonadotrophins for an 8-week
patients and in E2 levels in the single female patient was achieved (Young period after a brief initial suppression (Jayasena et al., 2010) (Fig. 3).
et al., 2013). The ability of natural forms of kisspeptin to induce desensitization in

humans thus remains unclear, with the discrepancies between studies
possibly reflecting the duration of kisspeptin injection (8 –22.5 h versus
Continuous exposure to kisspeptin can cause 2 weeks), lower doses of kisspeptin infused in the human studies com-
desensitization pared with primate studies, variation in the isoforms of kisspeptin
Continuing administration of GnRH desensitizes the HPG axis after an used, the mode of kisspeptin administration, differences between the
initial stimulation, by down-regulation of GnRH receptors and desensi- human and animal models and sex and even health status (healthy men
tization of gonadotrophes (Belchetz et al., 1978; McArdle et al., 1987; versus women with hypothalamic amenorrhoea). Kisspeptin receptor
Mason et al., 1994). There is evidence for pulsatile (i.e. non-continuous) agonist analogues have also been developed, and two of these,
secretion of kisspeptin within the hypothalamic median eminence of the TAK-448 and TAK-683, are potent inducers of desensitization with po-
monkey (Keen et al., 2008). Continuous administration of kisspeptin-10 tential use to suppress gonadotrophin secretion and thus gonadal func-
(intravenous 200 mg/h (154 nmol/kg) or 400 mg/h (307 nmol/kg) for tion, similar to the GnRH analogues widely used today. Phase I clinical
98 h) to rhesus monkeys resulted in suppressed LH secretion, indicative studies in healthy men show that subcutaneous infusion of TAK-448
of kisspeptin receptor desensitization (Ramaswamy et al., 2007). The kis- (0.01–1 mg/day) and TAK-683 (0.01–2 mg/day) for 2 weeks rapidly
speptin receptor has also been shown to desensitize in vitro (Pampillo suppress testosterone below castration levels (MacLean et al., 2013;
et al., 2009). Consistent with this, repeated subcutaneous administration Scott et al., 2013).
of kisspeptin-54 (6.4 nmol/kg (37 mg/kg) twice daily) for 2 weeks in
women with hypothalamic amenorrhoea resulted in an initial stimulation
of LH and FSH which was not maintained (Jayasena et al., 2009) (Fig. 3).
Kisspeptin and puberty
However other studies in humans using infusions or repeated administra- The demonstration of the obligate role of kisspeptin-GPR54 signalling in
tion of kisspeptin have not provided consistent evidence for desensitiza- human puberty was the finding that firmly established kisspeptin as a
tion (Figs 2 and 3). More recently, infusion of a lower dose of crucial regulator of reproductive function. In 2003, two independent
kisspeptin-54 for 8 h (from 0.01 nmol/kg/h (0.059 mg/kg/h) to groups identified ‘inactivating’ point mutations and deletions in KISS1R
1 nmol/kg/h (5.9 mg/kg/h)) in women with hypothalamic amenor- that were associated with impaired pubertal development in some patients
rhoea not only caused sustained LH secretion but also restored LH pul- with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (de Roux et al., 2003; Seminara
satility (Jayasena et al., 2013a) (Fig. 3). Continuous exposure to et al., 2003). Mutations in KISS1R were demonstrated in both consanguin-
kisspeptin-54 administered twice daily for 1 week advanced the men- eous families and in unrelated patients. In addition, Kiss1r- and Kiss1-
strual cycle in healthy women (Jayasena et al., 2013b). Similarly, continu- deficient mice displayed a virtually identical phenotype (Funes et al.,
ous kisspeptin-10 infusion at 4 mg/kg/h (3.1 nmol/kg/h) for 22.5 h in 2003; Seminara et al., 2003; d’Anglemont de Tassigny et al., 2007).
healthy men showed continuing stimulation of LH secretion, with no evi- Conversely an ‘activating’ mutation (Arg386Pro) in the kisspeptin re-
dence of desensitization (George et al., 2011) (Fig. 2). In contrast, LH se- ceptor gene was identified in a girl with precocious puberty, although in-
cretion was not sustained in three healthy men during infusion of heritance could not be determined as the biological family was not
kisspeptin 10 for 24 h at 12 mg/kg/h (9.2 nmol/kg/h), the highest available for genetic testing (Teles et al., 2008). Cells transfected with
dose used in humans to date (Lippincott et al., 2013). However, LH se- the mutant kisspeptin receptor showed prolonged accumulation of inosi-
cretion remained well above baseline at the end of infusion, in contrast to tol phosphate and phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated
the marked desensitization observed with a high dose of kisspeptin-54 in kinase, indicating extended intracellular signalling (Teles et al., 2008). Mis-
women with hypothalamic amenorrhoea (Jayasena et al., 2009) (Fig. 2). It sense mutations have also been described in the KISS1 gene in three un-
would be interesting to determine if LH secretion remains above baseline related children with central precocious puberty (Silveira et al., 2010).
or if LH decreases to castrate levels with kisspeptin infusion for longer This mutant kisspeptin is more resistant to in vitro degradation, suggesting
than 24 h. These data therefore suggest that while high doses of both greater bioavailability as the cause of precocious puberty (Silveira et al.,
kisspeptin-54 and kisspeptin-10 may induce desensitization, this does 2010).
not occur at lower doses. In a dose-finding study involving bolus injection Hypothalamic expression of Kiss1 and Kiss1r mRNA is dramatically
of kisspeptin-10, the highest dose (3 mg/kg (2.3 nmol/kg)) resulted in a up-regulated at puberty in rodents and primates (Navarro et al.,
sub-maximal LH response, consistent with desensitization even with 2004a, Han et al., 2005; Shahab et al., 2005) and the percentage of
bolus administration of kisspeptin-10 (George et al., 2011) (Fig. 2). GnRH neurones depolarizing in response to kisspeptin increases from
juvenile (25%) to prepubertal (50%) to adult mice (.90%), suggesting Current data indicate that kisspeptin acts downstream to metabolic
that GnRH neurones acquire sensitivity to kisspeptin across puberty signals and conveys information about energy stores to GnRH neurones,
(Han et al., 2005). Kisspeptin-54 secretion and specifically kisspeptin-54 thereby regulating reproduction. This gives promise for a potential novel
pulse frequency increase at the onset of puberty in monkeys (Keen et al., therapeutic role of kisspeptin to restore the reproductive axis in conditions
2008). In addition to these physiological changes linking kisspeptin signal- of negative energy balance, such as anorexia nervosa, and in diabetes.
ling to the timing of puberty, the administration of exogenous kisspeptin
resulted in earlier puberty in rats and monkeys (Navarro et al., 2004b,
Plant et al., 2006). Conversely, administration of a kisspeptin antagonist
inhibited pulsatile GnRH release in pubertal monkeys and delayed Clinical applications of KNDy
puberty in rats (Roseweir et al., 2009; Pineda et al., 2010). The findings manipulation
strongly support a requirement for KISS1/GPR54 signalling to initiate
GnRH analogues are extensively used in clinical practice in the treatment
and progress through puberty in a range of species.
of hormone-dependent diseases and infertility. Current therapies ma-
nipulate the HPG axis at the level of GnRH receptors on pituitary gona-

dotrophs, largely to suppress gonadal function, e.g. in the treatment of
Kisspeptin and metabolism prostate and breast cancer, endometriosis and uterine fibroids. As re-
productive endocrine conditions can be broadly categorized into those
Human reproductive function is influenced by both extremes of
with pathologically diminished (delayed puberty, hypothalamic amenor-
nutrition—undernutrition and obesity. Kisspeptin may provide a link
rhoea, hypogonadism in diabetes) and pathologically enhanced (polycys-
between nutritional/metabolic status and reproduction by sensing
tic ovary syndrome (PCOS), menopause, precocious puberty) GnRH
energy stores and translating this information into the pulsatile secretion
and associated gonadotrophin pulsatility, the newly discovered hypothal-
of GnRH. The expression of Kiss1 mRNA and gonadotrophin secretion is
amic peptides kisspeptin and neurokinin B offer a novel therapeutic ap-
reduced in mice, pubertal rats and monkeys subject to fasting (Castellano
proach with potential advantages over the existing therapies in several
et al., 2005; Cota et al., 2006; Roa et al., 2009; Wahab et al., 2011). Kis-
clinical contexts (Fig. 4).
speptin is able to restore delayed vaginal opening and increases low go-
nadotrophin and estrogen levels associated with chronic undernutrition
in pre-pubertal rats (Navarro et al., 2004b, Castellano et al., 2005).
Humans with mutations in leptin or leptin receptor show hypogonad-
ism (Farooqi and O’Rahilly, 2009). The leptin receptor (Ob-Rb) is not
present on GnRH neurones, but 40% of kisspeptin neurones in the
mouse arcuate nucleus express the leptin receptor (Smith et al., 2006a),
suggesting a role for kisspeptin in mediating the metabolic signals of
leptin on the HPG axis. Leptin-deficient mice show decreased expression
of Kiss1 mRNA, which is partially up-regulated by leptin (Smith et al.,
2006a). Incomplete restoration of Kiss1 mRNA expression suggests that
other mediators are involved in inhibiting kisspeptin signalling in leptin de-
ficiency. Furthermore, mice with selective deletion of leptin receptor from
kisspeptin neurones display normal pubertal development, sexual matur-
ation and fertility, demonstrating that leptin action on kisspeptin neurones
is not obligatory for these processes (Donato et al., 2011).
Low levels of testosterone have also been observed in men with
obesity and type 2 diabetes, where decreased secretion of GnRH is
thought to be the causative factor (Dandona et al., 2008). A rat model
of diabetes (streptozocin treated) has reduced levels of hypothalamic
Kiss1 mRNA with subsequently low levels of circulating gonadotrophins
and sex steroids, which are corrected by kisspeptin (Castellano et al.,
2006, 2009). This raises the possibility that diminished kisspeptin secre-
tion is a potential mechanism for hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in
patients with obesity and diabetes (George et al., 2010). Indeed, as Figure 4 Potential clinical applications of novel kisspeptin-based
described above, kisspeptin-10 increased LH pulse frequency and LH modulation of LH secretion. Schematic presentation of LH pulses in
secretion in hypogonadal men with type 2 diabetes (George et al., health and in reproductive endocrine disorders. In health, an LH pulse
2013). The likely pathways for down-regulation of kisspeptin signalling occurs about every 90 min. The frequency of LH pulses is diminished
include negative feedback by estrogen, which is markedly elevated in in patients with hypothalamic amenorrhoea, male hypogonadism and
pubertal delay, whereas LH pulse frequency is enhanced in women
obesity (Schneider et al., 1979), resistance to leptin, also seen in
with polycystic ovary syndrome, menopause and precocious puberty.
human obesity (Finn et al., 1998), insulin resistance and hyperglycaemia
Therapeutic opportunities to correct abnormal LH pulse frequency by
(Castellano et al., 2006, 2009), and inflammation, which is up-regulated manipulating KNDy neurones with relevant agonists and antagonists
in hypogonadal men with diabetes (Dandona et al., 2008) and is asso- are emerging. PCOS, polycystic ovary syndrome.
ciated with decreased kisspeptin expression in rats (Iwasa et al., 2008).
Manipulation of KNDy neurones to stimulate vasodilation (Burke et al., 2006; Rance, 2009; Hrabovszky et al., 2010;
HPG axis Krajewski et al., 2010; Mittelman-Smith et al., 2012; Rance et al.,
2013). Although the inhibitory role of opioids on GnRH and LH pulsatility
Enhancing the stimulatory tone of kisspeptin and neurokinin B by appro-
is well known, manipulation of this system does not have the apparent
priate agonists and suppressing the inhibitory tone of dynorphin by its
specificity of the kisspeptin or neurokinin B pathways.
antagonists, may have therapeutic potential for diseases with decreased
The potential more subtle effects of kisspeptin antagonists reducing
gonadotrophin secretion. Exogenous kisspeptin enhances diminished
LH pulsatility contrast with the profound suppression resulting from
LH pulsatility in hypogonadal men with diabetes and stimulates LH secre-
GnRH analogue administration, decreasing gonadotrophin and sex
tion in women with hypothalamic amenorrhoea (Jayasena et al., 2010;
steroid secretion to castration levels with consequent side effects, includ-
George et al., 2013). Kisspeptin initiates puberty in monkeys and
ing hot flushes, loss of libido and decreased bone mineral density (Rose-
rodents, but this has not been tested in children with delayed puberty
weir et al., 2009). Complete suppression of gonadotrophins and sex
(Navarro et al., 2004b, Plant et al., 2006). Pulsatile gonadotrophin secre-
steroids is necessary is some conditions, such as prostate cancer, but
tion is restored by kisspeptin administered to patients with hypogonado-
partial suppression is more appropriate in benign prostatic hyperplasia,
tropic hypogonadism secondary to mutations in neurokinin B and/or its

endometriosis and uterine fibroids. Clinical effectiveness in the manage-
receptor (Young et al., 2013). The role of dynorphin antagonists, such as
ment of endometriosis and uterine fibroids with GnRH suppression with
naloxone, in patients with abnormally low LH secretion remains to be
add back, and with selective progesterone receptor modulators
elucidated.
(Chabbert-Buffet et al., 2005), suggests that approaches not based on
Kisspeptin therapy has the potential to ‘fine tune’ IVF techniques. Kis-
complete suppression of the HPG axis have clear clinical value. Targeted
speptin triggered the LH surge during following ovulation induction for
partial gonadotrophin suppression, such as that afforded via kisspeptin
assisted reproduction (Abbara et al., 2013) with successful achievement
and/or neurokinin B inhibition, has the potential to overcome the exist-
of a live birth. Kisspeptin might stimulate a more physiological pattern of
ing drawbacks of GnRH analogues although the emerging data on kis-
gonadotrophin secretion, avoiding the risk of ovarian hyperstimulation
speptin analogues (MacLean et al., 2013; Scott et al., 2013)
syndrome associated with currently used hCG injections although
demonstrate the potential for profound suppression as well.
clearly much remains to be discovered regarding potential advantages
and disadvantages over current approaches.
Manipulation of KNDy neurones to inhibit Conclusions

HPG axis The discovery of kisspeptin has transformed our understanding of the
Suppressing the stimulatory role of kisspeptin and neurokinin B by specif- neuroendocrine signals controlling the reproductive axis. Kisspeptin
ic receptor antagonists and enhancing the inhibitory action of dynorphin coordinates GnRH secretion, mediates gonadal steroid negative and
by its receptor agonist is desirable in scenarios of increased GnRH pulsa- positive feedback, controls the onset of puberty, and relays information
tility where a reduction rather than complete suppression of GnRH is regarding the body’s energy stores. The last decade has thus seen a huge
required. Increased frequency of GnRH and therefore LH pulsatile secre- resurgence in interest in neuroendocrinology, and the potential for trans-
tion (with little effect on FSH secretion) is central to the pathophysiology lational application is already being explored in human studies. However,
of PCOS, the most common endocrinopathy in women. As GnRH pulse much remains to be learnt before kisspeptin can replace or be used in
frequency primarily determines LH but not FSH secretion (McNeilly conjunction with GnRH and gonadotrophin analogues, the current main-
et al., 2003), slowing GnRH might normalize the relative LH hypersecre- stay of infertility and reproductive endocrine disorder treatments.
tion often seen in PCOS. Normalization of LH secretion (and perhaps the The mode of kisspeptin administration, as with most peptides,
consequent hyperandrogenism) in PCOS may promote folliculogenesis remains a challenge and there is thus the need for novel approaches
and ovulation. Studies using a neurokinin B antagonist are currently and the development of non-peptide analogues, which is already well
underway to reduce high LH secretion in PCOS. underway. These will also allow refinement of experimental approaches
The ability of kisspeptin antagonists to limit follicular development and to explore physiological pathways (such as elaboration of the importance
inhibit ovulation offers potential for a novel female contraceptive, of the sex steroid environment) as well as novel treatment strategies
perhaps being specifically advantageous in the scenarios where exogen- across a wide range of conditions requiring manipulation of gonadal func-
ous estrogen is contraindicated. However it might be limited by the tion. Co-administration of kisspeptin, opioid and neurokinin B modifying
resulting lack of progesterone exposure and adverse effects on the endo- agents will allow fine modulation of the HPG axis that may open new
metrium. Given the preferential stimulation of LH secretion in response therapeutic avenues.
to kisspeptin in humans (Dhillo et al., 2005, 2007; George et al., 2011,
2012), kisspeptin antagonists might potentially result in relative sparing
of FSH compared with LH, which might reduce or prevent the unwanted
side effects of estrogen deficiency, such as vasomotor symptoms and risk
Acknowledgements
of osteoporosis, associated with GnRH analogue administration. The authors thank men and women who volunteered to take part in the
A similar therapeutic approach might support the use of kisspeptin and studies and the staff at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh Clinical Research
neurokinin B suppressive therapies in the treatment of precocious Facility and the Wellcome Trust Clinical Research Facility at the Western
puberty. Similarly, it may alleviate menopausal hot flushes since KNDy General Hospital, Edinburgh. We are pleased to recognise the contribu-
neurones project to preoptic thermoregulatory areas that express neu- tion of Prof RP Millar in developing some of the concepts discussed, and
rokinin B receptor in rats and KNDy neurone ablation reduces cutaneous are grateful to Ronnie Grant for his expert assistance with the graphics.
Castellano JM, Navarro VM, Roa J, Pineda R, Sanchez-Garrido MA, Garcia-Galiano D,

Authors’ roles Vigo E, Dieguez C, Aguilar E, Pinilla L et al. Alterations in hypothalamic KiSS-1 system
K.S., J.T.G. and R.A.A. contributed equally to determining the scope of in experimental diabetes: early changes and functional consequences. Endocrinology
2009;2:784–794.
the review. K.S. and J.T.G. undertook the literature review. K.S.
Chabbert-Buffet N, Meduri G, Bouchard P, Spitz IM. Selective progesterone receptor
drafted the manuscript, which was edited by J.T.G. and R.A.A. All modulators and progesterone antagonists: mechanisms of action and clinical
authors have approved the final manuscript for submission. applications. Hum Reprod Update 2005;3:293 –307.
Chan YM, Butler JP, Pinnell NE, Pralong FP, Crowley WF Jr, Ren C, Chan KK,
Seminara SB. Kisspeptin resets the hypothalamic GnRH clock in men. J Clin
Funding Endocrinol Metab 2011;6:E908 –E915.
Chan YM, Butler JP, Sidhoum VF, Pinnell NE, Seminara SB. Kisspeptin administration to
The authors’ studies in this field are supported by the Medical Research women: a window into endogenous kisspeptin secretion and GnRH responsiveness
Council (G0701682), the Novo Nordisk UK Research Foundation and across the menstrual cycle. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012;8:E1458– E1467.
Sanofi Excellence for Diabetes Research Awards. K.S.’s current position Cheng G, Coolen LM, Padmanabhan V, Goodman RL, Lehman MN. The kisspeptin/
as a clinical research fellow is funded by the Wellcome Trust through the neurokinin B/dynorphin (KNDy) cell population of the arcuate nucleus: sex dif-
ferences and effects of prenatal testosterone in sheep. Endocrinology 2010;1:301–311.

Scottish Translational Medicine and Therapeutics Initiative (STMTI). Christian CA, Moenter SM. The neurobiology of preovulatory and estradiol-induced
J.T.G.’s current position is part-funded by the University of Oxford gonadotropin-releasing hormone surges. Endocr Rev 2010;4:544– 577.
Diabetes Trials Unit and the NIHR through the Oxford Biomedical Ciofi P, Krause JE, Prins GS, Mazzuca M. Presence of nuclear androgen receptor-like
Research Centre. Funding to pay the Open Access publication charges immunoreactivity in neurokinin B-containing neurons of the hypothalamic arcuate
for this article was provided by the Wellcome Trust through the Scottish nucleus of the adult male rat. Neurosci Lett 1994;2:193– 196.
Ciofi P, Leroy D, Tramu G. Sexual dimorphism in the organization of the rat
Translational Medicine and Therapeutics Initiative.
hypothalamic infundibular area. Neuroscience 2006;4:1731– 1745.
Clarke IJ, Cummins JT. GnRH pulse frequency determines LH pulse amplitude by
altering the amount of releasable LH in the pituitary glands of ewes. J Reprod Fertil
Conflict of interest 1985;2:425–431.
Clarkson J, Herbison AE. Postnatal development of kisspeptin neurons in mouse
J.T.G. serves as the International Co-ordinating Investigator for an Astra-
hypothalamus; sexual dimorphism and projections to gonadotropin-releasing
Zeneca sponsored clinical trial in PCOS, as a consultant for AstraZeneca hormone neurons. Endocrinology 2006;12:5817 –5825.
and Takeda Pharmaceuticals; and has received educational grants, Clarkson J, d’Anglemont de Tassigny X, Moreno AS, Colledge WH, Herbison AE.
speaker fees or advisory board fees from most leading pharmaceutical Kisspeptin-GPR54 signaling is essential for preovulatory gonadotropin-releasing
companies active in the field of diabetes. R.A.A. has undertaken consult- hormone neuron activation and the luteinizing hormone surge. J Neurosci 2008;
35:8691– 8697.
ancy work for AstraZeneca and Takeda Pharmaceuticals.
Clarkson J, d’Anglemont de Tassigny X, Colledge WH, Caraty A, Herbison AE.
Distribution of kisspeptin neurones in the adult female mouse brain. J Neuroendocrinol
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Human Reproduction Update, Vol.20, No.4 pp.

The kisspeptin-GnRH pathway in

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Kisspeptin increases LH pulsatility in humans

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Manipulation of KNDy neurones to inhibit Conclusions

Castellano JM, Navarro VM, Roa J, Pineda R, Sanchez-Garrido MA, Garcia-Galiano D,

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