Human transport

Transport in humans - the circulatory system

The main transport system of human is the circulatory system, a

system of tubes (blood vessels) with a pump (the heart) and valves to
ensure one-way flow of blood.

Its functions:

• To transport nutrients and oxygen to the cells.

• To remove waste and carbon dioxide from the cells.
• To provide for efficient gas exchange.

The right side of the

heart collects
deoxygenated blood
form the body and
pumps it to the lungs.

The left side collects

oxygenated blood
from the lungs and
pumps it to the body.
The double circulation

Beginning at the lungs, blood flows into the left-hand side of the heart, and
then out to the rest of the body. It is brought back to the right-side of the
heart, before going back to the lungs again.

This is called a double circulation system, because the blood travels through
the heart twice on one complete journey around the body:

• one circuit links the heart and lungs (low pressure circulation)
• the other circuit links the heart with the rest of the body (high
pressure circulation).

The importance of a double circulation

• Oxygenated blood is kept separate from deoxygenated blood. The

septum in the heart ensures this complete separation. Oxygenated
blood flows through the left side of the heart while deoxygenated
blood flows through the right.

• The blood pressure in the systemic circulation is kept higher than

that in the pulmonary circulation. The left ventricle, with a thicker
wall,
pumps blood under higher pressure to the body and delivers
oxygenated blood effectively to all parts of the body. The right
ventricle has a thinner wall and pumps blood to the lungs under
lower pressure, thereby avoiding any lung damage.

Structure and function of the heart

The function of the heart is to pump blood around the body. The right-side
pumps blood to the lungs and the left side pumps blood to the rest of the
body.
Heart's function

 Blood circulation

1. Blood in the right ventricle (RV) is pump to the lungs

2. Blood from the lungs flows back into the left atrium (LA) and then
into the left ventricle (LV).
3. Blood in the LV is pumped through the body (except for the lungs)
4. Blood returns to the heart where it enters the right atrium (RA).

• Muscular contraction

The heart is made of a special type of muscle called cardiac muscle which
contracts and relaxes regularly, throughout life.

The heart’s muscle is constantly active, so it needs its own blood supply,
through the coronary artery, to provide it with oxygen and glucose.

• Working of the valves

Valves in the heart prevent blood from being pushed backwards up into the
atria when the heart ‘beats.
 Assignment

1.On a copy of the diagram of the double circulatory system, label:

i) The 4 main blood vessels
(4marks)
ii) The chambers of the heart
(4 marks)
iii) The 2 valves shown (2
marks)

2.State 2 differences in composition between blood leaving the right ventricle

and blood entering the left atrium. (2 marks)
Effect of exercise on heartbeat and causes of
coronary heart disease

A heartbeat is a contraction. Each contraction squeezes blood to the

lungs and body. The heart beats about 70 times a minute, more if you
are younger, and the rate becomes lower the fitter you are.

• During exercise the heart rate increases to supply the muscles

with more oxygen and glucose à allow the muscles to respire
aerobically à they have sufficient energy to contract.

• Regular exercise is important to keep the heart muscle in good

tone à heart is more efficient in maintaining blood pressure
and↓risk of coronary heart disease and stroke.

Coronary arteries

The muscles of the heart are so thick that the nutrients and oxygen in the
blood inside the heart would not be able to diffuse to all the muscles quickly
enough. The heart muscles need a constant supply of nutrients so that it can
keep contracting and relaxing. The coronary arteries supply this.

If a coronary artery gets blocked – e.g. by a blood clot – the cardiac

muscles run short of oxygen à they cannot respire à cannot obtain
energy to contract à heart stops beating. This is called a heart attack
or cardiac arrest.
Main causes of a coronary heart disease and preventive measures

Blockage of the coronary arteries is called coronary heart disease.

Arteries, veins and capillaries - structure and functions

There are 3 main kinds of blood vessels – arteries, veins and capillaries.

• Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They divide again and
again, and eventually form very tiny vessels called capillaries.
• The capillaries gradually join up with one another to form large
vessels called veins.
• Veins carry blood towards the heart.

The comparison of blood vessels structure and functions

The transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid

As blood enters capillaries from arterioles (small arteries), it slows down.
This allows substances in the plasma, as well as O2 from red blood cells, to
diffuse through the capillary wall into the surrounding tissues (the capillary
wall is thin and permeable).

Liquid in the plasma also

passes out. This forms tissue
fluid, bathing the cells.
Waste products from the
cells,
e.g. CO2, diffuse back through
the capillary walls into the
plasma. Some of the tissue
fluid also passes back.

Diffusion is responsible for

the transfer of materials
between capillaries and tissue
fluid.

Plan of the main blood vessels in the human body

Assignment

Figure above shows a section through the heart

i) Name the two blood vessels A and B [2 marks] ii)

Which of blood vessels A, B, C or D carry oxygenated blood [1 mark] iii)
Name valve E and state its function [3 marks]

Blood composition and Plasma

If blood is allowed to stand without clotting, it separates out into 4

components: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.

The plasma and red blood cells play an important role

in the transportation of substances, around the body.

White blood cells and platelets are part of the body's immune system.

55% of the blood is plasma. This straw-coloured liquid contain water

with many important dissolved substances which must be carried around
the body. Most materials are carried by the blood plasma, except for
oxygen.
 Plasma transports:

• blood cells
• soluble nutrients e.g. glucose (products of digestion) from the small
intestine to the organs
• amino acids (plasma acts as a pool for amino acids for these cannot
be stored in the body)
• plasma proteins that are important in blood clotting (e.g.
fibrinogen).
• CO2 (waste gas produced by respiration in cells) from the organs to
lungs
• Other wastes of digestion (e.g. urea) from the liver to the kidneys.
• Antibodies and antitoxins
• Hormones
• Ions
• Heat from the liver and muscles to all parts of the body.

Blood cells - structure and functions

Blood consists of cells floating in plasma.

Most of the cells are red blood cells.
A much smaller number are white blood cells.
There are also fragments formed from special cells in the bone marrow,
called platelets.
Red and white blood cells as seen under a light microscope.

Blood as seen through a microscope:

• The largest cells are white cells.

• The others are all red cells.
• There are also a few platelets.

Functions of blood cells

• Red blood cells transport oxygen.

• White blood cells protect against disease. 
Blood platelets help the blood to clot.

1.Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

• Made in the bone marrow of some bones, including ribs, vertebrae

and some limb bones. Produced at a very fast rate – about 9000
million per hour!

• Transport O2 from lungs to all respiring tissues. Prepare CO2 for

transport from all respiring tissues to lungs.

• Contain haemoglobin (Hb), a red iron-containing pigment which

can carry O2. In the lungs, Hb combines with O2 to form
oxyhaemoglobin. In other organs, oxyhaemoglobin splits up into Hb
and O2
 • Have no nucleus à can fit more Hb inside the cytoplasm, but can
lives only for about 4 months.

• Have a special biconcave disc shape à increases the surface area and
makes the diffusion of oxygen into & out of the cell easier.

• Old red blood cells are broken down in the liver, spleen and bone
marrow. Some of the iron from the Hb is stored, and used for making
new Hb, some of it is turned into bile pigment and excreted.

2. White blood cells (leukocytes)

• Made in the bone marrow and in the lymph nodes.

• Have a nucleus, often large and lobed.

• Can move around and squeeze out through the walls of blood
capillaries into all parts of the body.

• There are many different kinds of white blood cells. They all have
the function of fighting pathogens (disease-causing bacteria and
viruses) and to clear up any dead body cells in your body:

a. Phagocytes:

• Have lobed nuclei and granular cytoplasm.

• Can move out of capillaries to the site of an infection.

• Remove any microorganisms that invade the body and might cause
infection, engulf (ingest) and kill them by digesting them.
b. Lymphocytes: produce antibodies to fight bacteria and foreign
materials.

 Have large nuclei

• Responsible for immunity
• There are two different types of lymphocytes:

B-lymphocytes: secrete special proteins called antibodies in response

to contact with their particular antigen, which may be an invading pathogen
or a foreign tissue that has been transplanted.

T-lymphocytes attack foreign or infected cells and kill them.

3. Platelets (thrombocytes)

• Small fragments of cells, with no nucleus.

• Made in the red bone marrow.

• Involve in blood clotting: form blood clot, which stop blood loss at
a wound and prevent the entry of germs into the body.
 Functions of the blood

• Transportation of R.B.C’s, W.B.C’s, oxygen, food nutrients,

hormones, and waste products.

• Defence against disease, by white blood cells phagocytosis and

production of antibodies.

• Supplying cells with glucose to respire and keep a constant

temperature.

Blood clotting

When an injury causes a blood vessel wall to break, platelets are activated.
They change shape from round to spiny, stick to the broken vessel wall and
each other, and begin to plug the break.

The platelets also interact with fibrinogen, a soluble plasma protein, to

Fibrin strands form a net that entraps

more platelets and other blood cells
( red cells and white cells), producing
a cl ot that plugs the break.

form insoluble fibrin. Calcium is required for that.

 Necessity for blood clotting

• Prevent excessive blood loss from the body when there is a damage
of the blood vessel.
• Maintain the blood pressure.
• Prevent the entry of microorganism and foreign particles into the
body.
• Promote wound healing.

Immune system - antibody production, tissue

rejection & phagocytosis

The immune system is the body's defence against disease and foreign
bodies, under the form of antibody production, tissue rejection and
phagocytosis.

Antibody production

Antibodies are produced by lymphocytes, which are formed in lymph

nodes. Lymphocytes produced antibodies in response to the presence of
pathogens such as bacteria. This is because alien cells have chemicals
called antigen on their surface. A different antibody is produced for each
antigen.

The antibodies make bacteria clump together in preparation for action by

phagocytes, or neutralise toxins produced by the bacteria. Once
antibodies have been made, they remain in the blood to provide long-term
protection.

Some lymphocytes memorise the antigens the body has been exposed to.
They can rapidly reproduce and produce antibodies to respond to further
infections by the same pathogen (disease-causing organism).
 Tissue rejection

Transplants involve replacing a damaged

organ with a donor organ. Unfortunately,
lymphocytes and phagocytes will respond to
any foreign cells in your body, even if they are
not pathogens.

If a person's kidneys fail, they can be given a

new kidney taken from another person.
However, the recipient's immune system will
recognise the cells in the new kidney as
'foreign', and will attack and destroy them. The
transplanted organ triggers an immune
response, antibodies are secreted and the
organ may be rejected. This is called tissue
rejection.

To prevent this happening:

• The donor organ needs to be a similar

tissue type to that of the patient e.g.
from a close relative.

• Immunosuppressive drugs are uses, which

switch off the body's immune response. While
recovering, transplant patients are at risk of dying
from any disease they are exposed to, so they
need to be kept in isolation.

Phagocytosis

Phagocytes have the ability to move out of capillaries to

the site of an infection. They then engulf (ingest) the infecting pathogens and
kill them by digesting them.
 Functions of lymphatic system

The lymphatic system is a collection of lymph vessels and glands. It has 3

main roles:

• Fluid balance: return tissue fluid to the blood

• Protection from infection: produce white blood cells lymphocytes

• Absorption of fats: transport digested fats from villi to blood stream

1. Lymph and Tissue Fluid

Tissue fluid is a fluid surrounding the cells of a tissue. It is leaked plasma -

Plasma from the blood capillaries move to the tissue through gaps in the
walls and become tissue fluid.
Tissue fluid play an important role in substance exchange between blood
and cells. It supplies cells with O2 and nutrients and takes
away waste products including CO2.

At the end of the capillary bed, the tissue fluid leaks back into the blood, and
becomes plasma again, but not all of it. A little of it is absorbed by the
lymphatic vessel and becomes lymph.

The lymphatic vessel takes the lymph to the blood stream by secreting them
in a vein near the heart, called subclavian vein. The lymph in the lymphatic
vessels are moved along by the squeeze of muscles against the vessel, just
like some veins.

The return of tissue fluid to the blood in the form of lymph fluid prevents
fluid built up in the tissue.

2. Production of lymphocytes

The lymphatic system is an important component of the immune system,

which fights infection. One group of white blood cells, the lymphocytes, are
made in lymph glands such as the tonsils, adenoids and spleen. The glands
become more active during an infection because they are producing and
releasing large numbers of lymphocytes.

The lymphocytes can live and multiply in the lymphatic system, where they
attack and destroy foreign organisms. Lymphoid tissue scattered throughout
the body filters out pathogens, other foreign matter and cellular debris in
body fluids.

3. The absorption of fatty acids and glycerol from the small intestine

Following the chemical and mechanical breakdown of food in the digestive

tract, most nutrients are absorbed into the blood through intestinal
capillaries. Many digested fats, however, are too large to enter the blood
capillaries and are instead absorbed into lymphatic capillaries by intestinal
lacteals. Fats are added to the blood when lymph joins the bloodstream.

Each villus contains a lacteal - a blind ending lymph vessel.