MTH 201 – ND 2

COURSE OUTLINE:

1. Logic and abstract thinking

2. Permutation and Combination

3. Binomial Theorem of Algebraic Expressions

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MTH 201 – ND 2

Table of Contents
1 Logic and abstract thinking
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ……………………………………………..4
1.1.1 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ……………………………………………….. 4
1.1.2 Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ………………………………………...4

2. Logic
2.1 Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . … . . . . . . . . . ……………………………………5
2.1.1 A (Simple) Statement . . . . . . . . . . . …………………………………………..5
2.1.2 Non - logical Statement . …………………………………………….……….5
2.1.3 Truth Value of a Statement……………………………………………………6
2.1.4 Connectives . . ………………………………………………………………..6
2.1.4 Compound Statement . . ……………………………………………………...7
2.2 Conversion of Statement to Symbols Form ……………………………………….8
2.3 Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive . . . ………………………………………...9
2.3.1 Converse of a Conditional Statement…………………………………………9
2.3.2 Inverse of a Conditional Statement . …………………………………………10
2.3.3 Contrapositive ………………………………………………………………..10
2.4 Parenthesis . . . . . ………………………………………………………………….11
2.5 Truth Table . . . . . ………………………………………………………………….12
2.5.1 Negation . . . . …………………………………………………………………12
2.5.2 Conjunction …………………………………………………………………...13
2.5.3 Disjunction ……………………………………………………………………13
2.5.4 Implication ……………………………………………………………………14
2.5.5 Bi-implication…………………………………………………………………14
2.6 Tautology and Contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . …………………………………...15
2.6.1 Tautology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . …………………………………………..15
2.6.2 Contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . …………………………………………15
2.7 Logical Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ……………………………………16
2.8 Formula . . . . . . . ………………………………………………………………….18
2.8.1 Argument . . . ………………………………………………………………...18
2.8.2 Validity of an Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . …………………………………….19

3. Permutation and Combination

3.1 Permutation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ……………………………………….20
3.1.1 Permutation Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ……………………………………..22
3.1.2 Permutation of Repeated Objects……………………………………………..26

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3.1.3 Permutation with Restrictions . ………………………………………………27

3.1.4 Circular Permutation . . . . . . …………………………………………………28
3.2 Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . …………………………………………………..29

4. Binomial Theorem of Algebraic Expressions

4.1 Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. …………………………………...33
4.2 The Pascal Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,,…………………………………...34
4.3 Binomial Theorem for Positive Integer Indices . . . . ……………………………..39
4.3.1 Properties of Binomial Expansion …………………………………………...42
4.3.2 Finding the Constant term (independent of x) in an Expansion ……………..46
4.3.3 Finding the Coefficient of a Particular term in an Expansion ……………….46
4.4 Binomial Theorem for Negative and Fractional Indices……………………….47
4.5 Application of Binomial Theorem to Approximation ………………………….49

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MTH 201 – ND 2

1. Logic and abstract thinking

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1Logic

Logic is the study of formal reasoning based upon statements or propo sitions. The

basic principle of logic is centered on 2 laws; the law of contradiction which states

that a statement cannot be both true and false, and the law of excluded middle which

stresses that a statement must be either true or false. A simple example of how logic

works is as follows; Consider the statement,

”Umar hates all black objects” in a logical sense, this statement can be written as:

”In all objects, if an object is black then Umar hates it”

Symbolically, we write: For all x, if x is black, then Umar hates x

1.1.2 Linear Algebra

This is the branch of Mathematics that deals with the theory of systems of linear

equations, matrices, vector spaces, determinants and linear transformations.

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2. Logic

2.1 Basic Concepts

In this section, the basic concepts to be used are explained

2.1.1 A (Simple) Statement

In logic, a statement (or a Proposition) is a meaningful declarative sentence that is

either True (T) or False (F). Examples of logical state ments include the following:

1. ”I am in ND 1”

2. ”The phone is ringing”

3. ”3 + 5 = 30”

4. ”The colour of the pen is red”

5. ”I am eating”

6. ” 3 6 = 2” etc.

2.1.2 Non - logical Statement

These are statements that can niether be true or false. Examples include the

following:

1. ”How are you?”

2. ”Is he a boy?”

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3. ”3 + 5”

4. ”Welldone!”

5. ”Who are you”

6. ” 3 6 ” etc.

All questions and exclamations are non logical statements since we cannot say wether

they are True or False.

2.1.3 Truth Value of a Statement

The truth value of a statement is the state in which the statement is, either True (T) or

False (F). If the statement is True, then its truth value is T and if it is false, then its

truth value is F.

Statements are usually represented by symbols (or letters); for example, the statement

”The sky is black” can be represented by p. We write

p := The sky is black

Thus, the truth value of the statement p is F since the sky is not black.

2.1.4 Connectives

A logical connective (also called a logical operator) is a symbol or word used

together with a statement or to connect 2 or more statements. The commonly used

connectives (essential connectives) include the following:

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MTH 201 – ND 2

The following examples illustrates how statement(s) can be used together with

connectives. Consider the two statements:

Umar likes reading

Umar hates traveling

If we let p:= Umar likes reading, q:= Umar hates traveling, then

p ∩ q:= Umar likes reading AND hates traveling

A conditional statement represents an if…then statement where p is the hypothesis

(antecedent), and q is the conclusion (consequent). In essence, it is a statement that

claims that if one thing is true, then something else is true also.

2.1.5 Compound Statement

A compound statement is a statement consisting of combination of statement(s) and

connective(s). For example:

1. If p := The colour of the car is red, then,

~p := The colour of the car is NOT red.

2. If p := 2 + 3 = 5, q := 73 = 4, then,

p ∩ q := 2 + 3 = 5 AND 73 = 4

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3. If p := All Nigerians are tall, q := All Nigerians are happy, then,

p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy.

4. If p := x is a prime number, q := x is a factor of 24, r := x is a

prime factor of 24, then, IF (p ∩ q) THEN r = (p ∩ q) −→ r := If x is a prime number

AND a factor of 24, THEN x is a prime factor of 24.

5. If p := He is smiling, q := He is happy, then,

p IFF q = p ↔ q := (p → q) AND (q → p) :=

IF He is smiling, THEN He is happy AND IF He is happy, THEN He is smiling

2.2 Conversion of Statement to Symbols Form

The following table illustrates how to convert statements to symbols:

Examples: Convert the following statements to symbol form using appropriate

assumptions

1. The sun is hot but it is not humid.

2. If John doesn’t pass then he will loose his scholarship and drop out of school.

3. If it rains and you don’t open your umbrella then you will get wet.

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4. If your car won’t start or you don’t wake up on time then you will miss your

interview and you will not get the job.

5. If you elect Hillary then Hillary will make sure that the budget is not padded,

corruption will cease and there will be N5,000 social benefit.

6. If the cake gets hot then the icing melts and if the icing melts then the cake cannot

be used at the wedding reception.

7. If the super eagles win the world cup or Kano pillars win the National cup then

Nigerians will be overjoyed and dance in the streets.

2.3 Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive

The converse, inverse and contrapositive of a conditional statement p→q can be

found as follows:

Note: In the statement p → q, p is called the hypothesis of the statement while q is

called the conclusion of the statement.

2.3.1 Converse of a Conditional Statement

The converse of a conditional statement, p → q, is a statement obtained by

interchanging the positions of the hypothesis and the conclusion i.e.

The converse of p → q is q → p

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2.3.2 Inverse of a Conditional Statement

The inverse of a conditional statement, p → q, is a statement obtained by negating

both the hypothesis and the conclusion without changing their positions i.e.

The inverse of p → q is ~p → ~q

2.3.3 Contrapositive

The contrapositive of a conditional statement, p → q, is a statement obtained by

finding both the converse and inverse of the statement i.e. interchanging the positions

of both hypothesis and conclusion and also taking the negation of both, thus we have

The contrapositive of p → q is ~q → ~p

Examples:

1. Consider the conditional statement

If he reads well then he will pass his examinations

The statement can be written as p→q, where

p:= he reads well and

q:= he will pass his examinations

Now the converse of the statement is q→p interpreted as: If he will pass his

examinations then he reads well.

The inverse of the statement is

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~p→~q interpreted as: If he doesn’t read well then he will not pass his examinations

and the contrapositive of the statement is

~q−→~p interpreted as: If he will not pass his examinations then he doesn’t read

well.

2. Obtain the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the following statement

a. If you are in ND 2 then you must go for SIWES

b. If it rains today then your clothes will be wet

c. If today is Wednesday then tomorrow will be Thursday

d. If 8 is divisible by 2 then 8 is an even number Solution:

2.4 Parenthesis

Parenthesis i.e. ( ) are very useful when it comes to logical statements. They are used

to prevent ambiguity in a statement and also used to show the order of operations. For

example, consider the statement

p ∩ q ∪ r r

It could mean ”either p and q or r” or ”p and either q or r”. This brings confusion as

to which of the interpretation is correct for the statement. To prevent this confusion,

grouping is done with parenthesis to get the actual meaning of the statement.

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A grouped version of the statement p ∩ q ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. r can be (p ∩ q) ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. r which means

””either p and q or r”, or it can be p ∩ (q ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. r) which means ”p and either q or r”.

Parenthesis show grouping and tells you to start with the statement in the group

before others. A statement may contain more than one set of parenthesis for example

(p ∩ q) ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. (q ∩ r)

~(p ∩ q) ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. r

(p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. (~p ∩ r) ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. (p ∩ q)

~(p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. q) −→ ~p, etc.

2.5 Truth Table

It is known that each logical statement has a truth value which is either T or F. The

truth value of a compound statement can also be found and this depends on the truth

values of each component statement.

Take for example the compound statement C= p ∩ q. Suppose the truth value of p is

T and that of q is F, then the truth value of the compound statement C = p ∩ q will be

T and F which is logically F.

Take another example, the compound statement D= p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. q. Suppose the truth value of

p is T and that of q is F, then the truth value of the compound statement D = p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. q

will be T or F which is logically T.

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Now lets define what a truth table is. The truth table of a statement is a diagram

(usually arranged in rows and columns) that shows all truth values of the statement

from all possible combinations of the truth values of its component statements. The

following gives the truth tables of some statements consisting of essential

connectives:

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2. 5. 5 Bi-implication

Note that, the bi-implication statement can be broken down as follows

p → q ≡ (p → q) ∩ (q → p) Therefore, its truth table will also be broken down into

its components as follows

Examples: Draw the truth tables of the following compound statements:

1. (~p −→ ~q)

2. p −→ (~q ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. r)

3. p ∩ ~q

4. (~p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. q) −→ p

5. p −→ (q ∩ p)

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6. (p −→ ~q) ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. {r

7. (p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. ~q) −→ (p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. r)

2.6 Tautology and Contradiction

2.6.1 Tautology

A compound statement is called a tautology if its truth value is always T no matter the

truth values of its components. To know whether a statementt is a tautology, its truth

table should be obtained and if all the truth values of the last column are T, then that

statement is a tautology. For example:

Examples: Show that the following statements are tautologies

1. p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. (~p)

2. p −→ (p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. q)

3. (p ∩ q) ∩ (~q ∩ r)

2.6.2 Contradiction

A compound statement is called a contradiction if its truth value is always F no matter

the truth values of its components. To know whether a statement is a contradiction, its

truth table should be obtained and if all the truth values of the last column are F, then

that statement is a contradiction.

Examples: Show that the following statements are contradictions

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1. p ∩ (~p)

2.7 Logical Equivalence

Two or more statements are equivalent if they have the same truth tables i.e. if the

last column of both truth tables of the statements is the same. We write p ≡ q to mean

p is equivalent to q. Therefore to know whether two statements are equivalent or not,

their truth tables need to be obtained and compared.

Examples: Show that the statements in the following laws are equivalent

1. Cummutative Laws

p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. q ≡ q ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. p

p∩q≡q∩p

2. Associative Laws

(p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. q) ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. r ≡ p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. (q ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. r)

(p ∩ q) ∩ r ≡ p ∩ (q ∩ r)

3. Distributive Laws

p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. (q ∩ r) ≡ (p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. q) ∩ (p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. r)

p ∩ (q ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. r) ≡ (p ∩ q) ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. (p ∩ r)

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4. Identity

p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. F ≡ p

p∩T≡p

5. Complement Properties

p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. ~p ≡ T

p ∩ ~p ≡ F

6. Double Negation

p (~p) ≡ p

7. Idempotent Laws

p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. p ≡ p

p∩p≡p

8. Demorgan’s Laws

~(p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. q) ≡ ~p ∩ ~q

~(p ∩ q) ≡ ~p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. ~q

9. Universal Bound Laws (Domination)

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MTH 201 – ND 2

p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. T ≡ T

p∩F≡F

10. Absorption Laws

p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. (p ∩ q) ≡ p

p ∩ (p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. q) ≡ p

2.8 Formula

A formula in logic simply means a statement which consists of variables and

connectives and also has a truth value. A formula in logic may also be called a

propositional expression, a sentence, or a sentential formula.

Example of a formula is (p ∩ ~q) → (p ∪ q := All Nigerians are tall OR happy. q),

2.8.1 Argument

An argument is a list of statements called the premises followed by a conclusion. For

example,

p := Every student in ND2 does Maths

Another example is

q := Umar is in ND 1

Therefore, r := Umar does Maths

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p := NCAT is in Zaria, Kadun

q := Kaduna is in Nigeria

r := Nigeria is in West Africa

s := West Africa is in Africa

Therefore, t := NCAT is in Africa

Generally, an argument can be written in the form

p1 ∩ p2 ∩ p3 ∩ ... ∩ pn →q
premises → conclusion

2.8.2 Validity of an Argument

An argument (p1 ∩ p2 ∩ p3 ∩ ... ∩ pn → q) is said to be valid if the statement is a

tautology. In other words, if the truth table of the statement gives T in the last

column.

Examples: Identify the premises and conclusion and check whether the following

arguments are valid or not:

1. If a man is a bachelor, he is unhappy. If a man is unhappy, he is depressed.

Bachelor is depressed.

2. If I play, I cant study. Either I play or I study maths. I studied Maths.

3. All Fulanis are slim. Maryam is a Fulani. Maryam is slim.

4. He is in my class. He is a talkative. Every one in my class is a talkative.

5. All girls like paintings. None of my friends like painting. All my friends are boys.

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3. Permutation and Combination

3.1 Permutation

Permutation of objects means all possible arrangement of of objects where the order

is important. Take for example three letters A, B and C. These letters can be arranged

as follows:

ABC

ABB

CCA

CAB

CAB

CBA

The above arrangement was done while putting emphasis on the order of

arrangement, this is why A B C is one arrangement and A C B is another different

one. This is called permutation. Therefore, there are 6 different ways of permuting

(arranging) three letters.

Now consider the permutation of four letters A B C and D. This can

be done in the following ways

AAAA

ABBC

CDCD

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BDBD

CDBC

BBBB

BAAC

CDCD

ADAD

CDAC

CCCC

CAAB

BDBD

ADAD

BDAB

DDDD

DAAB

BCBC

ACAC

BCAB

ADCB

BDCA

CDBA

DCBA

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If we continue arrangement in the above manner, we observe the following

S/N No of Objects No of ways of arrangement

1 3 6 = 3 × 2 × 1 = 3!

2 4 24 = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 4!

3 5 120 = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5!

4 6 720 = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 6!

Therefore, the number of ways of arranging n objects is n!

3.1.1 Permutation Formula

The fundamental theorem of counting states that:

“if a task can be performed in n1 ways, a second task in n2 ways and a third task in n 3

ways and so on, then the total number of distinct ways of performing all tasks

together is n1 × n2 × n3 × ...”

Consider 5 different books say A, B, C, D and E. Suppose we want to arrange 4 out

of the five books. To do this, we assume there are 4 spaces for the arrangement, i.e.

We start by putting one of the books in the first box (space), there are 5 different

ways doing this since you have 5 books to select from. After choosing a book we are

now left with 4 books to choose from.

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We then move to the second box. To fill the second box, there are 4 ways of doing it

because we have 4 books left to choose from. After choosing a book, we are left with

only 3 books. We then move to the third box. To fill the third box, there are 3 ways of

doing it because we have 3 books left to choose from. After choosing a book, we are

left with only 2 books. We then move to the fourth box.

Finally, to fill the fourth box, there are 2 ways of doing it because we have 2 books

left to choose from. After choosing a book, we now use the fundamental theorem of

counting to calculate the number of ways of arranging 4 books out of the five books,

Thus we have,

5 ways of arranging the first book, 4 ways of arranging the second book, 3 ways of

arranging the third book and finally 2 ways of arranging the fourth book. Therefore

the number of ways of arranging 4 books out of 5 books is given by

5 × 4 × 3 × 2 = 120

We write 5P4 to represent the number of ways of arranging 4 out of 5 objects, hence

5P4 = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 = 120

5P4 is pronounced “5 permutation 4”

In a similar manner, we have the following,

The number of ways of arranging 3 out of 5 objects is 5P3 = 5 × 4 × 3 = 60

The number of ways of arranging 2 out of 5 objects is 5P2 = 5 × 4 = 20

The number of ways of arranging 5 out of 7 objects is 7P5 = 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 = 2520

and so on.

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Now, lets generalize, consider

7P3, we have

7P3 = 7 × 6 × 5(4×3×2×1)

(4 ×3 ×2 ×1)
=7×6×5×
(4 ×3 ×2 ×1)

(7 ×6 × 5× 4 × 3 ×2 ×1)
=
( 4 ×3 × 2× 1)

= 7!
4!

7!
=
(7−3)!

In a similar manner,

5!
5P4 =
(5−4)!

5!
5P3 =
(5−3)!

7!
7P5 =
(7−5)!

and so on.

This takes us to the following Permutation theorem. The theorem states that:

“The number of ways of arranging r objects out of n objects written as nP r is given by

n n!
Pr =
(n−1)!

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Proof:

Recall that nPr = n(n − 1)(n − 2)...(n − (r − 1))

Thus we have
n
Pr = n(n − 1)(n − 2)...(n − (r − 1))

(n −r )(n − r − 1)( n− r − 2)... ×3 ×2 ×1

= n(n − 1)(n − 2)...(n − (r − 1))×
(n −r )(n − r − 1)( n− r − 2)... ×3 ×2 ×1

n(n −1)(n −2)...( n−(r − 1))(n −r )(n −r −1)(n − r − 2)...× 3 ×2 ×1

=
( n− r )(n−r−1)(n−r−2)... ×3 × 2×1

n!
=
(n−r )!

Hence proved.

Examples:

1. Evaluate the following:

a. 10P6

b. 8P4

c. 5P5

2. Show that nPr = (n − r + 1) × nPr−1

3. Box 1 contains the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G whereas Box 2 contains the letters W,

X, Y, Z. How many letter codes can be constructed using

a. 3 letters from box 1 and 2 letters from box 2?

b. 2 letters from box 1 and 3 letters from box 2?

c. Why are the above not equal?

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4. How many three - letter initials can possibly be formed using only the letters M, N,

Q, R, S, and T, if

a. Repetitions are allowed?

b. Repetitions are not allowed?

5. In how many ways can 7 people be put in ten seats?

3.1.2 Permutation of Repeated Objects

In the permutation of n objects and within the n objects there are some that are

repeated, for example in the word NECESSARY

The letter E is repeated twice so also is the letter S, if there are n 1 ,n2 , n3 , . . . ,nk

repetitions, then the number of ways of arranging the n objects where there are n 1 ,

n2 , n3 , . . . ,nk repetitions is given by

n!
n1 ! n 2! n3 ! .... nk !

Examples:

1. How many different arrangements can be made using the letters of the following

words

a. MATHEMATICS

b. HIPPOPOTEMUS

c. MATHEMATICIANS

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d. MISSISSIPPI

2. A team consists of 5ND 1 students, 3 ND2 students and 4 HND 1 students. How

many ways can they be arranged on a line if the students of the same class must be

together?

3. How many different car numbers can be formed using the 10 letters (A to J) and 8

numbers (0 to 7) if each number must have 3 letters and 3 digits with the letters at the

beginning.

4. In how many ways can 3 prizes be won by 12 students of a class

a. If no student can win more than on prize

b. If no restriction is placed on the winning of a prize

c. If only a student wins exactly 3 prizes

3.1.3 Permutation with Restrictions

Supposing we are to arrange n objects in a row such that r objects out of the n objects

are to be together is given by the formula

[n − (r − 1)]!r!

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and if r objects out of the n objects are not to be together is given by the formula

[n − (r − 1)](n − r)(n − r)!

3.1.4 Circular Permutation

Supposing n objects are to be arranged in a ring or circle, then this can be done in (n
− 1)! ways and if the objects are fixed such that the ring can be turned over, then the
required permutations becomes
(n−1) !
2
The arrangement of n distinct objects in a circle such that r out of the objects are
together is given by
(n − r)!/r!
and if the r objects are not together is given by

(n − 1)[n − (r + 1)][n − (r + 1)]!

Examples:

1. In how many ways can 7 people be seated in a round table?

2. In how many ways can a person arrange 5 bids in a circle?

3. In how many ways can 5 people be arranged in a circle such that two people must

sit together?

4. In how many ways can 8 people sit together on a round table

so that

a. 2 people must sit together?

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b. 2 people must not sit together?

3.2 Combination

Combination of objects means all possible selection of objects. In combination, the

order is not important. Take for example four letters A, B, C and D and suppose we

want to select 3 out of the four letters, then the selection can be made as follows:

The selections

A B C, A C B, B A C, B C A, C A B and C B A

are all counted as only 1 selection because the order is not important. So therefore,

for the selection of 3 out of the 4 letters we have only 4selections, which are

ABC

ABD

ACD

BCD

In a similar manner, for the selection of 2 out of the 4 letters we have only 6

selections, which are

AB

AC

AD

BC

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BD

CD

Also, for the selection of 4 out of 5 letters A, B, C, D and E, we have only 5

selections, which are

AAAA

BBBC

CDCE

DEDE

BCDE

If we observe from the above, we can deduce the following. Supposing we let 4C 2 to

represent the number of ways of selecting 2 out of 4 objects (pronounced as 4

combination 2), then we have

4C2 = 6,

4C3 = 4 and

5C4 = 5.

Lets consider the first i. e.

4C2 = 6

We know that×

4!
4P2 =
(4−2) !

30
MTH 201 – ND 2

Combining the above equations we get

4C2 = 6 = 12 = 4 P 2 = 4P2 × 1 4!
=
2 2! 2! (4−2) ! 2!

Similarly,

4C3 = 4 = 24 = 4 P 3 = 4P3 × 1 4!
=
6 3! 3! (4−3) ! 3 !

Also,

5C4 = 5 = 120 = 5 P 4 = 5P4 × 1 5!

=
24 4! 4! (4−4) ! 4 !

Generally, the number of ways of selecting r objects out of n objects is given by the

formula

n n!
Cr =
(n – r ) ! r !

Examples:

1. Evaluate the following

a. 6 C 3

b. 5 C 3

c. 8 C 2

2. A committee of 6 members (4 males and 2 females) is to be formed from 10 males

and 4 females. In how many ways can this be done?

3. A committee of 5 members is to be formed from 3 females and 4 males. In how

many ways can it be formed if

a. at least one female is included as a member?

31
MTH 201 – ND 2

b. at least one ,male is included as a member?

4. Prove the following

a. nCn−r = nCr

b. nCr + nCr+1 = n+1Cr+1

32
MTH 201 – ND 2

4. Binomial Theorem of Algebraic Expressions

4.1 Mathematical Induction

Mathematical induction is a special way of proving things like statements, laws,

theorems, formula etc. It is mostly used to establish a given statement/formula for all

natural numbers. The idea behind Mathematical induction is simple, it follows three

steps as follows:

STEP 1: Prove that the statement/formula is true for the first number

STEP 2: Assume it is true for any number k

STEP 3: Then show that it is true for the next number after k i.e. k +1

If the above steps are proved, then that simply means that it is true for all natural

numbers.

Examples: Prove the following using Mathematical Induction

1 1 1 1 n
1. + + +… + =
1 ×2 2 ×3 1 ×2 n(n+1) n+1

2. 3n − 1 is even

5 n (n+1)
3. 5 + 10 + 15 + ... + 5n =
2

4. 3n − 2n − 1 is divisible by 4

5. 1 + 3 + 5 + .. + (2n − 1) = n2

33
MTH 201 – ND 2

4.2 The Pascal Triangle

The Pascal triangle Method is an easy way for solving a binomial expansion with a

small index. A binomial is an algebraic expression of the sum or the difference of two

terms for example (a + b), (2 +x), (y + x), etc.

When a binomial has an index (power), there is a need to expand it to get the actual

expression for example, consider the binomial

(a + b)2

This can be expanded as follows:

(a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b)

= a2 + ab + ba + b2

= a2 + ab + ab + b2 since ba = ab In a similar expansion

= a2 + 2ab + b2

for (a + b)3 we have

(a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)(a + b)

= (a2 + 2ab + b2 )(a + b)

= a3 + a2b + 2a2 b + 2ab2 + b2a + b3

= a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3

Expanding in this way upto the index 5, we obtain the following table

(a + b)1 = a+b

(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

34
MTH 201 – ND 2

(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3

(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4

(a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4b + 10a3b2 + 10a2b3 + 5ab4 + b5

From the table above we can observe the following

1. The powers of a is decreasing by 1 across the terms

2. The powers of b is increasing by 1 across the terms

3. There is a special pattern made by the coefficients of the terms in the expansion as

follows:

Binomial Coefficients
(a + b)1 1 1

(a + b)2 1 2 1

(a + b)3 1 3 3 1

(a + b)4 1 4 6 6 1

(a + b)5 1 5 10 10 5 1

The coefficient in the above table forms a Triangular pattern known as the Pascal

Triangle. In the Pascal triangle, coefficients of a particular power can be found using

the coefficient of the previous power. The following table illustrates how the Pascal

triangle is generated

1 1

35
MTH 201 – ND 2

add

1 2 1

add add

1 3 3 1

Supposing you are asked to expand the binomial (x + 2) 5 using the Pascal Triangle

methods, the following steps should be followed,

Step 1: Bring out the coefficients for the power 5 using the Pascal triangle and these

are the following coefficients

1 5 10 10 5 1

Step 2: Arrange the coefficients in the following format

1 +5 + 10 + 10 +5 +1

Step 3: Pick the first term in the binomial and multiply each coefficient with it

starting from the first coefficient with the power and as you move across the terms in

the expansion reduce one from the power as follows (note that the first term in the

binomial expression is x)

1 × x5 +5 × x4 +10 × x3 +10 × x2 +5 × x1 +1 × x0

Step 4: Now pick the second term in the binomial and multiply it across the terms but

in this case starting with power zero and adding 1 to the power when multiplying

across the terms of the expansion as follows (note that the second term the binomial

expression is +2)

1 × x5 × 20 + 5 × x4 ×21 + 10 × x3 × 22 + 10 × x2 ×23 + 5 × x1 ×24 + 1 × x0 × 25

36
MTH 201 – ND 2

Step 5: Simplify the expression, thus we have

(x + 2)5 = x5 × 1 + 5x4 × 2 + 10x3 × 4 + 10x2 × 8 + 5x × 16 + 1 × 32

= x5 + 10x4 + 40x3 + 80x2 + 80x + 32

NOTE: The following are worthy to note when expanding a binomial expression

using the Pascal Triangle

1. When a term in a binomial has a negative sign for example (x − 2) 3 , (y − 3)4 , (4 −

x)7 etc, then when picking the terms for the expansion, the negative sign must be used

i.e. in the binomial (x − 3)4 , the first term is x while the second term is −3 not 3.

2. When you are asked to expand a binomial so that one of the terms should be in

ascending powers or descending powers, then you will have to rearrange if the need

arise.

For example, in the expansion of (a + b)4 we obtain

(a+b)4 = (1)a4 (b0) + (4)a3(b1) + (6)a2(b2) + (4)a1(b3) + (1)a0(b4)

We observe that the power of a is decreasing while the power of b is increasing,

therefore the expansion is in descending powers of a and also ascending powers of b.

Another way we can express the binomial (a + b)4 is (b + a)4

since

(a + b)4 = (b + a)4

Now expanding (b + a)4 we get

37
MTH 201 – ND 2

(b+a)4 = (1)b4(a0) + (4)b3(a1) + (6)b2(a2) + (4)b1(a3) + (1)b0(a4)

the expansion is now in descending powers of b and ascending powers of a. So the

position of the term is responsible for either ascending or descending power of the

term in the expansion.

You can always interchange the positions of the terms to suit the question. Some of

these are done below

(a − b)5 = (−b + a)5

(2 + x)4 = (x + 2)4

(7 − y)8 = (−y + 7)8

(−3 − b)5 = (−b − 3)5

etc.

3. The Pascal triangle method is mostly used if the power of the binomial is less than

10. If the power exceeds 10, then it becomes difficult for someone to use this method

because bringing out the coefficients may be very difficult for example if you are

given (a + 5)33 to expand, bringing out the Pascal triangle to the power of 33 may

pose a lot of problems. A more accommodating method for binomial expansion with

a large index is the Binomial Theorem.

Examples: Use the Pascal Triangle method to expand the following binomials

1. (3 − 2x)5

38
MTH 201 – ND 2

2. (x/2 − 5)7

3. (x + 3)6 in ascending powers of x

4.3 Binomial Theorem for Positive Integer Indices

Binomial theorem for positive integer indices is a simplified way of expanding

binomial express especially the ones with large indices like (a+b)59 etc. The theorem

was formed using a special way of obtaining the coefficients. This special way is

explained below.

Let us consider the coefficients of the binomial expression with powers 3, 4 and 5

Binomial Coefficients
(a + b)3 1 3 3 1

(a + b)4 1 4 6 6 1

(a + b)5 1 5 10 10 5 1

Now observe the following

Binomial Coefficients
(a + b)3 : 1 = 3C0 3 = 3C1 3 = 3C2 1 = 3C3

(a + b)4 : 1 = 4C0 4 = 4C1 6 = 4C2 4 = 4C3 1 = 4C4

(a + b)5 : 1 = 5C0 10 = 5C1 10 = 5C2 10 = 5C3 10 = 5C4 10 = 5C5

39
MTH 201 – ND 2

Therefore using this idea, the coefficients for any power can be obtained without the

Pascal Triangle. For example, the coefficients of the power 6 will be

6
C0 , 6C1 , 6C2 , 6C3 , 6C4 , 6C5 , and 6C6

Generalizing we get the Binomial theorem for positive integer indices as follows

Theorem: (Binomial Theorem for Positive Integer Indices): The theorem states that
r =n
n n
(a + b) = ∑ Cran-rbr
r =0

where n is a positive integer.

Proof:: Use Mathematical Induction to prove the theorem

Step 1:

Test for n = 1 to see whether

r =n
(a + b)n = ∑ n
Cran-rbr
r =0

Thus, we have the left hand side of the equation to be

and rhe right hand side (RHS) is

r=1
1
∑ Cra1-rbr = 1C0a1-0b0 _ 1C1a1-1b1
r =0

= 1(a)(1) + 1(1)(b)
= a+b
r=1
Therefore the LHS = (a + b)n = ∑ 1
Cra1-rbr, hence it is true for n = 1
r =0

Step 2:
Assuming it is true for n = k where k is an integer, then
r =k
(a + b)k = ∑ k
Crak-rbr
r =0

40
MTH 201 – ND 2

Step 3:
For n = k + 1, we have
(a + b)k+1 = (a + b)k . (a + b)
r =k
k
= ∑ Crak-rbr . (a + b)
r =0

r =k
k
= (a + b) . ∑ Crak-rbr
r =0

=============================================================
=============================================================
Therefore, supposing we want to expand (a + b)4 we first of all bring out the
coefficient just as we did in the Pascal triangle method but in this case, we are going
to use the binomial coefficient method as follows; the coefficients for the expansion
of (a + b)4 are
4
C0, 4C1, 4C2, 4C3, 4C4

the remaining process is the same as that of Pascal triangle method, thus we have the

following

(a + b)4 = 4C0a4b0 + 4C1a3b1 + 4C2a2b2 + 4C3a1b3 + 4C4a0b4

but we know that

4
C0 = 1, 4C1 = 4, 4C2 = 6, 4C3 = 6, 4C4 = 1

thus

(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b1 + 6a2b2 + 4a1b3 + b4

Similarly for the expansion of (a+b)5 , we have the following coefficients

5
C0, 5C1, 5C2, 5C3, 5C4, 5C5

but

41
MTH 201 – ND 2
5
C0 = 1, 5C1 = 5, 5C2 = 10, 5C3 = 10, 5C4 = 5, 4C5 = 1

thus

(a + b)4 = a5 + 5a4b1 + 10a3b2 + 10a2b3 + 5a1b4 + b5

4.3.1 Properties of Binomial Expansion

The following are some properties of binomial expansion (a+b) n where n is a positive

integer

1. The number of terms in the expansion is (n+1) which is one more than the index.

2. Every term in the expansion of (a+b)n can be written in a compact form as

n
Cran−rbr

depending on the value of r.

If r = 0, we obtain the first term i.e. nC0an−0b0 = 1 · an · 1 = an

If r = 1, we obtain the second term i.e. nC1an−1b1 = n · an-1 · b = nan-1b and so on.

3. The first and the last terms are a n and b n respectively.

4. The sum of the coefficients is

n
C0 + nC1nC2 + ... + nCn = 2n

5. nC0 = nCn and nC1 = n

42
MTH 201 – ND 2

6. Progressing from the first term to the last, the exponent of a decreases by 1 from

term to term while the exponent of b increases by 1. In addition, the sum of the

exponents of a and b in each term is n.

Examples: Use the Binomial theorem to find the first 6 terms of the following

binomials

1. (x2 − 1 )20
x

2. ( x y 1
− ) 5 in ascending powers of x
2 3

3. (2 − x )12
2

4.3.2 Finding the Constant term (independent of x) in an Expansion

Consider the following expansion

(x + 2)2 = x2 + 4x + 4

The term 4 in the expansion is called the constant term because there is no x attached

to it. It is possible to obtain the constant term in an expansion without expanding the

binomial. This is done using the compact form of the binomial (a + b)n which is
n
Cran−rbr

To get the constant term, we look for the value of r (in the compact form of a

binomial expression) that will make the power of x be 0.

43
MTH 201 – ND 2

We then substitute it and evaluate, for example, to find the constant term in the

expansion of

(x + 6)5

We first of all find the compact form which is

n
Cran−rbr

but comparing (x + 6)5 with (a + b)n , we get a = x, b = 6 and n = 5,

thus we have the compact form as

n
Cran−rbr = 5Crx5−r6r

We can see that the power of x in the compact form is 5 − r and the value of r that

will make this power 0 is r = 5, we then substitute it to obtain the constant term as
5
C5x5−565 = 1 · x0 · 65 = 65

Another example is finding the constant term of the expansion of

(x − 2 )4
x

In this case we first of all obtain the compact form, we have a = x, b = −2/x and n = 4,

thus the compact form is

n
Cran−rbr = 4Crx4−r( −2 )r
x

If you observe, we cannot get the power of x since there are 2 xs in the compact form,

so what we will do is to use the law of indices to try to bring the xs together before

taking the power, thus we have

n
Cran−rbr = 4
Crx4−r( −2 )r
x

44
MTH 201 – ND 2

= 4Crx4−r(-2)r/(x)r

= 4Crx4−r/(x)r(-2)r

= 4Crx4−r-r(-2)r

= 4Crx4−2r(-2)r

Now we have the power of x as 4 − 2r, so to get the value of r that will make this

power 0, we equate the power to 0 and find the value of r, thus we have

4 − 2r = 0

⇒ -2r = -4 -2r = -4

⇒ -2r = -4 r = -4/-2

⇒ -2r = -4 r=2

We then substitute the value of r = −2 to obtain the constant term of the expansion,

thus
4
Crx4−r(-2/x)r = 4Crx4−2r(-2)r

= 4C2x4−2(2)(-2)2 , substituting r = 2

= 6 · x0 · 4

=6·4

= 24

Thus the constant term is 24

45
MTH 201 – ND 2

Examples: Find the constant term (term independent of x) in the expansion of each

of the following binomial

1. (x2 + 3/x )9

2. (1/x − 2x)12

3. (5x − x2/2)6

4.3.3 Finding the Coefficient of a Particular term in an Expansion

Finding the coefficient of a term in an expansion is similar to finding the constant

term, the difference is that instead of finding r that will making the power of x to be

0, we find the value of r that will make the power of x to be the power of x in the

required term.

For example, consider the expansion of (x + 2)4 is

(x + 2)4 = x4 + 8x3 + 24x2 + 24x + 16

The constant term is 16

The coefficient of x in the expansion is 24

The coefficient of x2 in the expansion is 24

The coefficient of x3 in the expansion is 8

The coefficient of x4 in the expansion is 1

The coefficients can be obtained using the compact form, for instance if we want to

get the coefficient of x3 in the expansion of (x + 2)4 , we first of all find the compact

46
MTH 201 – ND 2

form then find the value of r that will make the power of x to be 3. We then substitute

it and find the coefficient. Hence we have the compact form as

4
Crx4−r(2)r

since we want the coefficient of x3 , we will look for the value of r that will make the

power of x in the compact form (i.e. 4 − r) be equal to 3. Clearly, r = 1 will make 4 −

r to be 3, thus we substitute
4
Crx4−r(2)r = 4C1x4−1(2)r

= 4 · x3 · 2

= 8x3

Therefore the coefficient of x 3 in the expansion of (x + 2)4 is 8.

Examples:

1. Find the coefficient of x2 and x6 in the expansion of (1/x − 2x)10

2. Calculate the coefficient of x4 in the expansion of (x2 − 2/x)5

3. Determine the coefficient of x−2 in the expansion of (x − 1/x)4

4.4 Binomial Theorem for Negative and Fractional Indices

Supposing we are asked to use the binomial theorem to expand expressions such as

1
= (x + 2)-4
(x+ 2)

√(2+ x ) = (2 + x)1/2

47
MTH 201 – ND 2

then, this is not going to be possible using the binomial theorem for positive integer

indices because, if we take (x + 2)−4 for example, we will have to bring out the

coefficients which are

−4
C0 , −4C1 , −4C2 , ...

but in evaluating −4C0 , we will have to find (−4)! which does not exist since we can

only find the factorial of a positive number.

This poses a problem, that is, how to expand a binomial with a negation or fractional

indices. To solve this problem, the binomial theorem for positive integer indices was

modified to accomodate the negative and fraction indices. This modification is

illustrated as follows.

The binomial theorem for positive integer indices is

(a + b)n = nC0an + nC1an−1b1 + nC2an−2b2 + nC3an−3b3 + ... + nCnbn

The main constraint that deos not allow us to use this theorem for negative or

fractional index is the fact that we can not find the factorial of a negative number or a

fraction therefore the combination cannot be found. What we will do is to find a way

to find n C r without using factorial and this is found below

n
C0 = 1 this is a known fact that any number combination 0 is 1 (can be proven)
n
C1 = n this is also a known fact that any number combination 1 is that number (can

be proven)

n n! n! n(n−1)
C2 = = =
(n −2)! 2! (n −2)! 2! 2!

48
MTH 201 – ND 2

n n! n(n−1)(n−2)(n−3) ! n(n−1)(n−2)
C3 = = =
(n −3) ! 3! (n −3)! 3 ! 3!

n n! n(n−1)(n−2)(n−3) ! n(n−1)(n−2)(n−3)
C4 = = =
(n −3) ! 3! (n −3)! 3 ! 4!

.
n
Cn = 1 this is a known fact that any number combination itself is 1 (can be proven)

Replacing the above in the binomial theorem for positive integer indices we get the

binomial theorem for negative or fractional indices as

follows

n(n−1) n-2 2 n(n−1) n-3 3

(a+b)n = an + nan-1 + a b + a b +...+bn
2! 2!

1. Write down the first three terms of the expansion of 1 / (1-x)2

2. Find the first 4 terms of the power series expansion of (1 − x )−1/2

2

4.5 Application of Binomial Theorem to Approximation

Expression like (1 + x) n can be approximated by using the first few terms for the

expansion if x is sufficiently small because higher powers of x can be negligible.

Therefore if x is sufficiently small, the expan sion of (a + x) n canhave the following

approximations

Linear approximation (a + x)n ≈ an + nan−1x

n(n−1) n-2 2
Quadratic approximation (a + x)n ≈ an + nan−1x + a x
2!

Examples:

49
MTH 201 – ND 2

1. For example, write down the first 4 terms of the expansion of (1 − x) 5 in ascending

powers of x. Use your answer to find (0.998)5 correct to 3 decimal places.

Solution:

Expanding (1 − x)5 we have

(1 − x) 5 ≈ 5C015 + 5C114(−x) + 5C213(−x)2 + 5C312(−x)3

= 1 − 5x + 10x2 − 10x3

To approximate (0.998) 5 using the expansion, compare it with (1 − x) 5 and find the

value of x, thus we have

(0.998)5 = (1 − x)5

⇒ -2r = -4 0.998 = 1 − x

⇒ -2r = -4 x = 1 − 0.998

⇒ -2r = -4 x = 0.002

therefore we have x = 0.002, hence

(1−x)5 ≈ 1−5x+10x2 −10x3 substituting the value of x we get

(0.998)5 = (1 − 0.002)5 ≈ 1 − 5(0.002) + 10(0.002)2 − 10(0.002)3

= 1 − 0.01 + 0.00004 − 0.00000008

= 0.99003992

= 0.990 to 3 d.p.

2. Find the first four terms of the expansion of (1+ x/2) 10 in ascending powers of x.

Hence, find the value of (1.002)6 correct to 5 d.p.

50