05‐11‐2020

Because learning changes everything.®

Chapter 8
Internal Forced Convection

© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.
No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

Objectives
• Obtain average velocity from a knowledge of velocity profile, and
average temperature from a knowledge of temperature profile in
internal flow.
• Have a visual understanding of different flow regions in internal
flow, and calculate hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths.
• Analyze heating and cooling of a fluid flowing in a tube under
constant surface temperature and constant surface heat flux
conditions, and work with the logarithmic mean temperature
difference.
• Understanding the relations for the velocity profile, pressure drop,
friction factor, and Nusselt number in fully developed laminar flow.
• Understanding the friction factor and Nusselt number in fully
developed turbulent flow using empirical relations, and calculate the
heat transfer rate.

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8-1 Introduction 1

• Liquid or gas flow through pipes or ducts is

commonly used in heating and cooling applications
and fluid distribution networks.
• The fluid in such applications is usually forced to
flow by a fan or pump through a flow section.
• Although the theory of fluid flow is reasonably well
understood, theoretical solutions are obtained only for
a few simple cases such as fully developed laminar
flow in a circular pipe.
• Therefore, we must rely on experimental results and
empirical relations for most fluid flow problems
rather than closed-form analytical solutions.
FIGURE 8–1
Circular pipes can withstand large
For a fixed surface area, the circular tube pressure differences between the
gives the most heat transfer for the least inside and the outside without
pressure drop. undergoing any significant distortion,
but noncircular pipes cannot.

© McGraw-Hill Education 3

8-1 Introduction 2

The fluid velocity in a pipe changes from

zero at the wall because of the no-slip
condition to a maximum at the pipe
center.
In fluid flow, it is convenient to work
with an average velocity Vavg, which
remains constant in incompressible flow
when the cross-sectional area of the pipe
is constant.
The average velocity in heating and
cooling applications may change
somewhat because of changes in density FIGURE 8–2 8 2
with temperature. Average velocity Vavg is defined as
the average speed through a cross
But, in practice, we evaluate the fluid section. For fully developed
properties at some average temperature laminar pipe flow, Vavg is half of
and treat them as constants. the maximum velocity.

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8-2 Average Velocity And Temperature 1

The value of the average (mean) velocity m& Vavg Ac    u  r  dAc

Ac
Vavg at some streamwise cross-section.
The average
g velocity y for incompressible
p
flow in a circular pipe of radius R.
  u  r  dAc
R
  u  r  2 rdr 2 R
 u  r  rdr
Ac
Vavg   0

 Ac  R 2 R2 0

In fluid flow, it is convenient to work with an

average or mean temperature Tm, which remains
constant at a cross section. The mean temperature
Tm changes in the flow direction whenever the fluid FIGURE 8–3
is heated or cooled. Actual and idealized temperature
& pTm   c pT  r   m&   c pT  r  u  r  dAc
E&fluid  mc profiles for flow in a tube (the rate
m& Ac at which energy is transported with
R
the fluid is the same for both cases).
 c T  r   m&  c pT  r   u  r  2 rdr 2 R
Tm  m& p
&p
mc
 0

Vavg  R 2  c p

Vavg R 2  T  r  u  r  rdr
0

© McGraw-Hill Education 5

8-2 Average Velocity And Temperature 2

Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Tubes

Flow in a tube can be laminar or turbulent, depending on the flow conditions.
Fluid flow is streamlined and thus laminar at low velocities
velocities, but turns turbulent
as the velocity is increased beyond a critical value.
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow does not occur suddenly; rather, it
occurs over some range of velocity where the flow fluctuates between laminar
and turbulent flows before it becomes fully turbulent.
Most pipe flows encountered in practice are turbulent.
Laminar flow is encountered when highly viscous fluids such as oils flow in
small diameter tubes or narrow ppassages.
g
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the Reynolds number as
well as the degree of disturbance of the flow by surface roughness, pipe
vibrations, and the fluctuations in the flow.
The flow in a pipe is laminar for Re < 2300, fully turbulent for Re > 10,000, and
transitional in between.

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8-2 Average Velocity And Temperature 3

Reynolds number for flow in a circular tube

Vavg D Vavg D  D  m&  4m&

Re     
v     D 2 4   D

For flow through noncircular tubes, the Reynolds

number as well as the Nusselt number, and the friction 4 Ac
Dh 
factor are based on the hydraulic diameter Dh p
4 Ac 4 D 2 4
Circular tubes : Dh   D
p D

Under most practical

conditions,
di i the
h fl
flow in
i a pipe
i FIGURE 8–4
is laminar for Re < 2300, fully The hydraulic diameter Dh  4 Ac
p
turbulent for Re > 10,000, and is defined such that it reduces to
transitional in between. ordinary diameter for circular
FIGURE 8–5 tubes. When there is a free surface,
In the transitional flow region of such as in open-channel flow, the
the flow switches between laminar wetted perimeter includes only the
and turbulent somewhat randomly. Access the text alternative for slide images. walls in contact with the fluid.

© McGraw-Hill Education 7

8-3 The Entrance Region 1

Velocity boundary layer (boundary layer): The region of the flow in which the effects of the
viscous shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity are felt.
The hypothetical boundary surface divides the flow in a pipe into two regions:
B
Boundary
d llayer region:
i Th viscous
The i effects
ff t andd the
th velocity
l it changes
h are significant.
i ifi t
Irrotational (core) flow region: The frictional effects are negligible and the velocity remains
essentially constant in the radial direction.
Hydrodynamic entrance region: The region from the pipe inlet to the point at which the velocity
profile is fully developed.
Hydrodynamic entry length Lh: The length of this region.
Hydrodynamically fully developed region: The region beyond the entrance region in which the
velocity profile is fully developed and remains unchanged.

Flow in the entrance FIGURE 8–6

region is called The development of the
hydrodynamically velocity boundary layer in
developing flow since a pipe. (The developed
this is the region average velocity profile is
where the velocity parabolic in laminar flow,
profile develops. as shown, but much flatter
or fuller in turbulent flow.)
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8-3 The Entrance Region 2

The fluid properties in internal flow are usually evaluated at the bulk mean fluid temperature, which
is the arithmetic average of the mean temperatures at the inlet and the exit: Tb  Tm ,i  Tm ,e  2

Thermal entrance region: The region of flow over which the thermal boundary layer develops
and reaches the tube center.
Thermal entry length: The length of this region.
Thermally developing flow: Flow in the thermal entrance region. This is the region where the
temperature profile develops.
Thermally fully developed region: The region beyond the thermal entrance region in which the
dimensionless temperature profile remains unchanged.
Fully developed flow: The region in which the flow is both hydrodynamically and thermally
developed.

FIGURE 8–7
The development of the thermal
boundary layer in a tube. (The fluid
in the tube is being cooled.)

© McGraw-Hill Education 9

8-3 The Entrance Region 3

Hydrodynamically fully developed:

u  r , x 
 0  u  u r 
x
Thermally fully developed:
  Ts  x   T  r , x  
 0
x  Ts  x   Tm  x   Surface heat flux
T k  T r  r  R
q&s  hx Ts  Tm   k  hx 
r rR Ts  Tm
In the thermally fully developed region of a tube, the local
convection coefficient is constant (does not vary with x).
Therefore, both the friction (which is related to wall shear
stress) and convection coefficients remain constant in the
fully developed region of a tube.
FIGURE 8–8
The pressure drop and heat flux are higher in the entrance Variation of the friction factor
regions of a tube, and the effect of the entrance region is and the convection heat transfer
always to increase the average friction factor and heat coefficient in the flow direction
transfer coefficient for the entire tube. for flow in a tube (Pr  1).
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8-3 The Entrance Region 4

Entry Lh ,laminar  0.05Re D

Lh ,turbulent  Lt ,turbulent  10 D
Lengths Lt ,laminar  0.05Re Pr D  Pr Lh ,laminar

• The Nusselt numbers and thus h values are much higher in the entrance region.
• The Nusselt number reaches a constant value at a distance of less than 10 diameters,
and thus the flow can be assumed to be fully developed for x > 10D.
• The Nusselt numbers for the uniform
surface temperature and uniform surface
heat flux conditions are identical in the
fully developed regions, and nearly
identical in the entrance regions.
regions

FIGURE 8–9
Variation of local Nusselt number
along a tube in turbulent flow for
both constant surface temperature
and constant surface heat flux

© McGraw-Hill Education 11

8-4 General Thermal Analysis 1

Rate of heat transfer The thermal conditions at the surface can be

& T  T  W 
Q& mc approximated to be
p e i
constant surface temperature (Ts= const)
S rface heat flux
Surface fl
constant surface heat flux  q&s  const 
q&s  hx Ts  Tm  W m2 
The constant surface temperature
hx the local heat transfer coefficient
condition is realized when a phase change
process such as boiling or condensation
occurs at the outer surface of a tube.
The constant surface heat flux condition is
realized when the tube is subjected to
radiation or electric resistance heating
uniformly from all directions.
FIGURE 8–10 We may have either Ts = constant or
The heat transfer to a fluid
flowing in a tube is equal to q&s  constant at the surface of a tube,but not both.
the increase in the energy
of the fluid.
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8-4 General Thermal Analysis 2

Constant Surface Heat Flux  q&s  constant 

Rate of heat transfer:

& p Te  Ti 
Q& q&s As  mc W
Mean fluid temperature at the tube exit:

q&s As
Te  Ti 
&p
mc

Surface temperature:
q&s FIGURE 8–11
q&s  h Ts  Tm   Ts  Tm  Variation of the tube surface
h and the mean fluid temperatures
along the tube for the case of
constant surface heat flux.

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8-4 General Thermal Analysis 3

dTm q&s p
& p dTm  q&s  pdx  
mc   constant
&p
dx mc
dTm dTs

dx dx

  Ts  T  1  Ts T 
 0   0 FIGURE 8–12
x  Ts  Tm  Ts  Tm  x x  Energy interactions for a differential
T dTs control volume in a tube.
 
x dx
T dTs dTm q&s p
    constant
x dx &p
dx mc

Circular tube:
FIGURE 8–13
T dTs dTm 2q&s The shape of the temperature profile
    constant
x dx dx Vavg c p R remains unchanged in the fully
developed region of a tube subjected
to constant surface heat flux.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

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8-4 General Thermal Analysis 4

Constant Surface Temperature (Ts = constant)

Rate of heat transfer to or from a fluid flowing in a tube

Q& hAs Tavg  hAs Ts  Tm avg W 

Two suitable ways of expressing Tavg
• arithmetic mean temperature difference
• logarithmic mean temperature difference

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8-4 General Thermal Analysis 5

Arithmetic mean temperature difference

Ti  Te Ts  Ti   Ts  Te  T T

Tavg  Tam    Ts  i e  Ts  Tb
2 2 2

Bulk mean fluid temperature: Tb  Ti  Te  2

By using arithmetic mean temperature difference, we assume that the mean

fluid temperature varies linearly along the tube, which is hardly ever the case
when
h Ts = constant.
This simple approximation often gives acceptable results, but not always.
Therefore, we need a better way to evaluate Tavg.

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8-4 General Thermal Analysis 6

& p dTm  h Ts  Tm  dAs

mc

dAs  pdx dTm  d Ts  Tm 

d Ts  Tm  hp
 dx
Ts  Tm &p
mc

Integrating from x = 0 (tube inlet, Tm = Ti) to

x = L (tube exit, Tm = Te)
Ts  Te hA
ln  s
Ts  Ti &p
mc

Te  Ts  Ts  Ti  exp   hAs mc

&p FIGURE 8–14
The variation of the mean
fluid temperature along the
tube for the case of
constant temperature.
FIGURE 8–12
Energy interactions for a differential
control volume in a tube.

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8-4 General Thermal Analysis 7

Ti  Te Te  Ti
Q& hAs Tln Tln  
ln Ts  Te  Ts  Ti   ln  Te Ti 
log mean temperature
difference

NTU: Number of transfer units. A measure of

the effectiveness of the heat transfer systems.
For NTU = 5, Te = Ts, and the limit for heat
transfer is reached.
A small value of NTU indicates more
opportunities for heat transfer.
Tln is an exact representation of the average
p
temperature difference
ff between
be wee thee fluid
u d andd
the surface.
When Te differs from Ti by no more than 40
percent, the error in using the arithmetic mean FIGURE 8–15
temperature difference is less than 1 percent. An NTU greater than 5 indicates that
the fluid flowing in a tube will reach
the surface temperature at the exit
regardless of the inlet temperature.

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8-5 Laminar Flow In Tubes 1

 2 rdr P  x   2 rdr P  x  dx   2 rdr  r   2 rdr  r  dr  0

Px  dx  Px  r r  dr   r r Taking the limit as dr, dx → 0 gives r dP     0
d r
r  0
dx dr dx dr
Substituting     du dr  and taking   constant

 d  du  dP
r  
r dr  dr  dx

dP 2
 w
dx R

FIGURE 8–18
Free-body diagram of a fluid
FIGURE 8–17 disk element of radius R and
Free-body diagram of a ring-shaped length dx in fully developed
differential fluid element of radius r, laminar flow in a horizontal
thickness dr, and length dx oriented tube.
coaxially with a horizontal tube in
fully developed laminar flow.
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8-5 Laminar Flow In Tubes 2

1  dP 
u r     C1 ln r  C2
4   dx 
The velocity profile u(r) is obtained by applying the boundary conditions
u
 0 att r  0  bbecause off symmetry
t about
b t the t li  andd u  0 att
th centerline
r
r  R  the no-slip condition at the tube wall  . We get
Therefore, the velocity profile in fully developed laminar flow in a tube is
parabolic with a maximum at the centerline and a minimum (zero) at the tube wall.
Also, the axial velocity u is positive for any r, and thus the axial pressure gradient
dP
must be negative (i.e., pressure must decrease in the flow direction because of viscous effects).
dx
R 2  dP   r2 
u r     1  2 
4   dx
d  R 

2 R 2 R R 2  dP   r2  R 2  dP 
Vavg 
R2  u  r  rdr  R 
0 2 0   1 
4   dx   R 2 
 rdr   
8  dx 


 r2  The maximum velocity occurs at umax  2Vavg

u  r   2Vavg  1  2 
the centerline, r = 0:
 R 
The average velocity in fully developed laminar pipe flow
Velocity profile is one-half of the maximum velocity.
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8-5 Laminar Flow In Tubes 3

Pressure Drop
A quantity of interest in the analysis of pipe flow is the pressure drop P since it is directly related
to the power requirements of the fan or pump to maintain flow.
dP P2  P1 8 LVavg 32  LVavg
 L i
Laminar flow: P=P
fl P P1  P2  
dx L R2 D2
L V
2

Pressure loss: PL  f avg

D 2
Vavg
2

where is the dynamic pressure and f is the Darcy friction factor,

2
8 w In laminar flow, the friction factor is a function of the
f  Reynolds number only and is independent of the
Vavg
2
roughness of the pipe surface.
64 64
Circular tube, laminar: f=  FIGURE 8–19
 DVavg Re
The relation for pressure loss (and head loss) is
2
PL LV one of the most general relations in fluid
hL   f avg
head loss
g D 2g mechanics, and it is valid for laminar or
turbulent flows, circular or noncircular tubes,
Pressure losses are commonly expressed and pipes with smooth or rough surfaces.
in terms of the equivalent fluid column
height, called the head loss hL.
© McGraw-Hill Education 21

8-5 Laminar Flow In Tubes 4

The head loss hL represents the additional height that the fluid needs to be 2
P L Vavg
raised by a pump in order to overcome the frictional losses in the pipe. The hL  L  f
head loss is caused by viscosity, and it is directly related to the wall shear stress. g D 2g

The required pumping power W&pump,L  V&PL  V& ghL  mgh

& L
to overcome the pressure loss:

Horizontal tube : Vavg 

 P1  P2  R 2   P1  P2  D 2 
PD 2 The average velocity for
8 L 32  L 32 L laminar flow

 P  P  R  R 2   P1  P2   D  P D 4
V& Vavg Ac  1 2
2 4
Poiseuille’s law
8 L 128 L 128 L
For a specified flow rate, the
pressure drop and thus the FIGURE 8–20
required pumping power is The pumping power
proportional to the length of the requirement for a laminar
pipe and the viscosity of the flow piping system can be
fluid, but it is inversely
proportional to the fourth power reduced by a factor of 16 by
of the radius (or diameter) of doubling the tube diameter.
the pipe.

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8-5 Laminar Flow In Tubes 5

Temperature Profile and the Nusselt Number

& T  Q&  Q&  0
& T  mc
mc p x p x  dx r r  dr

m&  uAc   u  2 rdr 

Tx dx  Tx 1 Q&r dr  Q&r
 c pu 
dx 2 rdx dr
T 1 Q&
u 
x 2  c p rdx r

Q&   T    T 
  k 2 rdx
d   2 kdx
kd r 
r r  r  r  r 
T    T 
  k cp u  r  FIGURE 8–21
x r dr  r  The differential volume element used
in the derivation of energy balance
The rate of net energy transfer to the control
relation.
volume by mass flow is equal to the net rate
of heat conduction in the radial direction.
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8-5 Laminar Flow In Tubes 6

Constant Surface Heat Flux

T dTs dTm 2q&s
    constant
x dx dx Vavg c p R

4q&s  r 2  1 d  dT 
1  2   r 
kR  R  r dr  dr 
Circular tube, laminar  q&s  constant  :
q&s  2 r 4 
T  r  2   C1r  C2
kR  4R 
hD
Applying the boundary conditions
T
0
Nu   4.36
x k
at r = 0 (because of symmetry) and T = Ts at r = R
Therefore,
Th f for
f fully
f ll developed
d l d laminar
l i
q&R  3 r 2 r4  flow in a circular tube subjected to
T  Ts  s   2  4 
k  4 R 4R  constant surface heat flux, the Nusselt
11 q&s R number is a constant. There is no
Tm  Ts  dependence on the Reynolds or the
24 k
24 k 48 k k Prandtl numbers.
q&s  h Ts  Tm  h 
11 R 11 D
 4.36
D
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8-5 Laminar Flow In Tubes 7

Constant Surface Temperature

hD
Circular tube, laminar Ts  constant  : Nu   3.66
k
The thermal conductivity k for use in the Nu relations should be evaluated at the bulk mean fluid
temperature.
For laminar flow, the effect of surface roughness on the friction factor and the heat transfer
coefficient is negligible.

Laminar Flow in Noncircular Tubes

Nusselt number relations are given in Table 8-1
for fully developed laminar flow in tubes of
various cross sections.
The Reynolds and Nusselt numbers for flow in
these tubes are based on the hydraulic diameter Dh  4 Ac p ,
FIGURE 8–22
In laminar flow in a tube with
constant surface temperature, Once the Nusselt number is available, the convection
both the friction factor and the heat transfer coefficient is determined from
heat transfer coefficient remain h  kNu Dh .
constant in the fully developed
region.
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8-5 Laminar Flow In Tubes 8

Table 8-1
Nusselt number and friction factor for fully developed laminar flow in tubes of various cross sections

D h  4 Ac p , Re  Vavg Dh v , and Nu  hDh k 

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8-5 Laminar Flow In Tubes 9

Developing Laminar Flow in the Entrance Region

For a circular tube of length L subjected to constant surface temperature, the average
Nusselt number for the thermal entrance region:
0.065  D L  Re Pr
Entry region, laminar : Nu  3.66 
1  0.04  D L  Re Pr 
23

The average Nusselt number is larger at the entrance region, and it approaches
asymptotically to the fully developed value of 3.66 as L → .
When the difference between the surface and the fluid temperatures is large:
13 0.14
 Re Pr D   b 
Entry region, laminar : Nu  1.86    
 L   s 
All properties are evaluated at the bulk mean fluid temperature, except for s, which is
evaluated at the surface temperature.
The average Nusselt number for the thermal entrance region of flow between isothermal
parallel plates of length L is
0.03  Dh L  Re Pr
Entry region, laminar : Nu  7.54 
1  0.016  Dh L  Re Pr 
23
Re ≤ 2800
© McGraw-Hill Education 27

8-5 Laminar Flow In Tubes 10

FIGURE 8–24
Local Nusselt numbers in the entry and
fully developed regions for laminar flow
in a circular tube for hydrodynamically
developed and thermally developing flow.
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8-6 Turbulent Flow In Tubes 1

f   0.790 ln Re  1.64 
2
Smooth tubes : 3000  Re  5  106
First Petukhov equation
Nu  0.125 f Re Pr1 3 Chilton–Colburn analogy
f  0.184 Re 0.2
 0.7  Pr  160 
Nu  0.023Re0.8 Pr1 3   Colburn equation
 Re  10,000 
Nu  0.023Re0.8 Pr n Dittus–Boelter equation
n = 0.4 for heating and 0.3 for cooling
When the variation in properties is large due to a large temperature difference
0.14
   0.7  Pr  16, 700 
Nu  0.027 Re Pr  b 
0.8 13
 
 s   Re  10, 000 
All properties are evaluated at Tb except s, which is evaluated at Ts.

© McGraw-Hill Education 29

8-6 Turbulent Flow In Tubes 2

Nu 
 f 8  Re Pr  0.5  Pr  2000  Second Petukhov
 4 6
1.07  12.7  f 8   Pr 2 3  1 equation
0.5
 10  Re  5  10 

Nu 
 f 8  Re 1000  Pr  0.5  Pr  2000  Gnielinski relation
 6
1  12.7  f 8   Pr 2 3  1
0.5
 3  10 3
 Re  5  10 

Liquid metals, Ts  constant: Nu  4.8  0.0156 Re 0.85 Prs0.93

Liquid metals, q&s  constant: Nu  6.3  0.0167 Re 0.85 Prs0.93

 0.004  Pr  0.01 104  Re  106

The relations above are not very sensitive to the thermal conditions at the tube
surfaces and can be used for both Ts = constant and qs = constant.

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8-6 Turbulent Flow In Tubes 3

Fully Developed Transitional Flow Heat Transfer

In some cases; the flow is in this transitional zone. The methods for handling turbulent
flow can easily be adopted to deal with in this region.
The recommendation is to continue to use Gnielinski’s ((1976)) correlation ((Eq.
q 8–71))
along with f values determined from the following expressions for two common flow
geometries, the round tube and the parallel plate channel.
These correlations can be applied over the Reynolds number ranges listed and are
reasonably accurate for any thermal boundary condition, including the uniform wall
temperature and uniform wall heat flux cases.
For most engineering applications, the following expressions are suitable.

Smooth round pipe :

f  3.03  1012 Re3  3.67  108 Re 2  1.46  104 Re 0.151
which is valid for 2300  Re  4500
Smooth, parallel - plate channel :
f  6.38  1013 Re3  1.17  108 Re 2  6.69  105 Re  0.147
which is valid for 2300  Re  8000

© McGraw-Hill Education 31

8-6 Turbulent Flow In Tubes 4

Rough Surfaces
The friction factor in fully developed turbulent pipe flow depends on the Reynolds number and
the relative roughness  D , which is the ratio of the mean height of roughness of the pipe to
the pipe diameter.
diameter

1  D 2.51 
 2.0 log  
 3.7 Re f   turbulent flow  Colebrook equation
f  
Moody chart is given in the appendix as Fig. A–20.
It presents the Darcy friction factor for pipe flow as a function of the Reynolds number and
 D over a wide range.

1  6.9   D 1.11
1 11
 An approximate
A i explicit
li i relation
l i
 1.8 log     for f was given by S. E. Haaland
f  Re  3.7  

In turbulent flow, wall roughness increases the heat transfer coefficient h

by a factor of 2 or more. The convection heat transfer coefficient for rough tubes can be
calculated approximately from Gnielinski relation or Chilton–Colburn analogy by using the
friction factor determined from the Moody chart or the Colebrook equation.

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8-6 Turbulent Flow In Tubes 5

FIGURE 8–27
The friction factor is
*Smooth surface. All values are for minimum for a smooth
Re  106 and are calculated from Eq. 8-76. pipe and increases with
roughness.

© McGraw-Hill Education 33

8-6 Turbulent Flow In Tubes 6

Table 8-2 Table 8-3

Standard sizes for Schedule 40 steel pipes Equivalent roughness values for new
commercial pipes*
Nominal Size, in Actual Inside
Diameter, in Material Roughness
Roughness, Roughness
Roughness,
ε in ft ε in mm
⅛ 0.269
Glass, plastic 0 (smooth)
14 0.364
Concrete 0.003 - 0.03 0.9 - 9
⅜ 0.493
Wood stave 0.0016 0.5
12 0.622
Rubber, smoothed 0.000033 0.01
34 0.824
Copper or brass tubing 0.000005 0.0015
1 1.049
Cast iron 0.00085 0.26
11 1 610
1.610
2
Galvanized iron 0.0005 0.15
2 2.067
21
Wrought iron 0.00015 0.046
2 2.469
Stainless steel 0.000007 0.002
3 3.068
5 5.047 Commercial steel 0.00015 0.045

10 10.02 *the uncertainty in these values can be as much as ±

60 percent.

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8-6 Turbulent Flow In Tubes 7

Developing Turbulent Flow in the Entrance Region

The entry lengths for turbulent flow are typically short, often just 10 tube diameters long,
and thus the Nusselt number determined for fully developed turbulent flow can be used
approximately for the entire tube.
This simple approach gives reasonable results for pressure drop and heat transfer for long
tubes and conservative results for short ones.
Correlations for the friction and heat transfer coefficients for the entrance regions are
available in the literature for better accuracy.
Turbulent Flow in Noncircular Tubes
Pressure drop and heat transfer characteristics of turbulent
flo in tubes
flow t bes are dominated by
b the very
er thin viscous
isco s
sublayer next to the wall surface, and the shape of the core
region is not of much significance.
The turbulent flow relations given above for circular tubes FIGURE 8–28
can also be used for noncircular tubes with reasonable In turbulent flow, the velocity
profile is nearly a straight line
accuracy by replacing the diameter D in the evaluation of in the core region, and any
the Reynolds number by the hydraulic diameter significant velocity gradients
Dh  4 Ac p . occur in the viscous sublayer.
© McGraw-Hill Education 35

8-6 Turbulent Flow In Tubes 8

Flow through Tube Annulus

4 Ac 4  D0  Di  4
2 2

Dh    D0  Di The hydraulic
p   D0  Di  diameter of annulus

For laminar flow, the convection coefficients for the FIGURE 8–29
inner and the outer surfaces are determined from A double-tube heat exchanger that
consists of two concentric tubes.
hi Dh hD
Nu i  and Nu 0  0 h Table 8-4
k k Nusselt number for fully developed
For fully developed turbulent flow, hi and ho are approximately equal laminar flow in an annulus with one
surface isothermal and the other
to each other, and the tube annulus can be treated as a noncircular duct adiabatic
with a hydraulic diameter of Dh = Do − Di.
The Nusselt number can be determined from a suitable turbulent flow Di D0 Nui Nu0
relation such as the Gnielinski equation
equation. To improve the accuracy
accuracy,
Nusselt number can be multiplied by the following correction factors 0 - 3.66
when one of the tube walls is adiabatic and heat transfer is through the 0.05 17.46 4.06
other wall:
0.10 11.56 4.11
0.16
D  0.25 7.37 4.23
Fi  0.86  i   outer wall adiabatic 
 D0  0.50 5.74 4.43
0.6
D  1.00 4.86 4.86
F0  1  0.14  i   inner wall adiabatic 
 D0  Source: Kays and Perkins,1972
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8-6 Turbulent Flow In Tubes 9

Heat Transfer Enhancement

Tubes with rough surfaces have much higher heat
transfer coefficients than tubes with smooth
surfaces.
Heat transfer in turbulent flow in a tube has been
increased by as much as 400 percent by roughening
the surface. Roughening the surface, of course, also
increases the friction factor and thus the power
requirement for the pump or the fan.
The convection heat transfer coefficient can also be FIGURE 88–30 30
increased by inducing pulsating flow by pulse Tube surfaces are often
generators, by inducing swirl by inserting a twisted roughened, corrugated,
tape into the tube, or by inducing secondary flows or finned in order to
by coiling the tube. enhance convection heat
transfer.

© McGraw-Hill Education 37

8-6 Turbulent Flow In Tubes 10

Summary
Introduction
Average Velocity and Temperature
• Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Tubes.
General Thermal Analysis
• Constant Surface Heat Flux.
• Constant Surface Temperature.
The Entrance Region
• Entryy Lengths.
g
Laminar Flow in Tubes
• Pressure Drop.
• Temperature Profile and the Nusselt Number.
• Constant Surface Heat Flux.

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8-6 Turbulent Flow In Tubes 11

• Constant Surface Temperature.

• Laminar Flow in Noncircular Tubes.
• Developing
p g Laminar Flow in the Entrance Region.
g

Turbulent Flow in Tubes

• Fully Developed Transitional Flow Heat Transfer.
• Rough Surfaces.
• Developing Turbulent Flow in the Entrance Region.
• Turbulent Flow in Noncircular Tubes.
• Flow through Tube Annulus.
• Heat Transfer Enhancement.

© McGraw-Hill Education 39

Problem 1

In a thermal system, water enters a 25-mm-diameter

and 23-m-long circular tube with a mass flow rate of
0 1 kg/s at 25
0.1 25°C
C. The heat transfer from the tube
surface to the water can be expressed in terms of heat
flux as . The coefficient a is 400 W/m3, and the axial
distance from the tube inlet is x measured in meters.
Determine (a) an expression for the mean temperature
Tm(x) of the water, (b) the outlet mean temperature of
the water
water, and (c) the value of a uniform heat flux on
the tube surface that would result in the same outlet
mean temperature calculated in part (b). Evaluate
water properties at 35°C.

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Solution 1

© McGraw-Hill Education 41

Solution 1

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Problem 2
Consider a 10-m-long smooth rectangular tube, with a
= 50 mm and b = 25 mm, that is maintained at a
constant
co sta t surface
su ace temperature.
te pe atu e. Liquid
qu d water
wate eenters
te s tthee
tube at 20°C with a mass flow rate of 0.01 kg/s.
Determine the tube surface temperature necessary to
heat the water to the desired outlet temperature of
80°C.

© McGraw-Hill Education 43

Solution 2

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8-4 General Thermal Analysis 6

& p dTm  h Ts  Tm  dAs

mc

dAs  pdx dTm  d Ts  Tm 

d Ts  Tm  hp
 dx
Ts  Tm &p
mc

Integrating from x = 0 (tube inlet, Tm = Ti) to

x = L (tube exit, Tm = Te)
Ts  Te hA
ln  s
Ts  Ti &p
mc

Te  Ts  Ts  Ti  exp   hAs mc

&p FIGURE 8–14
The variation of the mean
fluid temperature along the
tube for the case of
constant temperature.
FIGURE 8–12
Energy interactions for a differential
control volume in a tube.

© McGraw-Hill Education 45

Solution 2

© McGraw-Hill Education 46

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