Mr.

Hussein Khaled
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 Table of Contents

Unit 1: Unit 3:
 Physical Quantities …………………………….....3  General Electricity and Charging ….……..81
 Measurements………………………………..........6  Electric Circuits ……………………………….……84
 Kinematics (Motion) ……………………..…..…19  Series VS Parallel connections ………….….93
 Motion Graphs ……………..……………….……..22  Power and Energy……………….……………….103
 Forces……………………………………………………..28  Controlling Current in the circuit ………..103
 Springs and Deformation (Hooke’s Law)..34  Fuse and Circuit breaker …………..………..173
 Energy and Power………………………………….39
 Work Done ………………………………………......48
 Power ……………………………………………………49
 Efficiency……………………………………………….51
 Sources of Electricity…………………………….52
 Pressure ……………………………………………..56

Unit 2: Unit 4:

 States of Matter …………………………………..59  Waves Classifications and Behavior …..109

 Heating and Cooling……………………………..60  Light Waves ……………………..…………………123
 Thermometers ……………………………….…….64  Lenses ……………………………….………………..127
 Evaporation ………………………………………….65  Sound Waves and Echo ………………………132
 Thermal Expansion and Contraction ……68
 Heat Transfer ……………………………………….70

List of Rules: Page 139

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 Unit 1
Physical Quantities

Any factor that can be measured is called Physical Quantity, Ex: Length, Area,
Volume, Mass, Density, Temperature, Time, Speed … etc.

To study any process, we have to make some measurements to be able to study

the effect of a certain parameter on another, for example: if we would like to
measure the change in temperature of water while being heated and how this
temperature changes by time, so we have two parameters to be measured which
are “Time” and “Temperature” so, these are called physical quantities. The unit of
time is seconds, while the units of temperature are oC.

 Sometimes the physical quantity is a factor of two or more other physical

quantities for example; speed is defined as the distance move per “time”

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Speed=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
 Units of Speed= m/ sec

Experimentation:
During any experiment, we have to be cautious of what Physical Quantities we
want to measure, and we have to control any external factors to be able to get
accurate results and draw a precise conclusion.

We can measure our target physical quantity more than once to take the average
for more accuracy.

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠
Average =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠

Then we can analyze the result by drawing a graph and plotting our points.

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 Example: Design an experiment to show how temperature changes with time
during heating water.

The experiment will be designed as shown:

1- The first step is to define your physical quantities that will be measured
during the experiment.
2- Then decide the apparatus (equipment) you will need.
3- Procedures/ Steps of the experiment:
 Bring a beaker with some water.
 Put a thermometer in it.
 Start the stop watch at the same time with starting the Bunsen burner.
 Record the time each 30 sec.
4- Results:
 Record the data in a table.
 Plot a graph.

Temp/°C

Time/sec

5- Finally we can draw a conclusion of our experiment or define a relationship

between our physical quantities (time, temperature) based on the graph.

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 We have two famous types of relationships:

 Direct Proportion  Inverse Proportion

Y Y

 As X increase, Y increase X  As X increase, Y decrease X

 When X=0, Y=0 (with the same rate)
 X/Y or Y/X = Constant at any  (X)*(Y) = Constant
point.
 Graph is straight line, passing
through origin.

Significant Figures:

Trailing Zeros (on the right) are only counted if there is a decimal point.
Leading Zeros (on the left) are not counted.
Captive Zeros (at the middle) are counted.
1534 ……. 4 sig. fig 1500.0 …….. 5 sig. fig
Mr. Hussein Khaled 1530 ……..3 sig. fig 0.205 ………. 3 sig. fig
5
1500 ……..2 sig. fig 0.2050 ……. 4 sig. fig
 Measurements
1. Length:
Length can be expressed in different terms as distance, height, width, thickness,
radius or diameter. Length can be measured using different instruments:

 Meter Rule
 Tape meter

Meter Rule: can measure to the nearest 1mm, can be used to measure lengths up
to 100cm (1m).

 Ruler has to be parallel and close to the object you are

measuring
 Start reading from the zero mark on the ruler.
 Accuracy = 1mm.

Tape meter/ Measuring Tape: used for large distance (ex:

playground length)

Some measurement techniques:

a) To measure the thickness of a paper in a 1000 pages
book, we can measure the thickness of the 1000 pages at
one time, the divide by 1000 to get more accurate
results.
 You can repeat by measuring from different points, in case
the thickness is not constant.

b) Try to take any reading perpendicular by to

avoid parallax error.

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 c) To measure circumference of a cylinder or a cup.
Get a string and wrap it around the cup several turns, then straighten it
on a ruler and divide its length by the number of turns.

𝑳
Circumference =
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔
Important Hints:

 Don’t leave gaps between turns.

 The string should be inextensible
 As the number of turns increase  you can get more accuracy.

d) To measure the thickness or the diameter of a wire, wrap it around the

pen while leaving no gaps, then use a ruler

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Diameter of a wire =
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠

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 e) Diameter of a ball: use 2 wooden blocks and put the ball between them

 If it is a small ball, we can use many balls and divide the length by
their number to get more accurate results

Units of Length:

Extra Hint: 1 dm = 10 cm

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 2. Area: S

Square: S
The area is the shaded part

Area of square= S x S= S2
L
Rectangle:
W
Area= L x W

Triangle:

Area= ½ x b x h h

To measure any area we need to measure the length of the sides of the area, and
this is done by one of the length instruments discussed in the previous part

Units of Area:

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 3. Volume:
It is the space occupied by the body.

a) Regular body: we can calculate its volume by using the following:

 Cube S

S V=s x s x s= s3

 Cuboid L
W
h V= L x w x h

 Cylinder r V=π r2 h

h = Area of cross-section X Height (h)

Regarding the measuring instruments of the Volume, we need a meter rule to

measure the dimensions of the sides then apply the equations above.

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 b) Irregular bodies or liquids:

Ex: Rock or a statue we use a measuring cylinder

Displacement Method:

V1=30cm3 V2=40cm3 Or: using Overflow

Rock volume= V2-V1=40-30=10cm3 vessel to measure the
 Try to put the stone carefully volume of the rock.
 Avoid spillages
 Avoid parallax error

If we have 2 boxes, one is empty and the other contains books. As long as they
have the same dimensions, so they will have the same volume regardless what do
they contain inside.

Units of Volume:

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Example: If we have 10 sheets of straight cardboard and 10 sheets of corrugated
cardboard, which one of the two sets will have larger volume?

Answer: The cardboard has larger volume

as it has gaps between the layers.
Measuring Cylinders:
 Unit Cm3
 Can’t measure volume of very large objects (as buildings).

Bottom of Top of
meniscus meniscus

In case of Water and most types of In case of Mercury Top of the

liquids Bottom meniscus meniscus

 Take care of the marks on the cylinder, each mark can represent 0.5 cm3 or
1 cm3 or 2 cm3 or more. This depends on the scale.

 The narrower the measuring cylinder the more accurate it is, as it gives
larger change in height of water, but choose its volume ≅ 3-4 times the
volume of the object.

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  If the object is floating, we can use a metal sinker with a known volume.

Volume of target object = Final volume-[initial volume + volume of metal sinker]

Hint: You can get an object that sinks in fresh water, but
it floats in salty water ……. As Salty water is more dense.
4. Mass

Mass is defined as the amount of matter in the body Or it can be

defined as the property that resists the change in speed and direction.
Units of Mass:

 Mass Also can be defined as

the property that resists the
change in motion.

 Mass (kg) ≠ Weight (N)

 Mass is measured by a balance.

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 a) Spring Balance (Newton meter):

 The object is hanged by a hook.

 To get the mass in Kg, divide the reading by 10, as it is
measured in Newton (N)

1 Kg = 10 N (on Earth)

 It measures weight
 Weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity
 W=mxg on Earth g= 10 m/sec2 or 10 N/Kg

Hint: Any object will have the same mass on any planet; however its weight will
change from one planet to another depending on the gravitational acceleration (g).
So a spring carrying the same object on different planet will give different extension.

b) Digital balance/ Top Pan balance:

 For Solids:

 For Liquids: use a cylinder, but find its mass while being empty first.

Mass of liquid= 30g-20g =10g

c) Pivot balance (Beam Balance):

Relies on the concept of comparing masses.

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 5. Density
It is defined as the mass per unit volume of the object.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐾𝑔 𝑔
Density= ( 𝑜𝑟 )
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚3 𝑐𝑚3

 Density is directly proportional to mass and inversely proportional to

volume. 𝐾𝑔 ÷ 1000 𝑔
As Mass Density 𝑚3 𝑐𝑚3
As Volume Density
× 1000

 The Density is comparing the mass of the body by its volume.

 If we have 2 liquids mixed together, the liquid with higher density will move
downwards and the one with less density will move upwards, and the same
applies for gases.
 Density of water = 1000kg/m3, regardless of its container (in a cup or a
cylinder or a bottle). Density of Air = 1.2 kg/m3.

Hint: The Density of any material doesn’t change, unless it is heated, cooled or
pressurized. When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of its molecules
increases, so the intermolecular spacing increases (Volume increases) so density
decreases.

Volume increases

Mass same

Density decreases

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  Changing the state between solid, liquid and gases also affects the density.

Volume increases

Density decreases

How to measure the Density (ρ)?

𝑀 Balance
a. Regular shape: Density (ρ) =
𝑉 Dimensions

𝑀 Balance
b. Irregular shapes: : Density (ρ) =
𝑉 Measuring cylinder

6. Time

 When we need to get the Rate of anything so, we need to measure Time.
Example: If we need to measure the rate of cooling of a cup of tea, we will need a
thermometer to record the temperature and stopwatch to record the time.

Another Example: If we need to measure the Speed, (which is the rate of change
in distance)  so we need to record the Time and the Distance.

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  Time is measured by stopwatch.
 There are analogue and digital time devices, as
shown in figure.
 Light gate connected to electronic timer is used for rapidly moving objects.

How to measure the time of a swing of pendulum [Periodic time (T)]:

 Hang the Bob at a certain starting position, then let it start
swinging and Start stopwatch at the same time.
 Let the Pendulum swing for 50 times (50 complete oscillations).
 Stop the Stopwatch when it returns back to the same original
position… (Make a Fiducial mark)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
T= 50

 Units of Time :

7. Temperature
The most common measuring device of temperature is the
Thermometer (Liquid in glass Thermometer):

 The Units of temperature: °C

 You have to look perpendicular to the reading of the Thermometer to avoid
Parallax error.
 Wait until the temperature stops changing. – Apply gentle stirring.

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SI system of units:
 We can express any physical quantity in terms of its basic unit.

Base units:

Length Meters (m)

Mass Kilograms (Kg)
Time Seconds (s)
Electric Current Ampere (A)
Temperature Degrees Celsius (°C) or Kelvin

Prefixes:
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo K 103
Centi c 10-2
Milli m 10-3
Micro µ 10-6

Giga Mega Kilo Centi Milli Micro

Example: 4 milliseconds (ms) = 4x10-3 sec

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 Kinematics (Motion)
 It is a study of a body in motion, which can be Linear motion or
Non-linear motion.
Linear motion: the motion along a straight line.

 Ex: Free ball, or a box sliding over an inclination

Non-linear motion: like Rotary or Circular motion as shown.

Direction: ACW

 The object can move Clockwise or counter-Clockwise

(Anti-clockwise).
 The object facing a continuous changing in direction
of motion.

Speed - Velocity:
 Speed= Distance/ time (without direction)
 Velocity= Distance/time (with direction)

 Two cars can have the same speed but different velocities if they are
moving in different directions.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Average speed =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

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 Example:

30 km

50 Km 10 km
Total time = 3 hours
50+20+30+40+10
 Average speed= = 50 Km/hr
3
How to change the units from (Km/hr) to (m/s) ?

Convert Km to m = 150 X 1000 = 150000m

Convert Hours to seconds = 3 x 60x 60 = 10800 sec
150000
= = 13.9 m/s
10800

Acceleration
 It is defined as the change in velocity per unit time.

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑣−𝑢)

Acceleration= (m/sec2)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
 Change in velocity = final velocity (v) – initial velocity (u)

Example:
If a car increases its velocity from 10m/sec to 30m/sec in 10 sec

𝑣−𝑢 30−10
Acc. = = = 2 m/sec2
𝑡 10
 As acceleration is positive number, so the speed is increasing.

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Example:
If a car decreases its velocity from 30m/sec to 10m/sec in 10 sec

𝑣−𝑢 10−30
Acc. = = = -2 m/sec2
𝑡 10
 As acceleration is a negative number, so the speed is decreasing or tis is
called “Deceleration”.
Acceleration

+ve value -ve value Zero

velocity increases velocity decreases velocity is constant

The acceleration can be constant during the whole journey, or it can

change from time to another, as shown in the following example.

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

Example:
Speed 0 20 50 60
Time 0 10 20 30

20−0 2
Acc. 1=
10−0 = 2 m/s
 We might have a decreasing acceleration, but
50−20
Acc. 2= = 3 m/s2 still the velocity is increasing (but at a lower
20−10
rate) as shown between stages 2 and 3.
60−50
Acc. 3= = 1 m/s2
30−20

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 Analyzing Motion using Graphs

y
General Hints:
B C
Slope is a measure of the steepness 30

or inclination of a line. 20

𝑦2−𝑦1 10
Slope = (Gradient)
𝑥2−𝑥1

A x
1 2 3 4
Slope AB ?
𝑦2−𝑦1 30−0 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑌
If A (0,0), B(2,30)  slope= = = 15 ( 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 )
𝑥2−𝑥1 2−0

 Any straight line has constant slope.

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 We have 5 Common shapes of slopes:
1- Any straight line parallel to x-axis  slope=0
y

x
2- Positive Constant slope

Hint:

Any parallel lines have the

x
same slope!
3- Negative Constant slope

4- A curve becoming steeper to y-axis Slope is increasing

y

5- A curve becoming steeper to x-axis Slope is decreasing

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 Distance – Time graphs
There are two main types of graphs :
Speed (or Velocity) – Time graphs

Distance-time graphs:
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
Slope = = Speed
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

Constant slope Slope= 0

Constant speed Speed=0

Slope decreasing Slope increasing

Speed decreasing Speed increasing

“Deceleration” “Acceleration”

o In distance-time graphs, the slope represents the speed of the

body.

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 Speed-time graph:
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
Slope = = Acceleration
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

speed

- Constant slope
- Constant acceleration
- Speed increasing at constant rate.

time

speed

- Slope constant but negative.

- Acceleration (-ve) constant
- Constant Deceleration
- Speed decreasing at constant rate.

time

speed
- Slope =0
- Acceleration =0
- Constant speed

time
speed

- Slope decreasing (steeper towards x-axis)

- Acceleration decreasing
- Speed increasing (with lower rate)
time Not a decreasing Speed !!

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 speed
- Slope increasing (steeper toward y-axis)
- Acceleration increasing
- Speed increasing (with higher rate)

time
Out of Scope:

speed - Slope increasing (in negative

direction)
- Increasing deceleration

time

speed
- Slope decreasing (from negative
toward zero)
- Decreasing deceleration

time

Hint: If we have two speed time graphs, which one has the higher value of
acceleration?
speed speed

(1)Has higher
acceleration than (2)
as it is more steep
(higher slope).

time time
(1) (2)
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Example: Analyze all the stages of the graph shown below

speed
D
Motion:
80
This is a speed- time graph  Slope = Acceleration.
60
B
C AB  constant positive acceleration, speed
40

20 BC  zero acceleration, speed constant

A
0 CD  constant positive acceleration, speed
0 10 20 30 40
𝑦2−𝑦1 40−20
time Acceleration at AB= slope =
𝑥2−𝑥1
= = 2 m/𝑠 2
10−0

𝑦2−𝑦1 80−40
Acceleration at CD = slope =
𝑥2−𝑥1
= = 4 m/𝑠 2
40−30

Hint: Stage CD has higher acceleration than AB…

because CD is steeper !

How to calculate distance from speed-time graph?

Distance = Area under the graph

1
Distance from point A B= 20x10 + x 10 x 20 = 300 m
2

Rectangle Triangle

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 Forces
A force is any push or pull. It can cause changes in distance, speed, and shape of a
body.

 It cannot affect mass or density (of solids).

 It comes in different forms as: weight, friction, Tension, Air resistance or
Up-thrust.
 It’s a Vector quantity, measured in Newtons (N).

What if we have more than one force acting on the body?

 We have to calculate the Resultant Force: It is a single force that has the
effect of all the forces acting on the body together.
 If the forces are
parallel, we can add
them or subtract them:

Newton’s First Law:

A body stays in rest or uniform motion unless it is acted upon by Resultant Force.

Resultant Force (Fr) =0 in 2 cases

Body at rest/ Stationary Body moving in a

straight line with
N= 100N
These two constant speed
cases are called
Equilibrium as acc=0, Fr =0
“F” resultant =
ZERO
W= 100N

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 Newton’s Second Law:
F= m x a

Resultant force (N) Mass (Kg) Acceleration (m/s2)

Resultant force (Fr) = Driving force – Resisting Force

o if Fr (+ve) acc (+ve)
o if Fr (-ve) acc (-ve) Constant speed
o if Fr (zero) acc (zero) Equilibrium
Zero speed

Examples:
F: Resultant force
1)
D: Driving force
R= 200N D=1000N
R: Resisting force

F = D-R= 1000-200 = 800N

F (+ve), Acc (+ve), Speed increases

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 2) R=800 N D =800N

Direction of motion
F = D-R= 800-800 = 0 N

F=0, Acc = 0, constant Speed

3)

R=800 N D= 500 N

F= D-R= 500-800 = -300 N

F (-ve), Acc (-ve), Speed decreases

It will eventually stop !

Newton’s Third Law: For Every action there is a reaction equal in

magnitude but opposite in direction.

Types of Forces:
 Weight :
 Or so called gravitational force.
 It is different from the “mass”.
 It describes how the earth attracts the body.

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 Weight = Mass x gravitational acceleration

W = m x g

Kg m/s2 (or N/Kg) (g =10 on Earth)

N

 g is different on other planets, but constant on Earth.

 g is always directed downwards vertically.
 Mass is measured in Kg. It has same value anywhere.
 While the weight of an object can have different values in different places.

During Free-Fall (ignoring air resistance), the acceleration = g = 10 m/s2

(Downwards), so if a part is thrown down its speed increases.

If it is thrown upwards its speed decrease until it reaches zero, then it accelerates
down and its velocity increases (as the acceleration due to gravity is downwards)

 Normal Contact Force:

 The object must be on a surface.

 This normal force is always perpendicular to the surface.

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  Frictional Force:
This is the resistance force between two contacting surfaces moving against each
other.

Ex: pushing a box on the floor

Friction force acting on the moving object is in opposite direction to the

motion and parallel to the floor.

Motion

As the roughness of the floor or the object increase, the Friction Force increases.

Friction force depends on the roughness of the surfaces and the weight of the
object.

 Up-thrust Force (u):

It is a vertically upwards force acts on a body when it is fully or partially
submerged in a liquid.
u
u
As the liquid becomes denser, it
creates larger up-thrust force (u)

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  Air Resistance Force:
It is the force resisting the motion of body through fluids (can be Air or Liquids).

It is called Drag Force.

Drag Force Motion

Motion
Drag Force

As speed , Drag force

As surface area , Drag force

 Tension Force:
It is the pulling force exerted by ropes or
strings.

Hints:
 If a body experiences a force Perpendicular to the direction of its motion,
the object will move in a curve.
 To increase the stability of an object we have to increase the surface area
of its base and Lower its centre of mass.

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 Springs and Deformation
Deformation: it is the change in shape or length of an object due to applied
force. It can be stretched, compressed, bent, or twisted.

Deformation

“Plastic Deformation”
“Elastic Deformation”
It will not return to its original
The object will return to its original shape when the shape. It is permanently deformed.
force is removed.

Extension (x) = Final length(Lf) - Original length(Lo)

Directly Force
Proportional

Extension

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Elastic Deformation: Calculate the extension of the
two loaded springs?
Example:

F=0

x=0

L0 = 10cm F=100N

Lf = 15cm

x = Lf – Lo F=200N

=15-10= 5cm Lf = 20 cm,  x =10 cm

Find the Extension for load 300N ?

So we can make a table:

Force (N) Measured length (Lf) Extension (x) (cm)

(cm)
0 10 0
100 15 5
200 20 10
300 A? B?

 Now we can get the final length (Lf) and extension (x) due to 300N
 We can get (x) using cross-multiplication between F and x.
 But we can’t get (Lf) using cross-multiplication.
 This is because F and x are directly proportional while F and Lf are not.

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 Then we can get “B?” by adding the initial length (10cm) to the extension at
300N 15 cm … So Total Length= 10+15=25cm. F x
200 10
300 ? (y)

Important Hint: We make Cross-multiplication between Force and Extension,

But Not between Force and Length!!

Hooke’s Law:
Force and extension are directly proportional up to Elastic limit or Limit of
proportionality. After this limit, the object experience plastic deformation.

Hooke’s law is obeyed

from A to B only !

 From A to B:
 Elastic deformation
 Directly proportional
 Straight line
 At F=0, x =0
 Form B to C:
 Plastic deformation
 Not Directly proportional relationship
 Curve
 The part doesn’t return to its original shape
 Doesn’t obey Hooke’s Law. (and the spring is easier to extend)

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Stiffness:

Spring (1) Spring (2)

F=100N F=100N
x= 10cm x= 20cm

 Spring (2) experiences more extension than spring (1), for the same load.
 So spring (1) is stronger (more stiff).

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Spring constant (k): it is property of the spring that defines its stiffness (strength)
of a spring. It is the slope of the Force- extension graph.

Spring (1)
Force (N)

Spring (2)

100N

10cm 20cm Extension (cm)

 Spring (1) has less extension than spring (2) at same force (F=100N).
so k1>k2 (also as the slope of spring (1) is higher).
 We can have the graph inverted (y-axis is the extension and x-axis is the force)
1
in this case  k=
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

So the spring with higher stiffness (K) is the one that is closer to the Force
axis.

Hint:
 To check that the spring is obeying Hooke’s law calculate the value of K for
different values.

 If the value of K is constant  Obeying Hooke’s Law.

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 Energy and power:
Energy is a measure of the ability of a body, a machine or a system to do any
activity. No activity is possible without energy.

o The Unit of Energy is Joules.

The Common forms of energy:

1) Gravitational Potential Energy: If a body is raised through a vertical distance in
a gravitational field, it will gain gravitational potential energy.
G.P.E= m x g x h
G.P.E: Gravitational Potential Energy in Joules (J)

m: mass (Kg)

g: gravitational acc. (g=10 m/s2)

h: vertical height (m)

 G.P.E. can be defined as the energy stored due to the position of the body.
 As object goes up, G.P.E. increases.
 As object goes down, G.P.E. decreases.
 If object moves horizontally, no change in G.P.E.
 G.P.E. is dependent on height (h) and mass (m)
 G.P.E. can be defined as Weight x Height … (Weight = m x g)
 The lowest position where h=0, is called “Reference level”

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2) Chemical Energy: It is the energy stored inside the body due to a chemical
reaction.
o Chemical energy in fossil fuels is
converted to heat and light when fuel is
burned.
o Chemical energy in battery is converted
to electrical energy.
o Chemical energy inside the muscles of a
person is converted to gravitational
potential energy or kinetic energy.
o Chemical Energy is also found in food, in candles, or box of matches.

Hint:

 Energy released from the Sun by Nuclear Fusion (we call it Nuclear Energy).
o Two energetic hydrogen atoms collide and Fuse together to form
Helium and release energy.
 Energy released from Radioactive materials (like Uranium) in Power
stations by Nuclear Fission (we call it Nuclear Energy too).
o A large nucleus absorbs a neutron to split to smaller nuclei and
releases energy.

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3) Elastic Potential Energy (Strain Energy): It is the energy gained by a body
when it experiences Stretching, Compression, Bending or Twisting.

o Ex: Rubber band or spring.

4) Electric Energy: It is the energy gained by charges when they flow through an
electric supply (Ex: Battery).

o A battery converts chemical energy to electrical energy.

o A lamp converts electrical energy into light and heat.

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 5) Heat Energy (Thermal Energy): It is the energy that flows from one body to
another due to difference in temperatures…. Or the energy produced due to
contact between two objects.
o As temperature increases, heat energy increases

Examples:

o When you push a box against the floor the chemical energy in your
muscles is converted to Kinetic and Heat energy due to friction.
o Rubbing your hands convert kinetic energy to heat energy.
o Any moving body is losing heat energy due to friction with the ground
and Air resistance.

6) Internal Energy: It is the sum of internal kinetic energies and the energy stored
in the bonds of all particles (potential energy).
o Heat energy or Chemical Energy can be expressed in terms of Internal
energy.

7) Light Energy:

8) Sound Energy:

Microphones: Sound Energy to Electric Energy.

Speakers: Electric Energy to Sound Energy

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9) Kinetic Energy: It is the energy stored in the body due to its motion.

𝟏
K.E. = x m x v2
𝟐

K.E: Kinetic energy (Joules)

m: Maas (Kg)
v: Velocity (m/s)
o K.E. depends on the velocity and mass of the body.
o K.E. increases if the body accelerates (velocity increases).
o K.E. decreases if the body decelerates (velocity decreases).
o K.E. is constant if acceleration = 0 (no change in velocity).

Conservation of Energy
Law of conservation of Energy:
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed. It can only be converted from one form
to another.

o The Total amount of energy is always constant.

o This means that a decrease in one form of energy is converted to an
equal increase in another form and vice versa.

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Example: When a ball is dropped, it loses some gravitational potential
energy as G.P.E. = m x g x h and “h” is decreasing.
 But where does this G.P.E go?
o If we neglected the air resistance, all this G.P.E. is converted to K.E.
(kinetic energy). Because the speed is increasing as the ball moves
down.

o But what if we consider air resistance?

1) The object will accelerate  so part of the lost G.P.E. is converted
to K.E. and the rest will be converted to heat due to air resistance.

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Example: If we throw a ball with mass 3 Kg from 5 m height, ignoring air
resistance.

K.E= 0 P.E=mgh=

P.E= mgh= 3x10x3= 90 J

5m
K.E=150-90 G.P.E=0
3x10x5=150 J 3m
=60 J K.E=150 J

The total energy is always constant (Conservation of Energy):

 If the ball doesn’t rebound once it hits the ground, this means that all the
G.P.E. and K.E. are converted to heat and sound energy.
𝟏
 To get the Velocity at any height, use K.E = m v2 (we know the mass “m =
𝟐
3kg”, so we can calculate the velocity “v”).
Change in G.P.E = Change in K.E
 If the ball rebounds, it will go up again but not to the initial position, as
some energy is lost in the form of heat and sound as it hits the ground. It
will continue rebounding until it stops.

Example:

o if a car is accelerating up a hill

K.E. increasing

G.P.E. increasing

Chemical Energy in Fuel is decreasing

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 o If a Ball is kicked up a hill.
K.E. decreasing

G.P.E. increasing

Heat energy increasing

o If a sky diver is falling with constant speed

K.E. constant This means that the lost

G.P.E. is converted to heat
G.P.E. decreasing
due to air resistance

o If a bike is accelerating on a straight (Level)(Horizontal) road

K.E. increasing

G.P.E. constant

Chemical Energy is decreasing (in the

biker’s muscles)

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Motor:
 It is a device that converts electric energy to kinetic energy.
 Car Engine: converts from Chemical energy  K.E.
Generator:
 It is a device that converts kinetic energy to electric energy (electricity)
using a turbine.
 Some Generators work with fuel:
Chemical Energy (Fuel)  Electric Energy

Example: A boy falling from a cliff as shown.

a- Complete the missing numbers. (Ignore Air

Resistance).

b- If the mass of the boy is 60kg, find his speed just

before reaching the sea level?
Solution: G.P.E at the top = K.E. at the sea level

1
m. g. h = m v2
2
Substitute and get v.

c- If we need to double this final speed, by how many

times should the height of the cliff increase?

Solution: 4 times

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 Work Done
When a force (N) is exerted on a body to move it a distance (d), so the value of
work done on this body is calculated using:

WD= Force x Distance (parallel)

WD: work done (joules)

Force: (N) Distance: (m)

 Work done can be added to or subtracted from any type of energy have
same unit (Joules). Work Done can be represented as the change in energy
(gained or lost) from the body.

Example 1:

Calculate the work done in this case.

Solution:

WD= Force x Distance

= 10 X 2 = 20 J

Example 2:

Calculate the work done by this athlete in lifting 50 kg weight at

a height of 2 m.

Solution:

W= Force x Distance , Force = Weight = mxg = 50X10 = 500N

W= 500 X 2 = 1000 J

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Example 3:

A man needs to push s box with mass 4kg up a ramp to a height of 10 m. Force
F =200N. Calculate a) Work done against gravity, b) Work done by Force (F) and
c)Energy Lost.

a) Work done in raising the box (against gravity) = Force X Distance

Force = 4kgX10 = 40 N The force is multiplied by
its Parallel distance !!
Work Done = 40 X 10 = 400J

b) Work done by force (F)  Work Done = F x D = 200 x 8 = 1600 J

c) Lost energy = 1600 – 400 = 1200 J

Hint: Not all the forces can do work. Some forces are doing no
work if there is no distance moved.

Power
It is the rate at which energy is transferred. [As we say “rate” this means that it is
divided by Time].

𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
Power = (J/s=Watt)
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞
𝐣𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞
 Watt = , so if we have kW, multiply it by 1000 to convert it to Watt.
𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝

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 Example: If a man holds a 10 Kg box up vertical distance of 5
m in 10sec. Calculate the Work Done and the Power used.

 Force= weight = mg= 10Kg x 10 m/s = 100 N

 WD= F x d= 100 x 5= 500J
𝑊𝐷 500
 Power = = = 50 watt
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 10

OR:

 G. Potential Energy= mgh= 10x10x5= 500J

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 500
 Power= = = 50 watt
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 10

Example: A car exerts a force 5000 N, moves a track of length 100 m in 20 sec.
calculate the Power exerted by the car in the track.

o WD=F x d= 5000 x 100= 5 x 105 joules

𝑊𝐷 5 𝑥 105
o Power= = = 25000 watt
𝑇 20

Power, Energy & Time relations:

𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
Power = 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞
 Power and energy are directly proportional
 Power and time are inversely proportional

Example: Two persons A and B with the same weights

climbed to the same height. Person A reached in shorter
time than B. Which one of them exerted larger work and
which one exerted higher power than the other?

Solution:

Both of them did the same work as they have the same force (Weight) and
same distance.

Person A exerted larger power as he took shorter time. Because Power and Time are inversely
proportional.
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 Efficiency
It is a measure of how much of the total energy input
is converted to useful energy output.

The useful output and the

𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 total input should be both
Efficiency = x100 with the same Units !!
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
 The output and input can be both in terms of Power or both in terms of
Energy.

Example: If we have two machines (A&B)

input output input output

A B
5000 W 2000 W 5000 W 3000 W
2000
 (A) efficiency = x100 = 40%
5000
3000
 (B) efficiency = x100 = 60%
5000
 Machine (B) is better than machine (A) as it has higher efficiency and it
can give 60% useful output from thr total input.

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 Generating electricity
 Non-renewable sources
 Renewable sources

1) Non-renewable:

This is the kind of energy that has a limit.

 Fossil fuels (ex: coal or oil)

 Nuclear fuels (Nuclear Fission) ex: Uranium.

Advantages:

 Produces large amounts of energy. – Reliable (Always available).

 High efficiency.
 Low initial cost relative to renewable sources, but high running cost
(Although the nuclear power stations can be considered relatively expensive).
 Scale: Fossil Fuels and Nuclear Fuels Power stations can be compact and
supply a large population (Concentrated sources of Energy).

Disadvantages:

 Polluting to the environment (Fossil fuels produce greenhouse gases as CO2,

while nuclear materials produces radioactive emissions that causes cancer).
 Has a limit, and may vanish one day.

How does it work?

The fuel is burned to heat water  producing steam to rotate turbines
 Generate electricity

Internal energy (or chemical energy) 

Heat energy  K.E  Electric Energy.

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 2) Renewable sources:

These are the sources of energy that doesn’t vanish (end). Like Biomass
fuel (like Wood, animal dung and Biogas), Solar energy, Wind or Water.

Advantages:

 Non-polluting to the environment (Environmental Friendly)

 Has no limits (Doesn’t end).

Disadvantages:

 Produces less amounts of energy. – Not reliable (Not always available).

 Low efficiency.
 High initial cost relative to non-renewable sources, but low running costs.
 Scale: Solar Cells and Wind turbines need large space to supply a large
population (Dilute sources of Energy).

a) Using water
i. Tidal Energy (Dam):

The flowing water is stored behind the Dam, then the Lock Door opens and the
water flows and rotates the turbine that drives the Generator.

(G.P.E  K.E  E.E)

The Tidal uses the same idea but depending
on the flow of water due to the Tide
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because of the
53 Moon (mainly) and the Sun.
 ii. Hydroelectric power station:
Disadvantages of
Hydoelectric and Dams:

Creating reservoirs can

flood useful lands

Destroys ecosystems

- Water is falling down to rotate the turbine

(G.P.E  K.E  E.E.)

iii. Waves:

Waves moving have Kinetic energy that is used to rotate the turbines and
generate Electricity.

b) Using Air /Wind energy:

 The Winds are used in rotating the blades of the
turbine to generate electricity

As velocity of blade increases  K.E increases E.E increases

As surface area of the blades increasesE.E increases

 However, it’s noisy, needs large space and it has high

initial cost.

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 c) Geothermal :

Using the energy stored in Hot Rocks underground, that changes water to steam
to be used to rotate turbines then generate electricity through the Generator.

Heat Energy  Kinetic Energy  Electric Energy.

d) Solar energy:
 Solar cells are used to convert light energy from the sun into
electric energy.
 This amount of the energy is dependent on the surface area of
Solar cells. Ex: if the rate of absorption = 10 J/m2 and we
60
need 60J  so we need = 6 m2 Solar Cells (Solar Panels).
10

Hint: The sun is the source for most of the electric energy resources,
either renewable or non-renewable, as it is the source of Wind, Solar,
Water sources, Fossil Fuels and Biomass Fuels. (Except Nuclear, Geothermal and
Tidal)

Q: How the Sun is the reason for hydro-electric power generation?

 The answer is in describing the Water Cycle.

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 Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force exerted per unit area.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
Pressure = (N/m2) (Pascal)
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂

 Pressure is directly proportional to the force (as F P )

 Pressure is inversely proportional to the area (as A P )

Example: You can push a pin against a wooden piece, such

that it will penetrate the wooden piece, but if you
pushyour finger with the same force against the wooden
piece, your finger will not penetrate.

 This is because your finger has larger area, so

less pressure.

Relation Between Area and Pressure: As A P

F= 100 N F= 100 N

Contact Area = 1 m2 Contact Area= 5 m2

100 100
P= = 100 pa P= = 20 pa
1 5

More pressure Less pressure

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Example: Why do we use the sharp edge of the knife in cutting?

o Less area  higher pressure, so it is easy to cut.

Relation Between Force and Pressure: As F P

Hint: Pressure is exerted using Matter (Molecules) either solid, liquid,

or gas. But in vacuum there is no pressure as there are no molecules.

Examples on pressure:
 If you are standing on thin ice, you have to lie down to spread your
weight over large area to reduce the pressure on the ice, so reduce the
risk of breaking the ice and falling down.

 Crawler boards used for glass or wooden roofs to

increase surface area, thus reducing pressure.

 Desert trucks have wide tyres to spread the weight

over large surface area to avoid sinking in the sand.

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Explain How Gases exert pressure?
 Gas molecules move fast, randomly and freely.
 Colliding with each other and with the walls of the container.
 Exerting forces over the walls.
 All these forces over the Area causes Pressure.

Example:
If we have two window Panes in the same room
as shown in the figure, Window A has 4 times
the area of Window B. Which window has larger
Pressure, and which window has larger force?

Solution:

 Both windows have same pressure, as they are in the same atmosphere.
 Window A has Four times the force of Window B

Hint:

As the altitude increases the atmospheric pressure decreases.

Because:

 Gas at high elevations is less dense (less molecules) so less collisions

occur.
 Also as gas temperature at high levels is less so lower K.E. of molecules so
less collisions too.

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 Unit 2
Thermal Physics
States of Matter:
There are three states of matter: Solid, Liquid and Gas

The Kinetic Theory of Matter states that each state has its own type of motion
that differs from the solids to the liquids to the gases.

Point of Comparison Solid Liquid Gas

Spacing Between Closely Packed, Loosely Packed, Far Apart, No
Molecules orderly arranged disordered arrangement
arrangement

Compressibility Incompressible Incompressible Compressible

Motion of Particles Vibrate about fixed Slide over each other Move rapidly and
positions and exchange places, randomly, colliding
and also vibrating. with each other and
the walls of the
container
Shape Fixed Variable (takes the Variable (takes the
shape of the shape of the container,
container, like the like the glass or the
glass or the cup that cup or the box that
holds the liquid) holds the gas)
Forces of Attraction Strong Weaker than Solid, Very weak (almost
between Molecules but strong enough to zero)
keep molecules
bonded together
Volume Fixed Fixed Variable (Takes the
volume of the
container)

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Explanation of the table:

 Gases are compressible while Solids and Liquids are incompressible because:
o There are large spaces between
molecules in the Gas state,
while in Solids and Liquids
there are limited spaces.
o The repulsive forces between
molecules in Solids and Liquids
prevent compression.

 Solids and Liquids are constant in

Volumes, while Gases are not because:
 As Solids and Liquids have stronger
attraction forces between their molecules,
while in gases don’t have attraction forces
so they move freely filling the container.

 Solids have fixed shapes while Liquids

and Gases have Variable shapes
because:
o As the molecules of the Solids can’t
exchange places, while in Liquids
and Gases they can.

Heating and Cooling 

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 The Heating experiment:

Time 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
(min)
Temp. -10 -5 0 0 0 0 20 60 80 100 100 100 100 120 150
(°C)

Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of the particles of the object. As

we start heating, the Kinetic energy of the molecules increases so the
temperature increases until it reaches the Melting temperature (Zero degrees in
case of pure ice). At this point the energy is being used to break the bonds
between the molecules (to change state) while the kinetic energy stays the same,
so the temperature stays the same and doesn’t change, and the state changes
from Solid to Liquid. After all the Solid is changed into Liquid the temperature
starts rising again as the Kinetic energy of the molecules is increasing, until boiling
point is reached, where the Liquid is being changed to Gas and the temperature is
constant until all the Liquid is changed into Gas.

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Summary: Heat is either used in increasing the Kinetic Energy of the molecules (so
increasing the Temperature) or used in Breaking down the bonds (so changing
state).

 We have two states during the Melting Stage (Solid and Liquid)
 We have two states during the Boiling Stage (Liquid and Gas)

The Boiling stage takes longer time (and

more heat) than the Melting stage, as
more bonds are being broken during the
Boiling stage to reach the Gas state that
has almost zero bonds. As shown in the
following graph:

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 Heating VS Cooling Curves:
During Heating energy is absorbed by the material, while during Cooling energy is
coming out of the material.

Gas Laws (Temperature ,Volume &Pressure)

Definition of Temperature (T): It is a measure of the average Kinetic Energy of the
molecules.

As Temperature Increases  Kinetic energy of Molecules Increases  Speed of

Molecules Increases.

As Temperature Decreases  Kinetic energy of Molecules Decreases  Speed

of Molecules Decreases.

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 Definition of Volume (V): It indicates the spacing between the molecules and not
the size of the molecules.

Size of the molecules

can’t be changed, but
the spacing can be
minimized to decrease
the Volume.

Large Volume Small Volume

Pressure (P): Molecules of the Gas have Kinetic Energy, Therefore they exert
forces on the walls of the container (or the room) due to collisions with it. So
these forces over the area of the container cause pressure.

Thermometers
We know that temperature is an indication of the average Kinetic Energy of the
molecules of the substance. If the object has any property that can be changed by
changing the temperature, so this is called a Thermometric Property and this
object can be used as a thermometer.

Examples of Thermometric Properties:

 Volume of liquid (like that used in “Liquid in glass thermometers”)

 Volume of gas (it gives clearer readings as gases have higher expansion rates
than liquids)
 Color of some solids
 Resistance of electrical conductors

Liquid in Glass Thermometer

Digital Thermometer
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Liquid in Glass Thermometer:

The bulb contains a liquid that expands with the increase in temperature and
contracts when the temperature decreases. When the liquid expands it moves up
the capillary tube than has a scale to show the temperature. Liquids used can be
Mercury or Alcohol.

We have two fixed points which are:

 Lower Fixed Point  The Melting Point of Pure Ice = The Freezing point of Pure
water (Zero °C)
 Upper Fixed Point  The Boiling Point of Pure water = The Condensation point
of water steam (100 °C)

Evaporation
Evaporation happens when the most energetic molecules at the surface of the
liquid have enough energy to break down the bonds and escape to the
environment (changing to gas) causing Cooling Effect.

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We have two conditions for the particles to be able to evaporate:

 Should be Near the Surface

 Have enough energy (High energy)

Cooling:

Evaporation causes cooling because the most energetic molecules escape, leaving
behind less energetic molecules. So the total energy of the liquid will decrease so
the temperature will decrease.

Example: why we feel cold after sweating or coming out of the pool?

 As the water molecules take heat energy from our skin to be able to escape
 Also the most energetic molecules escape, leaving behind molecules with less
energy, so lower temperature

Factors affecting the rate of Evaporation:

1- Temperature:

As the Temperature increases the Kinetic Energy of the molecules increase, so

more molecules will have enough energy to break down the bonds and escape.

Temperature Increase  Energetic Molecules Increase  Evaporation Increase

Heat

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 2- Surface Area:

Increasing the surface area of the liquid will not increase the energy of the liquid
molecules, but it will increase the number of exposed energetic molecules, so
Evaporation will increase.

Larger Surface
area, so more
Evaporation

Surface Area Increase  Exposed Energetic Molecules Increase  Evaporation

Increase

3- Air Current:

Air current increases the rate of evaporation for two reasons:

 Air current takes away the evaporated molecules from the space above the
liquid, encouraging other molecules to escape (Removes Humidity)

Air Current Increase  Evaporation Increase

Fan

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 Boiling Vs Evaporation:

Boiling Evaporation
Happens at specific Temperature Happens at any Temperature
Happens to all molecules (Throughout Happens to the molecules at the
all the liquid) surface only
Bubbles and Steam produced No Bubbles or Steam
Doesn’t cause cooling effect Causes cooling effect

Thermal Expansion and Contraction

Heating leads to expansion of the material, as it increases the kinetic energy of
the molecules, so they tend to move further apart leading to increase in volume
of the object.

 All the dimensions increase during heating (Length, Width, Height, and
Diameter)
 Cooling Lead to Contraction (Decreasing Volume)
 Solids have the least expansion rates, then Liquids then Gases (Gases are the
most due to weaker bonds)
 In Solids: molecules become more energetic so they tend to vibrate faster
and larger distance so the volume increases.

Advantages of Expansion or contraction:

o Bi-Metallic Strip

Brass expands
more and
contracts
more.

o Liquid in Glass Thermometer

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 o Fitting Bolt and Ring together

Problems of Thermal Expansion and how to solve:

Problem: Bending of railway tracks (and bridges) in summer due to expansion.

Solution: Leave Gaps between Railway Tracks to compensate for Expansion.

Problems of Thermal Contraction and how to solve:

Problem: Telephones and Electricity cables might get cut in winter due to
contraction if they are tight.

Solution: Make cables sag between telephone and transmission wires to allow for
Contraction without cutting the wire

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Hint: In case of attaching two materials together, they should have the same
expansion rate (ex: Teeth Filling or Concrete and Steel)

Heat Transfer
Heat energy will always move from the point of high temperature to the point of
low temperature.

This can happen in three ways:

 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation

Points at the same temperature are said to be in “Thermal Equilibrium”.

1- Conduction:

Conduction happens due to contact of molecules. (Whenever there is touching)

a- Metals:

As a metal is heated, Kinetic energy of free moving

electrons increases, so their speed increases and
they start to drift between molecules to transfer
heat energy from hot parts to cold parts of the
metal by hitting the atoms to make them Vibrate
faster about their fixed positions.

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 b- Non-Metals (ex: glass, plastic or wood)

As a piece of non-metal is heated, the Kinetic energy of molecules increase, so

they start vibrating faster and start hitting the neighboring molecules harder, so
part of this kinetic energy is transferred to these molecules until the kinetic
energy of all molecules increase… This is called “Lattice Vibration”

The rate of conduction in non-metals is lower than metals (as metals transfer
energy using both free moving electrons + Lattice vibration)

Experiment: Which metal is the best heat conductor?

Four rods of different metals have several wax rings around each of them. One flame
is used to heat one end of each rod at the same time. The rings melt and drop off the
copper rod first, then from the aluminum rod, then from the nickel rod, and last from
the iron rod. This example shows that among the four metals used, copper is the
best conductor of heat and iron is the poorest (If we have any non-metal as plastic or
wood, it would be much poorer).

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 If we have two spoons, one is metal and the other is platic. Why you feel the
metal spoon is colder than the plastic one when you touch them, athough
they are both at the same temperature?

Solution: This is because metals are

better conductor of heat so the heat
coming out of your hand moves along the
spoon and spreads rapidly so it takes
more heat out of your hand, so it feels
cold.

 Which part will be the hottest and which one will be the coolest?

Solution: The Hottest point is B

The coldest point is A

c- Conduction in Liquids and Gases:

 Conduction is poor in liquids except Mercury (Metal), as liquids don’t have free
moving electrons and the spacing between molecules in not as compacted as
metals.
 Conduction is much poorer in gases ( due to the wide spaces between
molecules, so no contact).
 There is No Conduction in Vacuum as there are no molecules.

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Example:

Although the water at the top

is very hot, the ice at the
bottom takes long time to
melt… this is because Water is
poor conductor of heat.

2- Convection:
When a mass of liquid (or gas) is heated, the molecules start moving faster and
the spacing between the molecules increase so liquid expands and become less
dense than the surrounding colder liquid (or gas). So hot liquid rises upwards and
carries the heat with it. Then it will be replaced by colder liquid (or gas) to be
heated and so on.

Heating  Kinetic energy of molecules

increases  Forces between molecules
become weaker  Liquid Expands and Volume
increases  Less Density  Moves up.

 The opposite happens in cooling:

Cooling  Slower motion and Less spacing  Contracts  More Density 
Moves Down

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  It can be said that convection depends on the change in density of the fluid
(Liquid or Gas)
 The Direction of Convection Heating is Upwards only (it can be done by
cooling from the top of the liquid, the cold water that is cooled moves down
and the hot water moves upwards).
 Convection can’t occur in solids as molecules are fixed and can’t move up or
down as in fluids.
 No convection in Vacuum ( as there are no molecules)

Example:

In (A) we heat from downside, so heat will move upwards by convection to

melt the ice.

In (B) we heat from the upper part, so the heat moves down by conduction
which is poor in liquids, so it takes long time for the ice to melt. That we can
have boiling water upside and at the same time we have ice downside.

Example: Heater

Air downside near the heater

becomes hotter, so it becomes
less dense
Mr. and moves
Hussein up. Then
Khaled
it is replaced by colder air. 74
 It’s hotter upside as
hot air has less
density.

Example: Air Conditioner

Air upside near the conditioner

cools, so it becomes denser
and moves down. Then it is
replaced by hotter air.

Example: Sea Breeze and Land Breeze.

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Example: Which letter will be most heated and which letter will be most cooled?

A F
3- Radiation:

 We have to think about the way that the heat reaches the Earth from the sun
after passing through Vacuum.
 As Conduction and Convection cannot occur in Vacuum, so the only way to
transfer energy through Vacuum is by Radiation.
 Radiation is the transfer of heat energy by a kind of electromagnetic waves
that are called infra-red waves.

 Radiation is the fastest way of heat transfer.

 Radiation occurs in all directions.

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  Radiation is affected by :
o Temperature of the body
o Color of the body
o Surface area of the body

 Any hot surface regardless its color will emit infra-red radiation and any cold
surface will absorb infra-red radiation to reach the temperature of the
surrounding. However the color of the surface affects the rate of radiation
emission or absorption.

Experiment: Which color is the best Emitter?

- Put hot water inside the box. The box has

each side painted with a different color.

- Then put thermometers equidistant from

each side of the cube.

- Record the initial and final temperature

of each thermometer

Conclusion: Dull (Matt) Black makes the highest temperature change so it is the
best emitter, while shiny silver is the poorest.

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Experiment: Which color is the best Absorber?

- Put 4 cups equidistant from the

heater, each can contains same
amount of water and thermometer.
- Make sure all have the same initial
temperature.
- Turn on the Heater.
- Record the initial and final
temperature of each thermometer.

Conclusion: Dull (Matt) Black makes the highest temperature rise so it is the
best absorber, while shiny silver is the poorest.

General Examples:

1)

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 2)

3) How will this hot pot of water be cooled?

- Conduction from the water to the walls of

the container.
- Conduction from the water to the spoon.
- Conduction from the base of the container
to the ground.
- Radiation from the top and the sides.
- Convection of the air above the liquid
upwards. Pot
- Evaporation of the energetic molecules at
the surface.
Ground

4) When the Sun is shining on the Earth’s surface, why the temperature of the
land increases more quickly than the temperature of the sea? And why your legs
feel cooler while standing in water?

- As Land is better absorber of heat radiation than sea.

- Legs in contact with the water feel cooler as the water is cooler so it absorbs
heat energy from my legs.

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How to eliminate Heat Loss:

- Put a lid or cover to reduce convection and evaporation

- Put Insulation at the sides and the base to reduce conduction and radiation.
- Elastic bands are used to wrap insulation around the pot.
- Paint the pot Silver (Worst heat radiation emitter).

5) Which Wall will reduce the heat coming from outside to inside?

Solution: Wall “a” has air gap which is poor conductor of heat but it allows
convection. Wall “b” has cork between the walls which is poor conductor of
heat and also prevents convection as it is solid. Wall “b” is better insulator.

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 Unit 3
Electricity

Electricity is the flow of charged particles (electrons or ions)

through a body.
Electric Conductor VS Electric Insulator:
Electric Conductor is a substance that allows the flow of charges
through it.

Electric Insulator Does not allow the flow of charges through it.

Electric Conductivity in Solids, Liquids and Gases:

1- In Solids:
a- Metals:
 Metals have free moving charges (electrons). These are
the outermost electrons that are not tightly bound to the
atoms due to Metallic bonding.
 These electrons can move from one atom to another
carrying electric energy.

b- Non-Metals: Most non-metals are non-conductors as they do not

have free electrons (ex: Plastic, Glass and Wood), but others (as
graphite) can conduct electricity as they have free moving
electrons.

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 2- Liquids:
o If a liquid has free ions (ex: Salt Solution) or free moving
electrons (ex: Mercury as a liquid metal), then it is electrical
conductor.

Salt Solution (or any

liquid with ions) 

Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity, as it does not have

ions. Because the electricity is transported by the ions in solution, the
conductivity increases as the concentration of ions increases.

3- Gases:
- Gases do not conduct electricity if the atoms are neutral. But if there
are ions, electricity can be conducted.

Hint: Normally, the atoms are neutral because the

number of protons inside the nucleus equals to the
number of electrons in the outer shells. But if the
atom loses electrons it becomes a positive ion. If it
gains electrons it becomes negative ion.

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Electric Charging:
The main concept that applies is that
unlike charges attract while like charges
repel. These are called non-touch forces.

Electrostatic Charging by Friction:

When rubbing two different types of solid
insulators against each other, one of them
loses electrons and become positive
charged. While the other gains electrons
and become negative charged.

 Now they are Electrostatically Charged

 This doesn’t mean that they can conduct electricity, they are just
charged.
 Protons never move!!
 It is applicable for metals also (but they shouldn’t be earthed)
 Plastics are the best in Electrostatic Charging, while wood is poor.

Example: Rubber has a much greater attraction for electrons than a

piece of animal fur. As a result, if they are rubbed together, the atoms
of rubber pull electrons from the atoms of animal fur, leaving both
objects with equal but opposite charges.

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How to test if the rod is charged?
- By bringing the rod near small pieces of paper or stream of water
from the tap. The rod will attract them.

Example: why do we feel electric shock while opening car door handle?
- Because your body is charged, so it discharges this extra charge through the
door handle.

Example: We can also feel this charge as the fuel flows through the hose to the
car in the gas station. The charge accumulates in the car so it should be earthed.

Electric Circuits:
Each electric component has its own
symbol that is used in drawing the circuit.
This symbol is different from the real shape
of the component.

The main source of electricity in a circuit is

the battery:

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In the shown circuit, the bulb lights up because the battery drives
charges (electrons) through it. How does this happen???

 Electrons gain electric energy

from the battery and then move
from the negative pole of the
battery to the positive pole. This
energy is used when electrons
pass through the bulb and are
transformed to light and heat
energy waste.

Electric Current (I): It is produced due to the motion of charges

(electrons)
When a battery is connected to a circuit, the electrons move
from the negative pole to the positive pole, while the current
moves in the opposite direction  This is called “Conventional
Current Direction” from the positive to the negative pole.

 Current cannot flow in a circuit if it is opened!!

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Electric Quantities:
1- Electric Current Intensity (I):
It is the rate of flow of charge or
the amount of charge (Q) that flows
through a conductor (Ex: Lamp or
resistor or any component) in one
Second. Its unit is Ampere (A).

2- Electromotive Force (e.m.f.):

It is the amount of electrical energy gained by one Coulomb of charge
in a battery to flow around the whole circuit.

 It is measured in Volts (V)

𝟏 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
 1 Volt =
𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃
 e.m.f. of the battery is constant, whatever the components of the
circuit, then it starts running out by time while the circuit is working.
3- Potential Difference (V):
It is the amount of electrical energy lost by one Coulomb of charge in a
conductor (any element in the circuit)

 Sometimes it is called Voltage drop

 It is measured in Volts (V)

Electrons

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 4- Resistance:
The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is a measure of the
difficulty to pass the electric current through that conductor.

 It is measured in ohms (Ω)

 Symbol of a resistor:

𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑉) 𝑽

Resistance (ohms Ω) = or R =
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴) 𝑰

Resistance (R) and Current (I) are

inversely proportional, for constant
Voltage (V)

As Resistance Increases the current

allowed to pass decreases

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 Ohm’s Law:
Ohm’s law states that Current and Voltage are directly proportional for
constant resistance.

The graph is a straight line passing through

the origin, so they are directly proportional.

The slope of the line is the resistance

- So this device has constant resistance.

Ohmic Resistor

Ex: Which line represents a resistor with a higher value of

resistance?

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Some common electrical devices:
1- Ammeter

 It is used to measure the current intensity (I).

 Units : Amperes (A)
 It is connected in series to the object that we need to measure its
current.

Measuring the current in one Measuring the current in each of

resistor the two resistors

 Ammeters have very small/ negligible resistance, that

doesn’t affect the circuit.

2- Voltmeter:

 It is used to measure the potential difference / e.m.f

 Its unit is Volts (V)
 It is connected in parallel to the object that we need to measure its
voltage.
 It has very high resistance to prevent the current from passing
through it, instead of the main component.

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 3- Bulb / Lamp:

 It is characterized by its Power and Voltage.

 Ex: a bulb with Power = 100 W and Voltage = 220 V
As the Volt increases, the power increases, so the
Brightness increases.
 As the current passes through the filament lamp its wire heats up
until it glows and produces light.

Experiment: Design an experiment to determine the value of

the resistance of a fixed resistor.
 Connect the circuit as shown

 Record the readings of the voltmeter and the

ammeter.
𝑉
 Calculate the value of the resistance R =
𝐼
 Change the value of the e.m.f by changing the
battery, and record the new values of V, I and R.

Conclusion:
 The value of the resistance is constant
 V and I are directly proportional  Ohm’s Law

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Hints:
 Make sure you are working at constant temperature, as changing
the temperature will change the resistance.
 We can use variable battery instead of changing the
battery

Factors affecting the resistance of a wire:

a- Length of the wire (L)
 R is directly proportional to L

As L increases  R increases
As L decreases  R decreases

b- Cross-sectional area of the wire (A) or the Diameter (D):

 R is inversely proportional to A

As A increases  R decreases
As A decreases  R increases

𝒅𝟐
A=𝜫𝒓 =𝜫 𝟐
𝟒
Hint: R is inversely proportional to A, so R is inversely
proportional to 𝑟 2 or 𝑑 2 .

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Example: what will happen to the resistance if:
1- Area is doubled  R will be halved.
2- Radius in doubled  R will be quartered.
3- Diameter is doubled  R will be quartered.

c- Temperature:

 For Metals: (Ex: Filament bulb)

When the temperature of a conductor / wire increases, its
resistance increases.

Example: in filament lamp, as it works for a period of time its

temperature starts increasing, so the resistance increases.

The Slope of the “V-I” graph = Resistance.

 Here the slope is increasing so the

resistance is increasing.
 We can say that as V increases, R
increases.

Hint: Look at the difference between this graph and the graph of
ohm’s law of the Ohmic resistor.

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 Series Vs Parallel Connections
Resistors or any electric components can be connected
either in Series or in Parallel in the circuit.

Two Lamps in Series Two Lamps in Parallel

Two Resistors in Series Two Resistors in Parallel

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 1-Series Circuits:

a- The total current (It) coming out of the battery is constant

and has the same value anywhere in the circuit, so all the
components in the circuit have the same current.
It = I1 = I2
b- The emf (voltage) of the battery is divided among all the
components in the circuit.

emf = V1 + V2
If we need to calculate the value of each voltage (V1 and V2).

o V1 = I . R1
o V2 = I . R2
Hint:
 For Resistor R1, as its value of resistance increases the value
its Voltage (V1) increases, as it becomes stronger and can
take larger portion of the emf.

 So the larger the resistance, the more volt it gets in series

connection.

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 c- Total resistance (Rt) = R1 + R2 + R3 +R4 + …

Total Resistance= 3+5+6=14Ω

The Poles of the lamps in Series:

The Positive Pole of the battery has to be

connected to the positive pole of each
component in the circuit.

Example 1:
emf = 18 V
R1= 6 Ω , R2 = 3 Ω
Find:
a- R total
b- I total
c- V1 and V2

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Solution:
a- R total = 6 +3 = 9 Ω
𝑉 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 18
b- I total = 𝑅 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 9
= 2 A (I has the same value for all components)
c- V 1 = I X R1 = 2X6 = 12 V

V 2 = I X R2 = 2X3 = 6 V
Check: V total (emf) = V1 + V2
18 = 12 + 6

Example 2:
emf = 24 V
R1= 5 Ω

I total = 2 A
Find: R2

Solution: Another Solution:

𝑉 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝑒𝑚𝑓) 24
R total = = = 12 Ω Emf = V1 + V2
I 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 2

R total = R1 + R2 Emf = It X R1 + It X R2

12 = 5 + R2  R2 = 7 Ω 24 = 2 X 5 + 2 X R2  R2 = 7 Ω

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Example 3:

There are three identical lamps in this

circuit, Calculate the following:
a- R1, R2 and R3
b- R total
c- Which Lamp will be the brightest?
d- If the resistance of lamp 1 increases to 15 Ω, what will
happen to lamps 1, 2 and 3 ?
Solution:
𝑉
a- Use the rule R = 𝐼
3
R1 = 0.5 = 6 Ω
5
R2 = 0.5 = 10 Ω
4
R3 = 0.5 = 8 Ω
b- R total = R1 + R2 + R3 = 6+10+8 = 24 Ω
c- The brightest lamp is the one with the highest voltage
 Lamp 2
d- If the resistance of lamp 1 increases to 15 Ω, it will get
more Volt, so it will become brighter, while the
other two lamps will become dimmer as their
voltage will decrease.

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 2-Parallel Circuits:

a- The total current coming out of the battery (It) is

divided among the branches (resistors in parallel)
It = I1 + I2
Hint: the branch with higher resistance will have Lower Current!
b- The potentoial difference (Voltage) has the same value
for all the components in parallel
Emf = V1 = V2

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠′ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠

c- Total Resistance (Rt) =
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 ′ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
 this rule is used if we have two resistors only
If we have more than two resistors:
1 1 1
𝑅𝑡 = ( + + + … )−1
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

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Hints:
- R total is not the sum of resistors as we do in Series !!
- The R total of all resistors in parallel should be less than
the least individual resistor.

The Poles of the lamps in Parallel:

The Positive Pole of the battery has to be

connected to the positive pole of each component
in the circuit.

Example 1:
Emf = 6V

R1 = 6 Ω

R2 = 3 Ω

Find: I1, I2, It and Rtotal

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Solution:

To get the values of currents I1 and I2, we have to know the voltage
of the lamps as they are in parallel with the battery so they have the
same voltage of the battery. V1 = V2 = 6V
𝑽𝟏 𝟔
I1 = = =1𝐴
𝑹𝟏 𝟔
𝑽𝟐 𝟔
I2 = = =2𝐴
𝑹𝟐 𝟑

It = I1 + I2 = 1+2 = 3A
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝟔 𝑿 𝟑
R total = = =2Ω
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝟔+𝟑

Example 2:

Emf = 20 V

R1 = 5 Ω

It = 5 A

Find: I1, I2, R2 and Rtotal

Solution:

a- The voltage is constant as they are in parallel, so Lamp 1 has

Voltage = 20 V
I1 = 𝑹𝟏
𝑽𝟏 𝟐𝟎
= =4𝐴
𝟓

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 b- It = I1 + I2
5 = 4 + I2  I2 = 1 A

𝑽𝟐 𝟐𝟎
c- R2 = = = 20 Ω
𝐈2 𝟏

𝑽𝒕 𝟐𝟎
d- Rt = = = 4Ω
𝐈t 𝟓

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝟓 𝑿 𝟐𝟎
or using the rule R total = = = 4Ω
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝟓+𝟐𝟎

Example 5: Find the resistance of the following circuits:

First get the total of R1 and R2 =

First get 8+4 = 12 𝛀 𝑹𝟏 𝑿 𝑹𝟐
𝟏𝟐𝑿𝟏𝟐 𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐
Then 𝑹𝒕 = =6𝛀
𝟏𝟐+𝟏𝟐
Then get the total of R3 and R4 =
𝑹𝟑 𝑿 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝟑+𝑹𝟒

Then add the two values

𝟐𝑿𝟏
𝑹𝒕 = + 𝟒 + 𝟔 = 10.7 Ω
𝟐+𝟏

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 Series Circuits Vs Parallel Circuits:

1- In Parallel Circuits, each device can be switched On or Off

independently if we put a switch beside each lamp, while in Series
they are dependent (they are all controlled by one switch).
2- In parallel Circuits each component will be supplied with the main
value of the voltage (Voltage will not be divided as in Series
connections).
3- In Parallel Circuits, if any Lamp is faulted (broke down), the rest of
the circuit will work normally (Independently), While in Series
Circuits all the lamps will be switched off.
4- However in parallel connection, the battery runs out quickly.

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 Power
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
We already Know: Power = (Watt)
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

In electricity we have more rules for Power:

P=IXV
or P = I 2 X R
V2
or P =
𝑅

We can use any one of them as they all give the same result !!

Then to calculate the Energy consumed = Power x Time

How to control the current in the circuit (How to control

the Brightness of a lamp)?
1- Variable Resistor (Rheostat):
It is used to vary the resistance in the circuit, so
the current is varies, so the brightness of the
lamps in the circuit varies.

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 Variable resistor is connected in Series to the lamp
that we need to control its brightness.

Example: If we need to control the brightness of the lamp in the

following figure, we connect a variable resistor in series to it as shown.

Slider

 As the slider moves from “a“ “c” , the resistance increase, as the
length of the resistance inside the circuit increases. As the resistance
increases, the current in the circuit will decrease, so the lamp will
become dimmer.
 Moving the slider towards “a” decreases the resistance. So the total
current in the circuit increases, so the lamp will light brighter.

Or we can just draw it this way 

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 Example: Explain why the following lamps have different brightness?

Variable
Resistor

Lamp

Explanation: as the resistance of the variable resistor increases the

current in the circuit decreases (as they are inversely proportional), so
the brightness of the lamp decreases.

2- Potential Divider
It is a circuit where the main voltage (emf) of the supply is
divided among two resistors connected in Series.
a- Fixed Potential Divider:

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  If we have R1 = R2  so the voltage of the
battery will be divided equally among the two
𝑒𝑚𝑓
resistors. (V1=V2= )
2

 If R1>R2  The Voltage of R1 will be higher

than the Voltage of R2 (V1>V2)

 If R2>R1  The Voltage of R2 will be higher

than the Voltage of R1 (V2>V1)
Important Hint: The larger resistor takes more
voltage. The lamp you need to control its
brightness is connected in parallel to any of the two resistors.
To make it more bright connect it parallel to the larger
resistor.
b- Variable Potential Divider (Potentiometer):

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The output Voltage (Vout) is proportional to the distance
between “a” and the slider/pointer “b”.
 As the pointer moves towards “c”, the distance ab (Shaded
Part) increases, so the Vout increases.
 As the pointer moves towards “a”, the distance ab (Shaded
Part) decreases, so the Vout decreases.

Example:
 If the pointer K is at the middle, both
lamps will have the same voltage.
 If we move the pointer towards X,
Lamp L2 will be in parallel to more
resistance so it will brighter.
 If we move the pointer towards Y, Lamp L1 will be in
parallel to more resistance so it will brighter.

Circuit Breakers and Fuses:

If the current passing through a wire or a device increases and exceeds
a certain limit, it can cause:

- Overheating and Melting the wires

- Damage the equipment
- Cause firing.

So we have to protect the circuit from overheating due to excessive

current.

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This is done through Circuit
Breakers or Fuses

The Fuse:
It consists of a short length of thin wire that melts if the current
intensity exceeded a certain value  So the whole circuit will
be switched off to protect the components in the circuit.
Example: If a metal wire can withstand maximum current of 8 A afterwards
it melts, we should connect it to a fuse with rating 8A or less. But if we
connect it to a fuse with rating 10A, it will be useless and it will not protect
the wire, which can lead to melting the wires and firing.

Circuit Breaker:
It does the same job of the fuse, through the use of
an electromagnet that opens the switch in the circuit
if the current exceeds a certain value to protect the
wire and the devices.
Live (220V).

Hazards of Mains electricity:

1- Overheating can lead to fires or damaging the equipment:
 We can avoid it using a fuse attached to the Live wire.
2- Electric Shocks, we can avoid it by:
 Never using the devices in damp conditions
 Wires to be well insulated (avoid exposed wires)
 Using the Earth cable connected to the metal casing.

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 Unit 4

“Waves” is a term that refers to the way in which energy is

propagated (transmitted) through a medium or without a
medium that results from the vibration of an object.
Hint: Waves are used to transfer energy and Not Matter!!
There are two classifications for waves:
1- Mechanical and Electromagnetic Waves
2- Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
The First classification:
1- Mechanical Waves:
These waves transmit energy through a medium by the vibration of
particles of the medium.
These waves can’t propagate through Vacuum as there are no
particles.
Ex: Sound waves, water waves, slinky waves or vibrating a rope.

Slinky wave

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 2- Electromagnetic waves:
These waves can travel through Vacuum, they do not need a
medium.

Ex: Light waves, infra-red rays and all electromagnetic spectrum (to
be discussed later).

The Second classification:

1- Transverse Waves:
 The vibration of the particles of the
medium is up and down.
 The motion (vibration) of the particles is perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation.

Ex: If you dip your finger in water, you will see the following:
1) Circles of waves propagating away from your finger, so the energy
is moving outwards.
2) Particles of water are just moving up and down

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 The same applies for Rope waves. The particles
move perpendicular to wave motion

Examples: Light waves, Water waves, Rope waves and all Electromagnetic waves.

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 2- Longitudinal Waves:
The vibration of the particles of the medium is sideways (right and
left) to form compressions and rarefactions.

The vibration of the particles is parallel to the direction of wave

propagation (energy motion).

Compression: Air pressure is high and spacing is low.

Rarefaction: Air pressure is low and spacing is large.

Examples: Sound waves and Slinky waves

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Wave Properties:

1- Wavelength (λ): It is the distance between two successive

similar points on the wave.
 For Transverse waves: It is the distance between two
successive crests or two successive troughs.
 For Longitudinal waves: it is the distance between two
successive compressions or two successive rarefactions.
 Its unit is “meters (m)”.
Hint: the Wavelength of a wave depends on the medium and
the frequency of the source.

2- Amplitude (a): It is the maximum displacement of any point on

the wave from the rest (equilibrium) position.
 Its unit is “meters (m)”.

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 3- Periodic Time (T): It is the time taken to make one complete
oscillation (cycle).
 Its unit is “Sec.”
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
 Periodic Time (T)= 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

4- Frequency (f): It is the number of

oscillations (cycles) per second.
Or: the number of crests passing per
second.

 Its unit is Hertz (Hz).

 The frequency of the wave is equal to the frequency of the source

producing it.

Hint: There is an equation relating the frequency with the Periodic Time:
𝟏 𝟏
f= & T= T and f are inversely
𝑻 𝒇
proportional.
Hint: We can also draw the longitudinal sound waves as shown (ups
and downs) by putting the pressure on the y-axis.

Air Particles

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Hint: If asked to draw a longitudinal wave with larger
amplitude, this means that we have to draw smaller spacing in
Compressions and larger spacing in Rarefactions.

The Wave equation “Wave Speed”:

Or

 The speed of the wave depends only on the medium in which the
wave is moving.
 Also the wavelength is affected by the medium (mentioned
above).
 But the frequency does not change with changing the medium,
the frequency depends on the source only.

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Drawing Waves:
A wave can propagate (travel) in one direction “Straight waves”
or it can propagate in multiple directions as in “Circular waves”.

Wavefronts: are lines that are drawn perpendicular to the direction of

wave motion.

 The distance between two successive wavefronts is the wavelength (λ)

Example: Find the Periodic Time,

Frequency and Speed if λ = 2cm.

Solution:
 Periodic Time (T) = 3 sec.
1 1
 f = = = 0.33 Hz
𝑇 3
 v = λ. F = 0.33X2 = 0.66 cm/sec

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 Behaviour of Waves
 Waves can experience Reflection, Refraction or Diffraction.
 Waves are treated as straight rays.

1- Reflection:

Normal Line: it is an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the

Surface at the point where the ray touches the surface.

Incident angle (i): it is the angle between the incident ray and the
Normal line.

Reflected angle (r): it is the angle between the reflected ray and the
Normal line.

Law of Reflection:
Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of Reflection (r).

 When waves are reflected, the frequency, wavelength and speed of

the wave do not change. Only the direction of the wave changes.

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Steps of drawing Reflection:
1- Draw the incident ray
2- Draw the Normal Line perpendicular to the surface.
3- Measure “i”
4- Draw the reflected ray with the reflection angle “r”
i=r
5- Draw the wavefronts perpendicular to the ray (if required)

2- Refraction:
When the wave moves from one medium to another medium (with
different density) it changes its speed, this is called Refraction.
 There is change in speed and wavelength (λ).
 There is no change in frequency.
 The new medium where the wave is entering is either:
o Deep: Less dense (Fast medium)
o Shallow: More dense (Slow medium)

 As the wave enters a Less dense medium (deep): Speed ↑ and

Wavelength ↑.
 As the wave enters a More dense medium (Shallow): Speed↓
and Wavelength ↓.

V=λ.f
If λ↑ V↑ … as “f” is constant (doesn’t change)
If λ↓ V↓ … as “f” is constant (doesn’t change)

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 Look at the left part of the diagram the water is
Cases
deep, ofinRefraction:
while the right part it’s shallow.
From Deep (low Density) From Shallow (high Density)
to Shallow (high Density) to Deep (low Density)

Speed ↓ Speed ↑
Wavelength ↓ Wavelength ↑
Ray bends towards the Normal (i>r’) Ray bends away from the Normal (i<r’)

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 What if we have a wave with Zero angle of incidence?
If the wave is moving from deep to shallow or the opposite at right
angles to the boundary, so the angle of incidence is Zero. This wave will
not make change in its direction. Just the wavelength and the speed will
Angle of incidence (i) = 0
change.

Hint: Wavefronts become closer to

each other as the wave moves from Refraction with Zero Angle of
Deep to Shallow, while they incidence: No change in direction !
become further apart as the wave
moves from shallow to deep.

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 Hint: There is always some reflection
accompanied with any refraction
process.

Important Example: Draw the wavefronts as they pass through

the boundary from air to water.

Step 1: Draw the ray itself

Step 2: Draw the Normal to the boundary
Step 3: Draw the refracted ray (bent in the correct direction).
Step 4: Draw the new wavefronts perpendicular to the refracted ray, with the correct
spacing between them.
Explain why refraction of a wave occurs?

 As part of the wavefornt enters the new medium before the other part
 So this part changes its speed before the other part
 So the angle of the wavefornt changes (different parts are delayed with different
amounts), so the wavefront changes direction.
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 Electromagnetic Spectrum
These are group of waves produced due to combined
oscillations of electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the
speed of light through a vacuum.
 They have different wavelengths
 They have different frequencies
 All have same speed (speed of light 3𝑋108 m/s).
 They are all Transverse waves.
 They can experience Reflection, Refraction or Diffraction.
 The Sun produces all of the EM radiations, but mainly (Infrared,
Visible light and Ultraviolet)

Name Gamma X-rays Ultraviolet Visible Infra-red Microwave Radio

rays rays light waves
Uses Killing Medicine Sun tan Remote Satellites, Communi
cancer cells, (imagining and making Controls, Telephones, cations;
Radio and
Sterilization defects in Vitamin D and heating
TV
of food and bones), and burglar water and
equipment, security alarms by food
and systems detecting
detecting (seeing heat
cracks in hidden coming
welds objects) from
intruders

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Hazards of exposure to electromagnetic radiation:
Over-exposure to certain types of electromagnetic radiation can be
harmful. The higher the frequency of the radiation, the more damage it
is likely to cause to the body, hazards include the following:
1- Internal heating of body tissues
2- Skin burns
3- Skin Cancer
4- Damage of the Retina of the human eye
5- Mutations of the body tissues, which may lead to cancer.

Safety Precautions: We have to stay away from the sources as most

as we can (especially pregnant women), don’t get exposed to the rays
for long time and use Lead shields to protect yourself.

Light Waves
Light waves can experience Reflection, Refraction and Dispersion.
How to make the light move in straight line to study it?
Use a Laser beam or a Ray box

1- Reflection of Light:
 A mirror is used as the reflecting surface (boundary).
 The image of the object is formed at a certain point behind the
mirror and this point is fixed regardless the place we are looking
from

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How to detect the image location:
- Any object reflects light rays incident on it in all directions.
- Draw two incident rays from the object towards the mirror, then
draw the Normal lines where these rays touch the mirror.
- Then draw the reflected rays.
- Finally draw the extensions of the reflected rays behind the mirror.
The point of intersection of these two extensions is the image
location.

Properties of images formed by the mirror:

1- Virtual image (not Real), as it is formed
by the intersection of imaginary rays
(extensions)
2- Same Size as the original object
3- Upright
4- Laterally inverted (left is right and right
is left).
5- Distance between the object and the mirror is the same as distance
between image and mirror.

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 2- Refraction of Light:
When light moves from one medium to another medium “more or less
dense”, the λ and speed will change but the frequency will stay the
same.

We can see this when the light travels from air (less dense) to glass or
water (less dense), or the opposite.

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Hint: There is always some reflection accompanied with the refraction!!

If the light ray is coming perpendicular to

the boundary (i = 0°), There will be NO
change in direction, but the λ and V will be
affected as ordinary refraction.

Hint: we can see the sun at different

location, as light refracts as it passes
through the atmosphere.

Parallel Sided Glass Prism:

If the light ray passes through a
piece of glass with two parallel
sides as shown, the ray will finally
emerge parallel to the original ray.

angle 1 = angle 4
angle 2 = angle 3
Speed of incident ray on the prism = Speed of emerging ray from the prism.

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 Convex Lens
It is a lens that converges the light rays together by refraction so it is
also called “Converging Lens”

c: optical center

F: Focal point or optical focus

Focal Length: the distance between

the focal point and center of lens.

Hint: Bending of the light rays happens twice, at the

entrance and at the exit of the lens (due to changing
medium). But we draw the bending one time at the
center line of the lens to make it easier.

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There are three cases:

a- Any ray coming parallel to the principal axis of the lens will be
bent to pass through the focal point.

b- Any ray passing through the focal point will be refracted to

become parallel to the principal axis.

c- Any ray passing through the center of the lens will not diverge (No
change in direction).

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Producing an image of a luminous object (ex. candle or lamp)
To be able to draw the image formed by the lens, we draw three rays
from the top of the object (one is parallel to principal axis, one passing
through the F and one passing through the center). The intersection of
the three lines forms the image. We have different cases:

Case 1: If the object is very far from the lens > 2 x Focal length (F)

Properties of the image in this case:

Smaller , Inverted and Real (can be projected on a screen)

Case 2: If the object is at a distance = 2 x F

Properties of the image in this case:

Same size, Inverted, Real (can be projected on a screen)
and Equidistant from the lens as the object (at same distance)

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Case 3: If the object is at a distance between the F and 2F

Properties of the image in this case:

Larger, Inverted and Real (we can get it on a screen)

Hint: As the object becomes closer to the lens, the image becomes:
1- Larger
2- Farther from the lens
And vice versa !!

Case 4: If the object is exactly at the Focal Point (F):

No image is formed
(parallel rays do
not meet and their
extensions also do
not meet).

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Case 5: Object between the Center of the lens(c) and the Focal point(F):

Properties of the image in this case:

Larger or Magnified
Upright
Virtual (Not real) as it is not formed by real rays

 This case is used in Microscopes to enlarge objects.

 Convex lenses are used in cameras and sight correcting eyeglasses.

Hint: if asked about magnifying glass  so we are talking about Case ”5”, so the
object should be inside the focal length.

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 Sound Waves
Sound waves are produced due to vibration of the source (ex: String of
a guitar or a tuning fork). This makes the particles of the medium
vibrate parallel to the direction of energy transfer (longitudinal waves).

 Sound waves are Mechanical waves (needs medium).

Compression: it is the region where the spacing between the molecules

decrease and pressure increase.

Rarefaction: it is the region where the spacing between molecules

increase and pressure decrease.

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Properties of Sound:
1) Loudness:
It is determined by the amplitude of the Sound wave
As Amplitude ↑ Loudness ↑

B has larger Amplitude

so it is louder than A.

2) Pitch:
It is determined by the frequency of the Sound wave.

As frequency ↑ Pitch ↑

B has higher frequency (more

number of cycles in same
time), so it has higher Pitch
than A.

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Audible Frequencies:
 Human ear can only hear sound waves with frequencies ranging
from 20 Hz  20 KHz (20,000 Hz).
 Sound waves with frequencies f < 20 Hz are called “Infra-sound
waves”.
 Sound waves with frequencies f > 20 KHz are called “Ultra-sound
waves” or Ultrasonic.
 Ultra-sound waves are used in Medical applications as treatment
of joints. It can be used also in measuring depth of water and
Fetal imaging (getting images of babies during pregnancy)

Speed of Sound in Air:

 The speed of sound in air = 330 m/sec
 This is much slower than the speed of light = 3X108 m/sec

This illustrates why we see lightening before hearing thunder.

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Speed of Sound in different states of matter:
Sound travels in solids at higher speeds than liquids, and travels in
liquids at higher speeds than gases. This is due to the fact of closer
particles in solids than liquids and liquids than gases.

Substance Speed of sound (m/sec)

Steel 5000
Water 1400
Air 330

Hint: The sound in air is affected by the temperature and humidity of

the air.

Example:
When you hit one end of a steel bar you will hear two sounds.

The first sound travels though the metal (steel bar) at higher speed.
While the second sound travels through air at lower speed.

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How to calculate the speed of sound in air:

 Measure the distance (d) with a tape meter.

 After person A fires the gun, person B with the stop watch
measures the time (T) between seeing the flash or the smoke of
the gun and hearing the sound.
𝑑
 Speed = m/sec
𝑇
Hint:

 This experiment makes assumption the light travels instantly in

zero time, this is due to the fact of its high speed.
Improvements:
 As the distance between the two persons increase, the results
become more accurate.
 Also we can repeat the experiment several times and take
average for more accuracy.
Hint: As you move away from the source producing sound, the Loudness
(Amplitude) decreases, while the Pitch (Frequency) doesn’t change.

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 Echo
It is hearing the sound more than one time due to reflection of
sound from a boundary.
Hint: it needs short sharp sound to hear it clearly.

𝟐𝒅
Speed = m/sec
𝑻

We use (2d) because the sound moves back and forth during
the total time (T).

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Example:
Person B is observing person A while shooting a gun towards
the cliff. How many sounds each person hears and at what
times, knowing that the speed of sound in air is 330 m/sec.?

Solution:
Person A: he will hear two sounds

 The first one is instantly after shooting T=0

2𝑑 2 𝑋 700
 The second sound after time T = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = = 4.24 sec.
330

Person B: he will hear two sounds

𝑑 700
 The first one after time T = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 330 = 2.12 sec.
𝑑 3 𝑋 700
 The second sound after time T = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = = 6.36 sec.
330

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 List of Rules
Unit 1 “Measurements and General Physics”
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔
Average =
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔

Volume of Cube = s x s x s= s3

Volume of Cuboid = L x w x h

Volume of Cylinder = π r2 h = area of cross-section x height

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑲𝒈 𝒈
Density= ( 𝒐𝒓 )
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒎𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟑

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
Average speed =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒗−𝒖)

Acceleration= (m/sec2)
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝒚𝟐−𝒚𝟏
Slope=
𝒙𝟐−𝒙𝟏

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 Gravitational Potential Energy:
Distance-time graphs: Slope =
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
= Speed G.P.E= m x g x h
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝟏
Speed-time graph: Slope =
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
= Acceleration
Kinetic Energy: K.E. = x m x v2
𝟐
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

Distance = Area Under the Graph Work Done: WD= Force x

Distance
𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
Power = (J/s=Watt)
Newton’s Second Law: F= m x a 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞

𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
Weight (w) = Mass (m) x gravitational acceleration (g) Efficiency = x100
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

Springs: Force (F) = Spring Constant (K) x Extension (x) Pressure = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (N/m2) (Pascal)
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂

Unit 3 “Electricity”

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 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 (𝑸) 𝟏 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 (𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚)
Current (I) = 1Volt =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝑻) 𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃 (𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆)

𝑷𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝑽) 𝑽

Resistance (ohms Ω) = or R =
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑨) 𝑰

𝝆. 𝑳
Resistance of a wire: R =
𝑨

Series Connections: The current is the same, while the volt of the battery is
divided among the components according to their resistance (the higher
resistance takes higher Volt).

Total Resistance in Series circuits: R1+R2+R3

Parallel Connections: All components take the whole EMF (Volt) of the battery,
while the current of the battery is divided among the components according to
their resistance (the higher resistance takes less current).

Total Resistance in parallel circuits:

𝑹𝟏 𝒙 𝑹𝟐 For any number of resistors:
If 2 Resistors only Rt =
𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐

𝐕𝟐
Power (Watt): P = I X V or P = 𝐈 𝟐 X R or P =
𝑹

Energy (joules) E = Power (Watt) x time (sec)

Unit 4 “Waves”:
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
Periodic Time (T) =
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

𝟏 𝟏
Frequency (f) = & T=
𝑻 𝒇

Wave Equation:
𝟐𝒅
Echo: Speed = m/sec
𝑻

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