Virology

Is the study of viruses and virus-like agents:

Their structure
Classification
Evolution
Their ways to infection and exploit cells for virus reproduction
The diseases they cause
 The techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in
research and therapy.
 Viruses
are obligatory intracellular parasite very small
in size and have a simple, but effective
structural organization. they usually consist of
just two or three categories of components and
use the components of the Host Cell to perform
their "metabolism".
- Viral
infections are the most common cause of human disease, it
responsible for at least 60% of the illness

- Antibiotic have no effect on viruses, but antiviral drugs have

been developed to treat life-threatening infections.

- Vaccine can produce lifelong immunity and prevent viral

infection

- Viruses effect on all life forms, including human, animals,

plants, fungus and bacteria

- They damage or kill the cells that they infect

- A few viruses can produced cancer

Virus components

1- Genome
The viral genome (either DNA or RNA but not both) codes for the few proteins
necessary for replication. Some proteins are nonstructural, e.g.. Nucleic acid
polymerases and some are structural, i.e. they become incorporated and form
part of the virion.
2- Capsid (outer protein coat )
- many protein subunits are assembled to form a tight "shell" (capsid
made up of subunits called capsomers) inside which the nucleic acid
genome lodges for protection.

- The arrangement of capsomers give the virus structure its genomic

symmetry

- The capsid together with its enclosed nucleic acid is called the
nucleocapsid.
Viral envelop (not found on all viruses)
- Some viruses acquire an outer lipoprotein coat by "budding" through the
host cell membranes and are thus called Enveloped viruses.

- The envelop is important for interaction with cellular components during the
process of infection and replication.

- Enveloped viruses are more sensitive to heat, drying, detergent and lipid
solvents such as alcohol and ether than non enveloped virus
- Viruses are vary in size 20 – 300 nm in diameter
- The shape of viruses are determined by the arrangement of the
repeating subunits that form the protein coat (capsid) of the
virus.
- Most virus appear as spheres or rods in the electron
microscope. In addition to these forms, bacterial viruses can
have very complex shapes
- Viruses have no metabolic enzymes and cannot generate their
own energy.
- Viruses cannot synthesize their own proteins. For this they
utilize host cell ribosomes during replication.
- Unlike cells, viruses do not grow in size and mass leading to a
division process. Rather viruses grow by separate synthesis and
assembly of their components resulting in production of mature
viruses.
A virus like particles (VLPs)
An assembly of virus structural proteins that mimics the
configuration of a real virus, except that it contains no genetic
material. If a person is vaccinated with VLPs then an immune
response is generated as if the immune system has been presented
with a real virus.
Subviral particles
*Viroids
- Are infectious agents composed exclusively of a single piece of circular single
stranded RNA which has some double-stranded regions. They do not contain a capsid.
-Viroids mainly cause plant diseases but have recently been reported to cause a
human disease
*Prions
- An infectious particle that does not contain DNA or RNA. It is a protein particle.
There are no genetic material.
- Diseases are caused by the conversion of a normal host glycoprotein into an infectious
form (e.g. Mad Cow)
The different viruses are classified based the type of genomic
nucleic acid, e.g. DNA or RNA, and then further by the number
of strands of nucleic acid (e.g. double-stranded DNA, double-
stranded RNA or single-stranded RNA. Their host range is also a
viral classification consideration .
- Viruses can be classified according to the host cell they infect: animal viruses,
plant viruses, fungal viruses, and bacteriophages.
- Another classification uses the geometrical shape of their capsid (often a helix
or an icosahedron)
- or the virus's structure (e.g. presence or absence of a lipid envelope).

The most useful and most widely used classification system distinguishes viruses
according to the type of nucleic acid they use as genetic material and the viral
replication method (Baltimore classification) they employ host cells into
producing more viruses:

*DNA virsus (divided into double-stranded DNA viruses and single-stranded DNA
viruses),

*RNA viruses (divided into positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses, negative-sense

single-stranded RNA viruses and the much less common double-stranded RNA
viruses),

*Reverse transcribing viruses (double-stranded reverse-transcribing DNA viruses and

single-stranded reverse-transcribing RNA viruses including retroviruses).
Viral genomes
- The viral nucleic acid is located internally. Single or double
strand DNA or Single or double strand RNA

- The nucleic acid can be either linear or circular.

- The DNA is always single molecules

- The RNA exists either as a single molecules or in several pieces

Viral replication
The life cycle of viruses differs greatly between species but there are six basic
stages

Attachment: is aspecific binding between viral capsid protein and specific

receptors on the host cellular receptors.
Penetration: viruses enter the host cell through receptor- mediated endocytosis
or membrane fusion
Uncoating: the viral capsid is degraded by viral enzyme or host enzymes thus
releasing the viral genomic nucleic acid
Replecation: involves synthesis of viral messenger RNA (mRNA) for viruses
except positive sense RNA viruses
Assemble: viral protein synthesis and assemble of viral protein and viral
genome
Release: viruses are released from the host cell by lyses. Enveloped viruses (e,g,
HIV) typically are released from the host cell by budding.
Viruses effects on cells
Infection by viruses is usually associated with the
following changes in cells:
- Morphologic Effects: The changes in cell morphology caused by
infecting virus are called cytopathic effects
(CPE). Common examples are rounding of
the infected cell, fusion with adjacent cells
to form polykaryocytes.
- Effects on Cell Physiology: The interaction of virus with the cell
may change the physiological parameters,
including movement of ions, formation of
secondary messengers, and activation
cascades leading to altered cellular
activities.
Effects on Cell Biochemistry: Many viruses inhibit the synthesis of
host cell macromolecules, including DNA,
RNA, and protein.

Genotoxic Effects: Following virus infection, breakage,

fragmentation, rearrangement and/or changes
in the number of chromosomes may occur.

Biologic Effects: Virus-specified proteins may alter the cell's

antigenic or immune properties, shape, and
growth characteristics.
Prevention and treatment
Because viruses use vital metabolic pathways within host cells to
replicate, they are difficult to eliminate without using drugs that
cause toxic effects to host cells in general.

The most effective medical approaches to viral diseases are

vaccinations to provide immunity to infection, and antiviral
drugs that selectively interfere with viral replication.
Persistent viral infections
Chronic infection: Refer to peoples who produced viruses long periods of time
and can serve as a source of infection for others (HCV).

Slow infection: Are those infection with a long incubation period e.g. measles.

Latent infection: Common features of latent infection are their ability to

reactivated at subsequent time in response to various
environmental stimuli (e.g., heat, ultraviolet irradiation), and
immune suppression brought on by heterologous virus infection
(e.g., HIV) or chemotherapy, often associated with organ
transplantation.
Common routes of viral infection in human
-Droplet contact (respiratory route) e.g.common cold
-Oral transmission
-Sexual transmission
-Iatrogenic transmission
Transmission due to medical procedures, such as injection or transplantation
of infected material and blood transfusion.
Influenza virus
Three distinct types of influenza virus,
dubbed A, B, and C, have been identified.

Most cases of the flu, are caused by the

influenza A virus, which can affect a
variety of animal species, but the B virus,
which normally is only found in humans,
is responsible for many localized
outbreaks.
The influenza C virus is morphologically and genetically different than the
other two viruses and is generally nonsymptomatic, so is of little medical
concern
Diagnosis
is based on isolation of viruses from throat swab, nasopharynx , sputum.

Nucleoprotein or neuraminidase can be detected by PCR

the virion particles (RNA) are usually spherical or ovoid. Sometimes filamentous
forms of the virus occur as well, and are more common among some influenza
strains than others.

The influenza virion is an enveloped virus that derives its lipid bilayer from the
plasma membrane of a host cell. Two different varieties of glycoprotein spike are
embedded in the envelope.
1- hemagglutinin (18 major types): attachment of the virus to a host cell.
2- neuraminidase (9major types) : involved in facilitating the release of newly
produced virus particles from the host cell

The symptoms of the flu are similar to those of the common cold, but tend to be
more severe.

The influenza virus is chiefly transmitted through airborne respiratory secretions

released when an infected individual coughs or sneezes. Incubation typically is
from one to two days from the time of infection, and most people begin to
naturally recover from symptoms within a week
Measles
is an infection of the respiratory system caused by enveloped, single-
stranded, RNA viruses, specifically a paramyxovirus
Symptoms include fever, cough, runny nose, red eyes and a generalized,
maculopapular, erythematous rash

Measles is spread through respiration (contact with fluids from an infected person's
nose and mouth, either directly or through aerosol transmission),

There is no specific treatment for measles. Most patients with uncomplicated

measles will recover with rest and supportive treatment.
laboratory diagnosis of measles can be done with confirmation
of positive measles IgM antibodies or isolation of measles virus
RNA from respiratory specimens. saliva can be collected for
salivary measles-specific IgA testing

Vaccination rates have been high enough to make measles

relatively uncommon
 Human immunodeficiency virus infection / acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS)
HIV is icosahedral RNA with external spikes bind to CD4 molecules on T cells surface
During the initial infection, a person may experience a brief period of
influenza-like illness.
This is typically followed by a prolonged period without symptoms. As the
illness progresses, it interferes more and more with the immune system, making
the person much more likely to get infections, including opportunistic
infections and tumors that do not usually affect people who have working
immune systems.
There is no cure or vaccine for HIV or AIDS
Diagnosis by Antibodies test and PCR test for HIV RNA or DNA

HIV is transmitted primarily via

unprotected sexual intercourse, contaminated
blood transfusions,
hypodermic needles,
from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding.
Some bodily fluids, such as saliva and tears, do not transmit HIV.
 Viral hepatitis
is liver inflammation due to a viral infection. The most common causes of viral
hepatitis are Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, Hepatitis D, and Hepatitis E.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is a single-stranded, RNA virus

Hepatitis B virus (HBV), double-stranded DNA viruses

Hepatitis C virus (HCV), is an enveloped single-stranded RNA

virus

Hepatitis D virus (HDV) is an unusual, single-stranded, circular

RNA virus

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a single-stranded, RNA virus

All hepatitis viruses can cause acute hepatitis. hepatitis types B and C can cause
chronic hepatitis

Hepatitis A virus is transmitted through water and food contaminated with virus
and sexual contact,
B and C types of hepatitis viruses are transmitted through , blood transfusion,
contact with blood products, though cuts and stick injuries and from mother to
newborn child during delivery.
Hepatitis D virus exists in the presence hepatitis B virus
Hepatitis E virus is transmitted through contaminated water and food and it
mainly effects young adults. The disease is severe in pregnant woman

Hepatitis A and B viruses can be prevented by vaccination

Symptoms of acute viral hepatitis include fatigue, flu-like symptoms, dark urine,
light-colored stools, fever, and jaundice; however, acute viral hepatitis may occur
with minimal symptoms that go unrecognized. Rarely, acute viral hepatitis causes
fulminant hepatic failure.
Diagnosing Hepatitis
Antibody Tests
IgM and IgG antibodies specific to hepatitis A or hepatitis B.
Direct Viral Measures
PCR tests for HBV and HCV can be sent which are direct measures of the
amount of virus in the blood
Advanced Tests
computerized axial tomography (CT) scans or magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), or a liver biopsy