EE4533 POWER APPARATUS AND

PROTECTION

Part II-Fault Analysis and Power System Protection

BY

Wang Peng
School of EEE, Block S2, NTU
Office: S2-B2c-104
Phone: 6790-6856(o)
Email: [email protected]

1
 INTRODUCTION
• A power system is a three-phase system because of three
voltage sources produced by three-phase generators and three
phase transmission lines to deliver power to three phase loads.
(Can you draw a typical three phase circuit of a power system???)
• A power system usually operates in a normal balance
operating condition (what is balance condition?), a single-phase
diagram (why??) is used in power system analysis and
calculations.
• A power system “sometime” operates in an abnormal (three
phases are unbalanced) condition when a unbalanced short
circuit occurs (designated as a unbalanced fault). In this case,
the fault must be isolated (how?) and (a single-phase diagram
can still be used to analyze current and voltage??).
• The main objectives of Part II:
 To study methods for analyzing power systems under
various abnormal (unbalanced) conditions.
 To study techniques for protecting power system
equipment and network when a abnormal condition occurs.

2
 COURSE OUTLINE
1. Basic Concepts of Power System Analysis (Review)
2. Fault Analysis (voltages and currents calculation)
3. Power System Protection Techniques

References:
1. Power System Analysis, John J. Grainger and William
D. Stevenson, JR., McGraw-Hill, 1994.
2. Power system analysis, Arthur R. Bergen, Vijay Vittal,
Prentice Hall, Inc. , 2000.
3. J. Lewis Blackburn, “Protective Relaying Principle and
Application,” Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York, 1997.
4. GEC Measurements, “Protective Relays Application
Guide,” The General Electric Company, p.l.c., of England,
London & Wisbech, 1987.
5. P. M. Anderson, “Power System Protection,” McGraw-
Hill, IEEE Press, New York, 1999.

3
 1. Basic Concepts of Power System Operation and Analysis
1.1 Three Phase Generators(three balanced voltage sources)
Three voltage sources in a power system are always balanced
(Circuit?). There is 120 phase difference between two sources.
o

Time domain voltage Phasor diagram Vc  V   240o

equations: representation:
va (t )  V cos  t  240 o Va  V 0o

vb (t )  V cos  t  120o  Vb  V   120o

vc (t )  V cos  t  240o 
Note : va  t   vb  t   vc  t   0 Note : Va  Vb  Vc  0

4
1.2 Three-phase balanced power system (normal operation)
When a three-phase generator supplies three identical loads through
three identical lines, the system as follow is called the balanced system.
Ia N
  ZL Z load
S Ib N
  Ia + Ia 
Va

Va Z
Ic
  -
IN ZN S
 VNS  Single phase diagram
Three phase diagram (Y connection)
VNS VNS  Va V  Vb V  Vc
KCL at N : I N  I a  I b  I c  0    NS  NS 0
Z N Z L  Z load Z L  Z load Z L  Z load
 1 1 1 1  1
VNS      Va  Vb  Vc  
 Z N Z L  Z load Z L  Z load Z L  Z load  Z L  Z load
 VNS  0  There is no current through ZN N and S can be
connected together. Each phase becomes a separate single loop
(a single phase diagram).

5
Example 1.1: A Y-connected load of (2+j3) per phase and a delta-
connected load of (6+j6) per phase are connected in parallel to a
three-phase, 400V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the current in each supply
line, the total power supplied and the overall power factor.
Solutions: *All delta connected components must be converted to Y
connection to draw a single phase diagram.

6  j6
ZY 2  Z  2 / 3   2.82842745o
3  Ia ZY 1
ZY 1  2  j 3  3.6055556.31 o
Z2 Z2
Vab
ZY 1 ZY 1
Z ta  ZY 1 / / ZY 2  1.59266649.97 o  Ib
Z2
400V Ic
Vab  400V , Van  0  230.940 Y
3
V  I
I a  an  145.002  49.97 o ZY 1 ZY 2
Z ta Van a

p. f .  cos49.97  0.6432 Ib
ZY 1 ZY 1 ZY 2 ZY 2

S  3Van I a*  100.4649.97 o kVA Ic

6
1.3 Unbalance three-phase systems (abnormal operation)
When phase-a load is shorted (called fault) in the following three
phase system, the system becomes unbalanced (abnormal). The
system and can be solved by KCL and KVL equations as follows.
KCL at node N: Ia
I N  I a  Ib  Ic 
V  VNS S Ib Ia
N
Ia  a 
ZL 
Vb  VNS Ic
Ib 
Z L  Z load 
Vc  VNS  
Ic  IN
Z L  Z load VNS
VNS Va  VNS Vb  VNS V  VNS
I N  I a  Ib  Ic     c
ZN ZL Z L  Z load Z L  Z load
1
V Vb Vc  1 1 1 1 
VNS   a        0
 L
Z Z L  Z load Z L  Z load   Z N Z L Z L  Z load Z L  Z load 

Can the system be solved by a single phase diagram??? (NO)

7
Example 1.2 The phases-b and c of a three-phase power system are
short circuited to the Ground as below. Calculate the voltage from
the generator terminal to ground and the current If, where
VAN  Vrms 00 , VBN  Vrms   1200 , VCN  Vrms   1200

Solutions (can’t use single phase to solve):

jX
Vag  VAN  Vrms 00  

(no current, no voltage drop cross jX) Ib
V   jX
I b  BN
jX Vag
V jX Ic
I c  CN  
jX
If
KCL at node :  
VBN VCN
I f  Ib  Ic  
jX jX


Vrms
X
   120o    240o    90o Note :
1
   90o
jX
 rms    210o    330o 
V
X

8
1.4 Thevenin Equivalent Viewed from Bus k (Review)

V3 3 n
Vn
Z th
V2 2
transmission
Vk
Vth  Vk
+
V1 1 network k
k
-

0
Reference
0

A N-bus Power System Thevenin Equivalent from Bus k

Direct method (Any Other Method??):

Thevenin impedance Zth is the total impedance seen from bus k
when kill all the sources in the network.
Vth is open circuit voltage when there is no impedance from bus
k to ground.
Note:
1: Vth is the pre-fault voltage at bus k, denoted by Vf in the fault
analysis.
2. There is only one ground (reference node) in a power system.

9
Example 1. 3: Find the Thevenin Equivalent seen from Bus 3 of the
following power system.
j 0.10
∆-Y transformation:
Za j 0.20 j 0.20
Z ab Z ca j 0.9 j 0.9
Zb Zc
Z bc 100 pu 100 pu
Z 3,th
Z ab Z ca Y
Za  Z ab Z bc
Zb 
Z ab  Z bc  Z ca Z ab  Z bc  Z ca j 0.04 j 0.04
ZC  ? Z1 Z2
j 0.9 Z 3 j 0.08
j 0.20  j 0.10 j 0.9
Z a  Zb   j 0.04
j 0.20  j 0.20  j 0.10
100 pu Z 3,th 10 pu 0

Z c  j 0.08?
Thevenin impedance from bus 3:
Z 3,th  j 0.08  ( j 0.04  j 0.9) || ( j 0.04  j 0.9) j 0.04 j 0.04
 j 0.5500 j 0.9 j 0.08 j 0.9
Thevenin voltage: V3,th  10
0

because there is no current in Z 3,th

circuit and no voltage drop.

10
1.5 Important concepts (to add more??)

1) Three phase diagram for a unbalance power system with

transformers, generators and transmission lines
2) Single phase pu impedance diagram for a balance power
system
3) ∆-Y transformation to simplify complex system configuration
into series and parallel system
4) Thevenin equivalent circuit (direct method)
5) The methods for circuit analysis (KCL, KVL, current division,
etc)
6) Three phase power formula?
7) Phasor diagram
8) Fault level (fault MVA) or short circuit MVA at a bus for a three
phase fault

11
 2. Fault Analysis
2.1 Faults types
A fault is an event which causes system unbalance operation. There
are open or short circuit faults. The short circuit faults at bus k can
be classified into symmetric (Type 4) and unsymmetrical faults
(Types 1, 2 and 3) as follows. Zf is the short circuit impedance.

a a
Ifa Ifa
Zf
b b
Ifb Ifb Type 2
Type 1 Zf
c c
Ifc Ifc

Single line-to-ground fault Line-to-line fault or double phase fault

a
Ifa a Zf
Ifa
b
Ifb
Type 3 b Zf
Ifb Type 4
c
Ifc c Zf
Ifc
Ifb + Ifc Z f

Double line-to-ground fault Three-phase short-circuit fault

12
2.2 How to analyze a unbalanced power system?
When a double phase fault occurs between phase a and b in the
following system, the system becomes unbalanced.

Ia

S Ib N

Ic

  IN  0
VNS  0

As discussed in Chapter 1, the single-phase diagram can not be

used to calculate voltages and currents of a unbalanced system .
Fault analysis in this chapter is to introduce a simple method to
calculate the voltages and currents of a power system under
unbalanced conditions using single phase.

13
 2.3 Sequence components of 3 unbalanced phasors
It has been proven mathematically that an unbalanced set of three-
phase voltages or currents could be broken down into the three
balanced sequence sets each with three-phase sequence components.
Or: three unbalanced voltages are the sum of the respective balanced
sequence components as shown in the following phasor diagram or in
equation (1). V (1)
A VC

1200 VA(1) 1200 VA(2)

VC
+ VB(2) +
VA(0) VB(0) VC(0)
(2)
VB V (1) V C
 VA , VB , VC  B
 VA(1) , VB(1) , VC(1)   VA(2) , VB , VC 
(2) (2)
 VA(0) , VB(0) , VC(0) 

An unbalanced set of Positive Negative Zero

three phase voltages sequence set sequence set sequence set

VA  V  V  V
(0) (1) (2) Introducing phasor constant a=11200 ,
A A A
The properties of a are as follows:
VB  VB(0)  VB(1)  VB(2) (1)
a2 =a  a=11200 11200  12400
VC  VC(0)  VC(1)  VC(2)
a3 =1; a4  a; 1+a+a2 =0

14
Positive-sequence components: A set of three balance positive-
sequence components have the same magnitude, displaced from
each other by 1200 with the sequence ABC. ( a=11200 a2 =12400 )
VA(1)  V 0o
VB(1) =VA(1)  1  1200  VA(1)  12400  a 2 VA(1)  V   120o
VC(1) =VA(1)  1  2400  VA(1)  11200  aVA(1)  V   240o
Note: VA(1)  VB(1)  VC(1)  0
Negative-sequence components: A set of three balance negative-
sequence components have the same magnitude, displaced from
each other by 1200 with the sequence ACB.
VA(2)  V 0o
VB(2)  VA(2)  11200 =VA(2)  1  2400  aVA(2)  V 120o
VC(2) =VA(2)  1  1200  VA(2)  12400  a 2 VA(2)  V 240o
Note: VA(2)  VB(2)  VC(2)  0
Zero-sequence components: A set of three balance zero-sequence
components consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude and
phase.
VA  VB  VC
(0) (0) (0)
Note: VA(0)  VB(0)  VC(0)  3VA(0)

15
(Replace sequence components of phase B and C by sequence elements
of phase A in (1):

VA  VA(0)  VA(1)  VA(2) = VA(0) + VA(1) + VA(2)

VB  VB(0)  VB(1)  VB(2) = VA(0) + a2VA(1) + aVA(2)
VC  VC(0)  VC(1)  VC(2) = VA(0) + aVA(1) + a2VA(2)
Matrix form of (1): (find phase voltages from sequence voltages)

VA  1 1 1  VA(0)  VA(0)  1 1 1 

  
V  1 a 2
a  V(1)   A V(1)  (2) where A  1 a2 a 
 B   A   A   
 VC  1 a a  VA 
2 (2)
VA 
(2)
1 a a 
2

Multiply both side of (2) by A1 : (find sequence voltages from phase
voltages)
VA0  VA  1 1 1  VA  1 1 1 
1
 1  1   1
a 2  VB  (3) where A-1 = 1 a a2 
VA   A VB   3 1 a   3 
VA 2  VC  1 a 2 a  VC  1 a a 
2

1 1 1
Or VA(0)  (VA + VB + VC ) VA(1)  (VA + aVB + a2VC ) VA(2)  (VA + a2VB + aVC )
3 3 3

16
 Example 2.1: A three-phase line feeding a balanced Y connected
load has phase b opened. The load neutral is grounded, and the
unbalanced line currents are shown in the figure.

Calculate
(a) the sequence currents in phase a; I A  2000
A
(b) sequence currents in phase b and IB IC  201200
(c) the neutral current IN.
C
ZY ZY

 I(0)  1 1 1  IA  IA  N IN

Solution:  A  1    
I (1)
 1 a a 2   I B  = A -1  I B 
  3
A  ZY
 I(2)
A 
 1 a 2 a   IC   IC  B IB  0

a) I(0)  1 (I + I + I )  1 (2000  0  201200 )  6.666600 (A)

A A B C
3 3
1 1
I(1)
A  (I A + a I B + a 2
I C )   2000  0  20(1200  2400 )   13.33300 (A)
3 3
1 1
I(2)
A  (I A + a 2
I B + a I C )   2000  0  20(1200  1200 )   6.666  600 (A)
3 3

17
b) The sequence components in phase b:

B  I A  6.66660
I(0) (0) 0
(A)
B  a I A  13.333240
I(1) 2 (1) 0
(A)
B  aI A  6.666( 60  120 )  6.66660
I(2) (2) 0 0 0
(A)
I B  I(0)
B  I B  I B  6.66660  13.333240  6.66660  0
(1) (2) 0 0 0

c) I N  I A  I B  IC  2000  0  201200  20600  3I(0)

A

This result means that only zero sequence currents can

flow from neutral to ground.
There are no positive current and negative current from
the neutral to ground because

I A(1)  I B(1)  I C(1)  0

I A(2)  I B(2)  I C(2)  0

18
 Summary
 A unsymmetrical set can be decomposed into three symmetrical sets:
VC(1) -ve-sequence
VA  V  V  V
(0) (1) (2)
VA(1)
A A A
VA(2)
VB  VB(0)  VB(1)  VB(2) + +
VB(2)
VA(0) VB(0) VC(0)
VC  VC(0)  VC(1)  VC(2) +ve-sequence
VC(2) zero-sequence
VB(1)
 Transform phase components to sequence components:
 VA(0)  1 1 1   VA   VA  VB(0) = VA(0) VC(0) = VA(0)
 (1)  1     
 VA   3 1 a a 2   VB  = A -1  VB  VB(1) = a 2 VA(1) VC(1) = aVA(1)

 VA(2)  1 a 2 a   VC   VC  VB(2) = aVA(2) VC(2) = a 2 VA(2)

• Transform sequence components to phase components:

 VA  1 1 1   VA(0)   VA(0) 
      
V
    1 a 2
a   VA(1)   A  VA(1) 
B 
 VC  1 a a   VA(2) 
2
 VA(2) 

19
2.4 Sequence circuits of power system components

During normal operation of a power system, three voltage

sources are balanced and operate in positive sequence. Voltage
and current calculation is based on positive sequence circuits of
system components such as generators, transformers and
transmission lines.
When system operates in unbalanced conditions, voltages and
currents are not balanced. Those unbalanced voltages and
currents can be represented by positive, negative and zero
sequence voltages and currents. Therefore positive, negative and
zero sequence circuits for system components are required for
power system analysis under abnormal conditions.
In this section, single phase positive, negative and zero
sequence circuits for system components will be introduced to
analyze system sequence voltages and currents during abnormal
operation.
The main objective is to find the relationship of sequence voltage
and sequence current and the associate sequence circuit for
system components.

20
2.4.1 Sequence circuits of a 3-phase Y-connected load with neutral
impedance ZN
a) The relationships of unbalanced phase voltages and currents:
KVL: VAg  ZY I A  Z N I N  ZY I A  Z N (I A  I B  IC ) IA
A
 ( ZY  Z N )I A  Z N I B  Z N IC (1) +
C IC
VBg  Z N I A  ( Z N +ZY )I B  Z N IC (2) ZY ZY
VCg  Z N I A  Z N I B  ( ZY  Z N )IC (3) VAg
N IN
Matrix form of KVL equations (1)-(3):
ZY ZN
 VAg   ZY  Z N ZN ZN  IA  IA  B IB
  
 VBg    Z N ZY  Z N Z N   I B   Z  I B  (4)  g
   
V   Z ZY  Z N   IC   IC 
 Cg   N ZN Three phase circuit

Replacing phase voltages and currents of (4) by the sequence voltages

-1
(5) and currents (6) and multiplying both sides of (4) byA , gives (7)

 VAg   VAg
(0)
  IA   I(0)
A 
 VAg(0)
  I(0)
A 
   (1)   I   A  I(1)  (6)  (1)   (1) 
 V  = A  VAg  (5)  A V
 Ag   A -1
Z A IA  (7)
Bg  B
 VCg   VAg
(2)
  IC   I(2)
A 
  VAg
(2)
  I(2)
A 


21
 b) Multiplying A-1ZA in (7), the relationship of sequence voltages,
currents and impedances are as:

 VAg
(0)
  ZY  3Z N 0 0   I(0)A  Z0 0 0   I(0) A 
(0)
VAg  ( ZY  3Z N )I(0)A  Z 0IA
(0)

 (1)       
 VAg    0 ZY 0   I(1)  0 Z1 0   I(1) or V (1)
 Z I (1)
 Z I (1)
(8)
 A   A  Ag Y A 1 A
 VAg
(2)
  0 0 ZY   I(2)
A 
  0 0 Z 2   I(2)
A 
 VAg(2)
 ZY I (2)
A  Z I
2 A
(2)

where Z0=ZY+3ZN , Z1=ZY and Z2=ZY are positive,

negative and zero sequence impedance respectively. A IA

c) From (8), phase-A sequence circuits of the load: C IC

(0) ZY ZY
ZY N (1) ZY (2)
A IA A IA N A IA
ZY N
+

+ +
N IN

1
(0)
VAg  0
VNg 3Z N
(1)
VAg VNg  0 (2)
VAg  2
VNg 0 ZY ZN VNg
IB
 B
-
g Reference
-
g Reference
-
g Reference g 
(a) Zero-sequence circuit (b) Positive-sequence circuit (c) Negative-sequence circuit Y connected load
The sequence circuits of a complicated three phase load circuit for phase-A
is very simple. Positive and negative impedances is the same with the load
impedance. Zero sequence impedance is Z  Z  3Z .
0 Y N
0  0
From above circuits: VNg  I N Z N  VNg  0  0  3 I A Z N I N  3I(0)
A

* I N  3I A shows that only three zero sequence currents through ZN.

(0)

22
Example 2.2: A three phase Y connected load
with neutral impedance ZN =j1Ω. ZY =j1Ω. If A I A  200o
three phase unbalanced currents are supplied IC  20120o
C
to the three phase loads, ZY ZY
a) Determine three sequence currents.
b) Determine three sequence impedances. N IN
c) Calculate sequence voltages for phase-a. IB  0 ZY ZN
d) Calculate voltage from neutral to ground. B
g
Solutions:
a) I(0)  1 (I + I + I )  1 (2000  0  201200 )  6.666600 (A)
A A B C
3 3
1 1
I(1)
A  (I A + a I B + a 2
I C )  
 20 0 0
 0  20(120 0
 240 0
) 
  13.3330 0
(A)
3 3
1 1
I(2)
A  (I A + a 2
I B + a I C )   2000  0  20(1200  1200 )   6.666  600 (A)
3 3
b) Sequence impedances: Z1  Z 2  ZY  j1 ; Z 0  ZY  3Z N  j 4 
c) Sequence voltages: VAg  Z1I A  j1  13.333  j13.333 (V)
(1) (1)

(2)
VAg  Z1I (2)
A  j1  6.666  60  6.66630
o o
(V)
(0)
VAg  Z 0 I (0)
A  j 4  6.666  60 o
 26.664 150 o
(V)

A Z N  I N  3I A   j 3  6.66660  19.998150
d) VN =I N Z N  3I (0) (0) o o
(V)

23
2.4.2 a Y-connected load without neutral impedance
IA A IA
A
C IC
C IC
ZY ZY
ZN   ZY ZY

N IN
N
ZY ZN
ZY B IB
B IB
g
(0) ZY (1) ZY (2)
A IA N A IA N A IA
ZY N
(0) (1) (2)
VAg 3Z N VAg VAg

g Reference g Reference g Reference

(a) Zero-sequence circuit (b) Positive-sequence circuit (c) Negative-sequence circuit

AI A  0 Y
(0) Z (1) ZY (2)
A IA
ZY
N N A IA N
(0)
VAg ZN   (1)
VAg (2)
VAg

g Reference g Reference g Reference

(a) Zero-sequence circuit (b) Positive-sequence circuit (c) Negative-sequence circuit

24
2.4.3 a 3-phase Δ-connected balanced load

Convert Δ-connected loads into Y-connected:

IA A IA
A
1 C IC
I AB ZY  Z 
Z ZY ZY
Z 3
ICA Z
IC N
C
I BC
IB ZY
B B IB

Sequence circuits: ZN  
(2) Z / 3
A IA Z  / 3
(1)
A IA  0 A IA 
(0)

(0) (1) (2)

VAg VAg VAg

g Reference Reference Reference

(a) Zero-sequence circuit (b) Positive-sequence circuit (c) Negative-sequence circuit

25
2.4.4 Sequence circuits of a synchronous generator
Using the similar method as (2) I(0)
I (1)
I a a
2.4.1, the sequence circuits a a a a
are as: (See appendix)
Z
a Z  2
Ia V 1
(1)
Z Vaag(2) n (0)
0
V aag Vag
Va
Z E an 3Z n
Reference
Reference
E Reference
Z n I an
n n
E bn Positive, negative and zero sequence circuits
g
E cn
Ib Vag   Ean  ZI a   Ean  Z1 I a 
1 1 1
Z Z Sequence
c b Vag    ZI a    Z 2 I a 
2 2 2
circuit
Ic equations:
Vag     Z  3 Z n  I a    Z 0 I a
0 0 0

*Only zero sequence current through Zn.

*For neutral solidly grounded Zn =0 and for neutral opened Zn =∞.

2.4.5 Sequence circuits of a synchronous motor

When a fault occurs, synchronous motors temporarily act as
generators. The sequence networks are the same with generator.

26
2.4.6 Sequence circuits of transformers
A transformer is connected between two buses. Three windings on each
side can be connected into Y or ∆. Therefore, there are six type
transformers based on connections.
Type 1: Three-phase Y-Y transformer with the two grounded neutrals. Z
is the total impedance of transformer refer to primary side.

Based on dot convention: I A and I a are in phase. VAn and Van are in phase.

Phasor diagram:
IA Ia VAn Van

Z A IA Ia
Voltage equation: A' a
Z B NA Na
VAN N A B' b

Van N a IB N N VAN Van n Nb Ib
B
Current equation: IN Z N Zn In
I A Na NC g
 Z C IC Nc Ic
Ia N A C' c

27
a) The relationship of phase currents, voltages and impedance of the Y-Y
transformer under per unit system:
Z A IA N1 : N 2 Ia
Under per A' a
+ +
unit system: Z B VA’g Vag
B' b
VAN  Van IB N VAN Van n Ib
I A  Ia IN Z N Zn In

IC - g - Ic
Z C
KVL equations: C' c
Primary side: VA' VA' g   VAN  ZI A  Z N I N  VAN   Z  Z N  I A  Z N I B  Z N I C
Secondary sides: Va Vag   Van  Z n I n  Van  Z n I a  Z n Ib  Z n I c

Voltage cross two VA '  Va   Z  Z N  Z n  I A   Z N  Z n  I B   Z N  Z n  I C

buses A’ and a:
 Z S I A  Z m I B  Z m I C where  Z S  Z  Z N  Z n ; Z m  Z N  Z n  (1)
Voltage cross B’ and b: VB '  Vb  Z m I A  Z s I B  Z m I C (2)
Voltage cross C’ and c: VC '  Vc  Z m I A  Z m I B  Z s I C (3)
VA'  Va   Zs Zm Zm   I A 
    
Matrix form of
VB '  Vb    Zm Zs Zm   I B 
equations (1)-(3): (4)
VC '  Vc   Zm Zm Z s   IC 
 

28
 VA'  Va  VA 0'   Va 0  IA   I A 0 
Replacing phase voltages    1 1
    1 
and currents in (4) by the VB '  Vb   A  VA'  Va  (5)  I B   A  I A  (6)
sequence voltages (5) VC '  Vc    2  2   IC    2 
   A'
V  Va      I A 
and currents (6),
equation (4) becomes:
VA 0'   Va 0   Z Zm Zm   I A 
 0
 1  s
 1 
A  VA'  Va     Zm
1
Zs 
Zm  A  I A  (7)
  2  2   Z Z s   I A 2 
 A'
V  Va    m
Zm
 

VA 0'   Va 0   Zs Zm   I A 

 0
Multiplying both sides  
Zm
 1 
A1 A1 A  VA '   Va    A1  Zm
1 1
Zs 
Zm  A  I A  (8)
of (7) by , gives:
  2  2   Zm Z s   I A 2 
 A'
V  Va  
Zm
 
b) Equations
of Sequence VA0'   Va0   Z  3Z  3Z  0
  I A   Z0
 0
 I A 
voltages and  1 
1
 
N n
  1     1 
currents
VA'  Va    Z I 
 A  
Z1
  A  (9)
I
  2  2   Z   I A 2   Z2   I A 2 
becomes:  A'
V  Va       

29
c) From (9), sequence circuits and equations for two neutrals-grounded Y-Y
transformer are as follows:

A' I(1) Z I(1)

a
A

VA '   Va   Z1 I A 

1 1 1

Positive-sequence
Z1  Z
(1)
VA' Va(1)
VA1'   Va1  Z1 I A1
Reference

A' I(2)
A
Z I(2)
a

VA '   Va   Z 2 I A 

2 2 2
Negative-sequence
(2)
VA' Z2  Z Va(2)
VA 2'   Va 2  Z 2 I A 2
Reference

A' I(0)
A Z 3Z N 3Z n I(0)
a

VA 0'   Va 0  Z 0 I A 0

Zero-sequence (0)
VA' Z 0   Z  3Z N  3Z n  Va(0)
VA 0'   Va 0  Z 0 I A 0
Reference

30
Type 2: Y-Y transformer with one neutral-grounded

The positive- and negative-sequence circuits of type 2 are the same as

those of Type 1 because they are only related to transformer winding
impedance Z.
(0) (1) (2)
Z A I A =I A +I A +I A N1 : N 2 Ia =I(0) (1) (2)
a +I a +I a
A' a
(0) (1) (2)
Z B I B =I B +I B +I B I b =I(0) (1) (2)
b +I b +I b
B' b
Zero-sequence
currents can not N n
exist in the I N =0 Z N
ungrounded Y side
based on KCL: Z C Ic =I(0) (1) (2)
c +I c +I c
C' c
IC =I(0) (1) (2)
C +I C +I C

I a0  
1
I a  I b  I c   0
I A   0 I a   0
3 0 0

A'
*Due to the magnetic
N 2  0 Va(0)
coupling I A  
0 (0)
Ia  0 . VA'
N1
Reference

Zero-sequence circuit

31
Type 3: ∆-∆ connected transformer

The positive and negative sequence circuits for all the transformer are the
same because they are only related to winding impedance Z.
However, the zero sequence circuit depends on the routes of zero
sequence currents and magnetic couplings.

KCL at primary side:

IA Ia a
IA  I B  IC  0 A
1 Z
I(0)
A  (I A  I B  IC )  0 IB Ic
3 B c
The same for secondary IC Ib
C b
side: (0)
Ia  0
Therefore there are no zero A'
sequence currents at the
I A   0 a 0
0
terminal of the transformer. (0)
VA'
I(0) Va(0)
There are not zero sequence
currents in the ∆ loops because Reference

of no zero sequence energy

source in the ∆ loops. Zero-sequence circuit

32
Type 4: Y-∆ transformer with grounded Y
A' (0) (1) (2)
A I A =I A +I A +I A Ia =I(0) (1) (2)
a +I a +I a
Magnetic coupling: N1 : N 2
a

A  N 2 I ab
N1I(0) (0) Iab
VANVab
(0) (1) (2)
B I B =I B +I B +I B Ic =I(0) (1) (2)
NI (0)
1 B N I (0)
2 bc
B' I N =3I(0)
A I bc Ica c +I c +I c
N
ZN c
NI (0)
1 C N I (0)
2 ca (0) (1) (2)
I b =I(0) (1) (2)
C' C IC =IC +IC +IC b +I b +I b

When there are zero- b

(0)
sequence currents in Y I =0
a
windings, there will be I(0)
A
I(0)
ab
zero sequence currents in N2
N1
the ∆ loop also because
they are equal and can
I(0)
B I N =3I (0) I(0)
ca I(0)
c =0
A
circulate inside. N I(0)
ZN bc

Zero sequence circuit: I(0)

C I(0)
b =0
I(0)
A Z I(0)
a
0

(0)  0 Zero-sequence current circulates within Δ-loop

VA' 3Z N I ab of the three-phase windings because I(0)  I(0)  I(0)
ab bc ca

No zero sequence currents at the

VA '    Z  3Z N  I A ' 
0 0
I a 0  0 secondary terminal because:I a0   I ab0   I ca0   0

33
Type 5: Y-∆ with ungrounded Y transformer
There are no zero-sequence currents in Y
side because of KCL.
IA Ia
I A  I B  IC  0
IB
 I A  I B  I C   0
0  1
IA N
3 Ib
IC
Similarly, there are no zero-sequence
currents in ∆ side terminal because of Ic
KCL.

I a  Ib  Ic  0

1
I a 0 
3
 I a  Ib  Ic   0 I(0)
A Z I(0) 0
a

There are no zero-sequence currents in

the ∆ loop because of no sources in the (0)
VA'
loop. Therefore:

I A 0  I a 0  I ab
0
0
Zero sequence circuit:

34
 Summary of sequence circuits of three-phase transformers:
Type Symbol Connection diagram Zero-sequence , +-tive circuits
Z 3Z N 3Z n Z
P Q
1 ZN Zn
N
Z N Zn
n

Reference Reference

Z
2 ZN
N
ZN
n

Reference Reference

3
N n

Reference Reference

4 Reference
Reference

Z 3Z N
Z
5 N
ZN Reference
Reference
Z

6 N
Reference
Reference
35
2.4.7 Sequence circuits of transmission lines

Transmission line is connected A IA Z A'

+ +
between two buses A and A’. The
relationship of the sequence VAn B IB Z B' VA ' n '
voltages, currents and + +
impedances is derived in detail in
Appendix. VBn C IC Z C' VB ' n '
+ +
The sequence circuits and VCn VC ' n '
voltage equations are as follows: In - - -
- - -
n n'
A three-phase transmission line
(1) Z1
(0)
A IA Z0 A' A IA A' (2)
A IA Z2 A'

VA(0) VA'(0) VA(1) VA'(1) VA'(2)

VA(2)
Reference Reference
Reference
Zero-sequence circuit Positive-sequence circuit
Negative-sequence circuit
 0  0  0 1 1 1
VAn   VA ' n'  Z1 I A 
2 2 2
VAn  VA ' n '  Z 0 I A VAn  VA ' n '  Z1 I A

The positive and negative sequence impedances are the same. However,
zero sequence impedance is larger than the positive sequence
impedance because of different sequence magnetic fields.

36
The sequence circuits of major components for fault analysis
Symbol Zero-sequence , +-tive circuits
Z
Z 3Z N 3Z n
ZN Zn
Reference Reference

Z
Z 3Z N

Reference Reference

Z
Other
connections of
transformers Reference Reference

Transmission Z0 Z1  Z 2
line Reference Reference

P P
Z0 Z1
jX N + Z2
P 3Z N Reference
E an Reference Reference
-

Z0 P P
Other Z1
connections + Z2
of machines Reference E an Reference Reference
-

37
2.5 Sequence circuits of a power system
Example 2.3: Sketch the positive-, negative- and zero-sequence equivalent circuits for
the following power system. (Connect the sequence impedances of the components to
the corresponding buses to form the system sequence circuits)

ZT(1)1 Z L(1)1 ZT(1)2

Solutions:
Bus 4 Bus 5
Positive
(1)
ZN Z T3
Bus 6 Bus 7 ZT(1)6
jX G11 jX G12
+ Bus 1 Z L(1)2 Z L(1)3 Bus 3 +
VG1 Bus 8 Bus 9 VG 2
-
ZT(1)4 ZT(1)5 -

Bus 2

(2) (2) (2)

ZT(0)1 Z L(0)1 ZT(0)2
Z T1 Z L1 Z T2

Zero
Negative
(2) (2) ZT(0)3 ZT(0)6
Z Z
jX G(2)1
T3 T6
jX G(2)2 jX G(0)1 jX G(0)2
Z L(2)2 Z L(2)3 Z L(0)2 Z L(0)3
3Z N
Z (2)
T4
Z (2)
T5
ZT(0)4 ZT(0)5

38
2.6 Thevinin equivalent circuit of a sequence circuit seen from bus k

The Thevinin equivalent circuits seen from a bus of the sequence circuits are
very important for fault analysis. As we discussed in section 1.4, any complex
circuit seen from bus k to ground can be represented by the Thevenin
equivlant circuit, which consists of a Thevenin impedance connected in series
with Thevenin voltage source. Therefore the Thevinin equivalent circuits seen
from bus k of the sequence circuits are as follows:

Z kk(1) I (1)
fa
Z kk(2) I(2)
fa
Z kk(0) I(0)
fa

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Vka(0)

Vf Vka(1) Vka(2)

Positive-sequence Negative-sequence Zero-sequence

(1)
V =Vf - Z I
ka
(1) (1)
kk fa
(2)
V =-Z I (2) (2) Vka(0) = - Z kk(0) I(0)
fa
ka kk fa

Vka(1) , Vka(2) , and Vka(0) : Sequence components of voltage Vka at the fault bus
I (0)
fa , I (1)
fa , and I (2)
fa : Sequence components of current Ifa at the fault point

Z kk(1) , Z kk(2) , and Z kk(0) : Thevenin sequence impedances

Vf: pre-fault voltage on phase a at fault bus k.

39
Example 2.4: The single-phase diagram of a power system is shown in the
following figure, where the reactances are also given. The neutral of the
synchronous motor (Machine 2) is grounded through a reactance Xn=0.05 per
unit on the motor base. Draw the per-phase per-unit sequence networks and
associated Thevinin equivalent circuits seen from bus 2 on 100-MVA, 13.8-kV
(machine side) base. Assume that source voltage Vs=1.05pu

T1 T2 Machine2
Machine1
1 3 Line 4 2
X 1  X 2  20 Xn
100MVA X 0  60 100MVA
13.8kV 13.8kV
X "  X1 100MVA 100MVA X "  X 1  0.20 p.u.
13.8kV  /138kV Y 138kV Y/13.8kV 
 0.15 p.u. X 2  0.21 p.u. X 0  0.1 p.u.
X 2  0.17 p.u. X  0.10 p.u. X  0.10 p.u.
X 0  0.05 p.u. X n  0.05 p.u.

Solution: VLL2 (138kV) 2

Base impedance for the line:   190.4()
S3 100MVA
The per unit impedances for the transmission line:
X1=X2=20/190.4=0.105 and X0=60/190.4=0.315pu.

40
Positive-sequence network: Thevenin equivalent circuits

j 0.1389 I(1)
fa
j 0.1 j 0.105 j 0.1 Z th(1) =
j 0.15 j 0.20
= j 0.20 || ( j 0.15 + j 0.305) 1.0500 V2a(1)
1.050 0 1.050 0

= j 0.1389

Negative-sequence network:
j 0.1456 I(2)
fa
j 0.1 j 0.105 j 0.1 Zth(2) =
j 0.17 j 0.21 = j0.21|| ( j0.17 + j0.305) V2a(2)
= j0.1456

Zero sequence network:

j 0.25 I(0)
fa
Zth(0) =
j 0.1 j 0.315 j 0.1 j 0.1 = ( j0.1+ j0.15) V2a(0)
j 0.05
j 0.15 = j0.25

41
Exercise: The one-line diagram for a power system with two synchronous
generators is given in the following figure. The ratings and reactances of the
generators and transformers are
G1 and G2: 100MVA, 20kV, X1=X2=20%, X0=6% and XN=5%.
Transformers T1 and T2: 100MVA, 20 / 345Y kV and X=10%.
The three transmission lines have the same sequence reactance.
On the base of 100MVA 345kV, the line sequence reactances:
X 1  X 2  10%, X 0  30%
Determine the per-unit Thevenin impedances from bus 5 for the positive-,
negative-, and zero-sequence networks, respectively.

TL1

jX N
TL2 TL3

Ans.:

Z th(1)  j 0.2pu, Z th(2)  j 0.2pu, Z th(0)  j 0.275pu

42
2.7 Phase shift of a Y-∆ transformer
A' A IA N1 : N 2 Ia
a
Iab
VANVab
B' IB IN I bc Ica Ic
B
N
ZN c

C' C IC Ib
b
(1)
1) Voltage Dot convention: VAN
The voltages from the dot point to the non-dot
point of the two coupling windings are in phase: (1) Vab(1) (a)
For example, VAN and Vab are in phase; VBN and Vbc V ca
are in phase; VCN and Vca are in phase for positive (1)
sequence. VCN Vbc(1) VBN
(1)

2) Current Dot convention: I(1)

C
The current entering the dot point in primary I(1)
ca
winding is in phase with the current leaving the
dot point in the secondary coupling winding. IA I(1)
bc
(b)
and Iab are in phase. IB and Ibc are in phase. IC
and Ica are in phase for positive sequence. I(1)
B I(1)
ab I(1)
A

43
3) Positive sequence: (phase shift!!!!!! Different current angle)
I(1) (1)
A leads I a by 30
0
 I A(1)  1300  I a(1)
(1)
VAB leads Vab(1) by 300 I(1)
A N :N I(1)
a
A 1 2
a
V (1)
AN leads V (1)
an by 30  V0 (1)
A  130  V
0 (1)
a I(1)
ca

4) Negative sequence: (phase shift) VAN

(1)
Vab(1)
I (2)
lags I (2)
by 30 0 I(1)
B
I(1)
ab I(1)
A a B c
c
(2) (2) 0
N I(1)
V AB lags V ab by 30 ZN bc

(2)
VAN lags Van(2) by 300 I(1)
C I(1)
b
C b
30o

Van(1)

Vab(1)

Vcn(1) Vbn(1)
Van(1)
Van(1) is the phase voltage of the
equivalent Y of the  windings

44
5) Current/voltage calculation of a circuit with Y/∆ transformer
The following two circuits with/without Y-∆ transformer have the same
impedance and same current seen from terminals 11’.

KVL in the input loop for Circuit 1: Circuit 1

I(1)
A Z I(1)
a Z1
V11'1  I A1 Z  VA1  I A1 Z  Va1 30o  VA(1)  1300  Va(1)
 I A1 Z  I a1 Z130o  Va(1)  I a(1)  Z1
V111'  VA(1) Va(1)
 I A1 Z  I A1   30o Z130o  I a(1)  I A(1)  1300
 I A1  Z  Z1  (1)
Phase shifter
KVL for Circuit 2: V11'  I A  Z  Z1  (2)
1 1
Circuit 2
The currents for the two circuit are as
1 I A1  Z Z1
V11'
I A1  (3)
Z  Z1
The phase shift of a Y-∆ transformer does not
V111' 
affect the input voltage and current calculation.

*The sequence voltages and currents at one side of a ∆/Y transformer

can be calculated without considering the phase shift.
*The phase shifts can be added to the currents and voltages on other
side after calculation.

45
Example 2.5: A bolted single line-to-ground fault occurs on phase a at
bus 2 of the power system. The sequence components of phase-a
current flowing from Y side of T1 to bus 2 are:
I (0)
a  1.8492   90 0
pu I (2)
a  1.3586   90 0
pu I (1)
a  1.3586  90 0
pu
Calculate per-unit phase currents flowing from G1 to bus 1.

Transmission Line
jX N

20 / 345Y kV

(0) (1) (2)

Solutions: Ia,G1 =Ia,G1 +Ia,G1 +Ia,G1 Ia =I(0)
a +I (1)
a +I (2)
a

Convert sequence currents

form Y side to ∆ side.
Calculate phase currents
from the sequence
currents.

46
 (0) (1) (2)
Ia,G1 =Ia,G1 +Ia,G1 +Ia,G1 Ia =I(0)
a +I (1)
a +I (2)
a

a  1.8492  90 pu
I (0) 0

a  1.3586  90 pu
I(1) 0

a  1.3586  90 pu
I (2) 0

Considering phase shifts for positive and negative currents between

two sides of the transformer, and also considering the path of zero
sequence current, the sequence components of phase-a current from
G1 to bus 1:
a,G1  0
I(0)

a,G1  I a  1  30  1.3586( 90  30 )  1.3586  120

I (1) (1) 0 0 0 0

a,G1  I a  130  1.3586( 90  30 )  1.3586  60

I(2) (2) 0 0 0 0

 Ia,G1  1 1 1   Ia,G1
(0)
  0    j 2.3532 
    (1) 
 I 
  1 a 2
a   Ia,G1    A  1.3586  1200    j 2.3532  pu
b,G1     
 Ic,G1  1 a a   Ia,G1 
2 (2)
 1.3586  60  
0
0 

47
 Summary

a) Transform three unbalance voltages or currents into three

sets of balance sequence voltages.
b) Transform the sequence voltages into three unbalance
voltages or currents.
c) The sequence circuits of components:
*Zero Sequence circuits for transformers and Machines
d) The positive, negative and zero sequence networks of
a power system
e) Thevenin equivalent circuits of the sequence networks
seen from any bus
f) Phase shifts of positive and negative sequence voltages
and currents cross ∆/Y transformers

48
 2.8 Thevenin sequence networks connection and fault analysis
at fault location
Section 2.8 introduces the connections of the Thevenin sequence circuits at
the fault bus k and the corresponding sequence current and voltage
calculations at fault location for three unbalance faults.

2.8.1 Single line-to-ground fault at Bus k

• Phase voltages and current equations at the

fault bus k with fault impedance Zf :
a
Ifa
I fb  I fc  0 (1), Vka  Z f I fa (2) Zf
b
• Find sequence voltage and current equations: Ifb
 I(0)
fa  1 1 1   Ifa  1 1 1   Ifa  c
 (1)  1    1  
a 2   Ifb   1 a a 2   0  (3)
Ifc
 Ifa   3 1 a  3  Fig. 1 phase-a-to-ground fault
 I(2)
fa 
 1 a 2 a   Ifc  1 a 2 a   0 

From (3), I (0)

fa =I (1)
fa =I (2)
fa =I fa / 3 or I fa  3I (0)
fa (4)

Vka  Z f I fa  3 Z f I (0)
fa  V (0)
ka +V (1)
ka +V (2)
ka  3 Z I (0)
f fa (5)

49
2.8.1 Single line-to-ground fault (continue)
• Thevenin sequence circuit connection at the Z kk(0) I(0)
fa
fault bus k:
(0) (1) (2) Vka(0)
I =I =I
fa fa fa (3)
Z kk(1) I(1)
fa
Vka(0) +Vka(1) +Vka(2)  3 Z f I (0)
fa (5)
Vf Vka(1) 3Z V
f ka
• Sequence currents at the fault bus k:
Z kk(2) I(2)
fa
Vf
I (0) (1) (2)
fa =I fa =I fa = (6) Vka(2)
Z kk(0)  Z kk(1)  Z kk(2)  3Z f
I(0) (1) (2)
fa =I fa =I fa
• Sequence voltages at the fault bus k:
Fig. 2 connection
Vka(1) =Vf - Z kk(1) I(1) (2) (2) (2)
fa , Vka = - Z kk I fa , Vka(0) = - Z kk(0) I (0)
fa (7)

• Phase voltages and currents at the fault bus k:

 Ifa  1 1 1   I(0) fa   Vka  1 1 1   Vka(0) 

         
I
 fb    1 a 2
a   I(1) (8), V  1 a 2
a   Vka(1)  (9)
 fa   kb   
 Ifc  1 a a 2   I(2)
fa 
  Vkc  1 a a   Vka(2) 
2

50
2.8.2 Line-to-Line fault (double phase fault ) at bus k
a
•Phase current and voltage equations for the Ifa
fault between phase b and c:
b
I fa  0 (1), I fb   I fc (2), V k b  V k c  Z f I fb (3)
Ifb +
Z f Vkb - Vkc
•Current equations at bus k: c
Ifc -
 I(0) Fig. 1 phase-b-to-phase-c fault
fa  1 1 1   Ifa  1 1 1  0 
 (1)  1    1
 Ifa   3 1 a a 2   Ifb   1 a a 2   Ifb  I(0)
fa =0
 3   (4)
1
 I(2)
fa 
 1 a 2 a   Ifc  1 a 2 a  -Ifb  I (1)
fa =  I (2)
fa = ( a  a 2
)I fb
3
 Ifa  1 1 1   I(0)
fa  1 1 1  0 
     
a   I(1) a   I(1)  I fb  a 2 I (1
fa  a I fa
) (2 )
I
    1 a 2

  1 a 2
(5)
fb  fa   fa
 Ifc  1 a a   Ifa  1 a
2 (2)
a   I(2)
2
fa   ( a 2  a ) I fa(1 )
•Voltage equations at bus k:
 Vka  1 1 1   Vka(0) 
     Vkb  Vka(0)  a 2 Vka(1)  aVka(2)
V
    1 a 2
a   Vka(1)  (6) Vkb  Vkc  Z f I fb
kb  Vkc  V  aV  a V
(0) (1) 2 (2)
 Vkc  1 a a   Vka(2) 
2 ka ka ka

(a  a)V +(a  a )V
2 (1)
ka
2 (2)
ka  Z f (a  a)I2 (1)
fa
Vka(1)  Vka(2)  Z f Ifa(1) (6)

51
• Sequence network connection at bus k:
I (f 0a ) = 0 : No zero sequence current for this fault.

Only positive and negative

sequence circuits exist: Z kk(1) I(1)
fa
Zf I(2)
fa Z kk(2)
fa =  I fa
I (1) (2)

Vka(1)  Vka(2)  Z f I(1)

fa Vf Vka(1) Vka(2)

• Sequence currents at bus k:

Fig. 2 Sequence circuit connection
Vf
fa =  I fa 
I(1) (2)
(7)
Z kk(1)  Z kk(2)  Z f
 Ifa  1 1 1  0 
  
I
    1 a 2
a   I(1) 
(8)
• Phase currents at bus k: fb   fa
 Ifc  1 a a   I(2)
2
fa 

 Vka  1 1 1  0 
• Phase voltages at bus k:   
a   Vka(1) 
(9)
V
 kb   1 a 2
 
 Vkc  1 a a   Vka 
2 (2)

52
2.8.3 Double line-to-ground fault analysis (double phase-to-ground fault)

• Phase current and voltage equations: a

Vkb  Vkc  (I fb  I fc ) Z f (2) Ifa
Ifa  0, (1)
• Sequence currents and voltage b
Ifb
equations:

Ifb +Ifc =3I(0) (3)

c
I(0)
fa =(I fb +I fc +0)1/3 fa Ifc
+
Vkb  Vkc   I fb  I fc  Z f  3Z f I (0)
fa
Ifb + Ifc Z f Vkb
-
 Vka(0)  1 1 1   Vka 
1   Vka 
1 1 Fig. 1
 (1)  1    1  
 Vka   3 1 a a 2   Vkb   1 a
a 2  3Z f I (0)
fa  (4)
  3
 Vka(2)  1 a 2 a   Vkc 
a  3Z f I (0)
1 a 2fa 

(1 ) (2 )
The second and third rows of (5) show that V k a = V k a (6)
The first row of (5) shows that:Vka

3Vka(0)  Vka +2(3Z f Ifa(0) )= Vka(0)  Vka(1)  Vka(2)  2(3Z f Ifa(0) )  Vka(0)  2Vka(1)  2(3Z f I(0)
fa )

Vka(1)  Vka(2)  Vka(0)  3Z f Ifa(0) Or Vka(0)  Vka(1) (orVka(2) )  3Z f Ifa(0) (7)

53
• Sequence network connection:

(1) (2) Z kk(1) I(1) Z kk(2) I(2) Z kk(0) I(0)

V =Vka ka (5) fa fa fa

Vf Vka(1) Vka(2) Vka(0)

V(0)
ka  V  3Z I
(1)
ka
(0)
f fa (6)
3Z f
• Sequence currents and voltages:
Vf Fig. 2
I(1)
fa =
Z kk(1) + Z kk(2) || ( Z kk(0) + 3Z f )
(0) Vka(1) =Vf - Z kk(1) I(1)
fa
Z + 3Z f
I (2)
fa = - (2)
kk
(0)
I (1)
fa Vka(2) = - Z kk(2) I(2)
Z kk +Z kk + 3Z f fa

Z (2) Vka(0) = - Z kk(0) Ifa(0)

I(0)
fa = -
kk
Ifa(1)
Z kk(2) + Z (0)
kk + 3Z f
Step 8: Phase voltages and currents:

 Ifa  1 1 1   I(0) fa   Vka  1 1 1   Vka(0) 

    
I
 fb    1 a 2
a   I(1)   
V  1 2 
a   Vka(1) 

 fa    
kb a

 Ifc  1 a a 2   I(2)
fa 
  Vkc  1 a a   Vka(2) 
2

54
2.9 Procedure of fault analysis at fault bus (Summary)

The procedure to calculate phase voltages and currents at the fault bus
includes seven steps.
Step 1: Draw system single phase sequence networks based on the
sequence circuits of components and network connection (before the
fault). (Section 2.5)
Step 2: Determine Thevenin equivalent circuits of the phase sequence
networks seen from the fault bus k. (Section 2.6)
Step 3: Draw connection of the Thevenin equivalent circuits of
sequence networks at the fault bus based on fault type. (Section 2.8)
Step 4: Calculate the sequence currents at the fault bus based on the
connection of Thevenin equivalent networks. (Section 2.8)
Step 5: Calculate the sequence voltages at the fault bus based on the
sequence current using the equations at Step 2.
Step 6: Calculate the phase currents and voltages at fault bus based on
the sequence currents and voltages using A matrix.
The procedure will be illustrated in the following examples.

55
Example 2.6: The system in the example 2.4 is shown as follow. If a
bolted single line-to-ground fault occurs on phase a at bus 2.
a) Determine the sequence currents of phase a at the fault
point.
b) Calculate the fault currents flowing from bus 2 to ground.
c) Sequence voltages and phase voltages at bus2 ???

T1 T2 Machine2
Machine1
1 3 Line 4 2
X 1  X 2  0.105 p.u. X n  0.05 p.u.
100MVA X 0  0.315 p.u. 100MVA
13.8kV 13.8kV
X 1  0.15 p.u. 100MVA 100MVA X 1  0.20 p.u.
X 2  0.17 p.u. 13.8kV  /138kV Y 138kV Y/13.8kV  X 2  0.21 p.u.
X 0  0.05 p.u. X  0.10 p.u. X  0.10 p.u. X 0  0.1 p.u.

56
Solutions:
From example 2.4, The Thevinin equivalent circuits of the sequence
networks seen from bus 2 (Step 2):

j 0.1389 I(1)
fa
j 0.1456 I(2)
fa
j 0.25 I(0)
fa

1.0500 V2a(1) V2a(2) V2a(0)

The connection of three Thevinin equivalent j 0.25 I(0)

fa
circuits: (Single line-to-ground fault)
V2a(0)
a) Sequence currents at bus 2 (Step 4):
Vf j 0.1389 I(1)
I(0)
fa =I(1)
fa =I(2)
fa = fa

Zth(0)  Zth(1)  Zth(2)  3 0

1.0500 V2a(1)
1.0500
   j1.9645 pu j 0.1456 I(2)
j0.25  j0.1389  j0.1456 fa

b) Phase currents at bus 2 (Step 6): V2a(2)

fa  3  ( j1.9645)   j5.8934 pu Ifb ? Ifc ?

Ifa =3I(0) (Step 3)

57
2.10 Current and voltage calculation for other system parts

When a fault occurs at a bus, it will affect not only the currents and
voltages at the fault bus but also other part of a power system.
Therefore it is also important to calculate the currents and voltages in
the other parts of a power system. The procedure includes the
following steps.
Step 7: Add the sequence currents at the fault bus from Step 4 to the
fault bus as sequence current sources in the original sequence
networks.
Step 8: Calculate the sequence currents and voltages from the
corresponding circuits using the methods for circuit analysis such as
KCL and KVL.
Step 9: Add the phase shift for the sequence voltages and currents
cross ∆/Y transformers using the current and voltage at the fault bus
as the references.
Step 10 (Same as Step 6): Calculate the phase voltages and currents
based on the sequence voltages and currents.
The procedure will be illustrated using the following example.

58
Example 2.7: For the system shown in Example 2.4, a bolted single line-to-
ground fault occurs on phase a at bus 2.
a)Calculate phase currents flowing from machine 2 to bus 2.
b)Calculate phase currents through transmission line.

Solutions:
Step1: From the solutions of example 2.4, the sequence networks are as:
1 3 4 2
j 0.1 j 0.105 j 0.1 j 0.1 j 0.105 j 0.1
j 0.15 j 0.20 j 0.17 j 0.21

1.0500 1.0500
g

Fig. (1) Positive-sequence Fig. (2) Negative-sequence

j 0.1 j 0.315 j 0.1 j 0.1

j 0.05
j 0.15

Fig. (3) Zero-sequence

59
a) Connect the sequence currents (
calculated in example 2.6) to the I(1)
corresponding system sequence
j 0.1 j 0.105 j 0.1 A

networks at bus 2: (Step 7) j 0.15 j 0.20 Fig. (1’)

I(1)
fa
Positive-sequence network with 1.0500 Step 7 1.0500
positive-sequence current at bus 2:
I(2)
A
Negative-sequence network with j 0.1 j 0.105 j 0.1
negative-sequence current at bus 2: j 0.17 j 0.21 Fig. (2’)
I(2)
fa
Step 7

Zero-sequence network with zero-

(0)
Iline 0
I(0)
A
sequence current at bus 2: j 0.1 j 0.315 j 0.1 j 0.1
j 0.05 Fig. (3’)
Sequence currents from machine 2 Step 7 (0)
to bus 2 (current divider, Step 8):
I fa
j 0.15

j0.455
I A1   I fa1   0.695I fa1   I A  1 1 1   I(0)
j0.2  j0.455 A 
    
j0.475 I
 B   1 a 2
a   I(1)  ?? (1)
I A2   I fa 2   0.693I fa 2   A
j0.21  j0.475  IC  1 a a 2   I(2) 
A  (Step 10)

I A0   I fa 0  Phase currents from machine 2 to bus 2

60
b) The sequence currents through transmission line:
Because transmission line is connected to Y side and the fault is at ∆
side of the transformer, the phase shifts for positive and negative
sequence currents have to be considered.

Line
X 1  X 2  20 Xn
100MVA X 0  60 100MVA
13.8kV 13.8kV
100MVA 100MVA
(1)
without considering phase shift (step 8): Iline
(1)
Iline  Ifa(1)  I(1)
A line  Ifa  IA
I(2) (2) (2) (0)
Iline 0 j 0.1 j 0.105 j 0.1 I(1)
A

j 0.15 j 0.20
Add phase shift (Step 9): I(1)
 
fa
I(1)
line   I (1)
fa  I (1)
A  30 Iline  I(2)
o (2)
fa  IA  30
(2) o
1.0500
(Step 7): 1.0500
The phase currents : (2)
Iline
 Ifaline  1 1 1  I (0)
 I(2)
A
line j 0.1 j 0.105 j 0.1
    I 
I
 fbline   1 a 2
a (1)
 ? j 0.17 I(2) j 0.21
 line
fa
 Ifcline  1 a a  I
2 (2)

   line 

61
Example 2.8: When a bolted line-to-line fault between phases b and c occurs
at bus 2 of the system in Example 2.4,
a)Calculate the phase fault currents at bus 2.
b)Calculate the phase voltages at bus 2 after the fault.

j 0.1389 I(1)
fa
I(2)
fa
j0.1456
Solutions:
For a bolted fault, Z f =0 (1)
1.0500 V2a V2a(2)

Vf 1.0500
a): fa  0
I(0) I =  I = (1)
(1)
fa
(2)
fa    j 3.6907 pu
Z th  Z th(2)  0 j 0.1389  j 0.1456
 Ifa  1 1 1   I(0)
fa  1 1 1  0   0 
    
I
 fb    1 a 2
a   Ifa(1)   1 a 2 a    j 3.6907    6.3925 pu
     
 Ifc  1 a a   Ifa  1 a
2 (2)
a   j 3.6907   6.3925 
2

b): V2a(2) =V2a(1) = -Z th(2) Ifa(2) = - j 0.1456´ j 3.6907 = 0.5374pu and V2a(0) = 0
 0
V2 a  1 1 1  V2 a  1 1 1   0   1.0748 
V   1 a 2   1  
 2b   a  V2 a   1 a 2 a  0.5374   -0.5374  pu
V2 c  1 a a 2  V2a2  1 a a 2  0.5374  -0.5374 
 

62
2.9 Three phase-to-ground fault
The fault conditions at fault bus k: a
Ifa
Vka =Vkb =Vkc =0 b
Ifb
Sequence voltages at bus k: c
Ifc
1
Vka(0) = (Vka + Vkb + Vkc ) = 0 Fig. 1
3
1 1
Vka(1) = (Vka + aVkb + a 2 Vkc ) = 0 Vka(2) = (Vka + a 2 Vkb + aVkc ) = 0
3 3
Apply the above sequence voltages to the equivalent circuits:

Z kk(1) I(1)
fa Z kk(2) I(2)
fa Z kk(0) I(0)
fa

Vf
I fa 
(1) 1
Vf V ka 1 I(2)
fa = 0
(2)
V I(0)
fa = 0 Vka(0)
Z kk ka

Therefore, three phase fault is the balanced fault and there are only
positive fault voltages and currents to be calculated from positive
network.

63
 Summary for Chapter 2:
• Draw the per-phase per-unit positive-, negative-, and zero-
sequence networks of a power system.
• Develop the Thevenin equivalent circuits as viewed from the fault
bus k for the positive-, negative- and zero-sequence networks.
Z kk(1) I(1)
fa
Z kk(2) I(2)
fa
Z kk(0) I(0)
fa
+

Vf Vka(1) Vka(2) Vka(0)

-

• Calculate the sequence voltage and currents at the fault point based
on the connection of the sequence networks for the different faults:
(0)
Single Line (or phase) to Z kk I (0)
fa

ground fault: Vka(0)

a
I fa
(1)
Z kk I (1)
fa
I(0) (1) (2)
fa =I fa =I fa
Zf
b Vf Vka(1) Vf
I fb =
Z kk(0)  Z kk(1)  Z kk(2)  3Z f
(2)
Z kk I (2)
fa
c
I fc Vka(2)
3Z f

64
Double line (or phase) fault:
fa =  I fa
I(1)
a (2)
I fa Z kk(1) I(1)
fa
Zf I(2)
fa Z kk(2)
b Vf
I fb (1) 
Zf Vf V ka Vka(2) Z kk(1)  Z kk(2)  Z f
c
I fc
Double line (or phase)-to-ground Vf
I(1)
fa =
a fault Zkk(1) + Zkk(2) || (Zkk(0) +3Z f )
I fa
Z kk(1) I(1)
fa
Z kk(2) I(2)
fa
Z kk(0) I(0)
fa Z kk(0) + 3Z f
(2)
b I =-
fa (2) (0)
Ifa(1)
I fb Vf Vka(1) Vka(2) Vka(0) + Z + 3Z f
Z kk kk
(2)
c Z
I fc 3Z f I(0)
fa =- (2)
I(1)
kk
fa
(0)
I fb + I fc Z f Zkk + Z +3Z f kk

• Add the sequence current to the corresponding sequence network as

a current source and calculate the sequence currents and voltage in
other parts of the sequence network considering phase shift.
• Calculate the phase voltages and currents using matrix A:

 VA  1 1 1   VA(0)   VA(0)   I A  1 1 1   I A(0)   I A(0) 

             
V
    1 a 2
a   VA(1)   A  VA(1)  I
    1 a 2
a   I A(1)   A  I A(1) 
B  B 
 VC  1 a a   VA(2) 
2
 VA(2)   I C  1 a a   I A(2) 
2
 I A(2) 

65
 3. Power System Protection

It can be seen from fault analysis in Chapter 2 that there will be

large short circuit currents in a power system when a fault occurs.
Without controlling the large short circuit currents, power system
equipment and load will be damaged. Therefore, protection devices
and systems have to be designed and installed in a power system to
isolate the fault and protect system equipment.
The objectives of this chapter:

To introduce basic protection system

To select instrument transformers
To study overcurrent protection technique
To introduce differential protection

66
 3.1 Basic Protection System

1) Relay Circuit:
• Detect abnormal conditions through measuring changes of currents,
voltages and impedances.
• Initiate actions to trip the circuit breakers.

2) Sensing devices:
• Current transformer
(CT): Provide current
signal for relay circuit.
• Voltage or potential
transformer (VT or PT):
Provide voltage signal
for relay circuit.

Fig. 3.1
3) Signal network:
• Transfer the accurate signals from CTs and VTs to relay circuit.
4) Circuit breaker (CB):
• Isolate the fault through opening circuits (just like a switch).
5) Auxiliary power source: (Battery)
• Provide back-up power for relay and circuit breaker.

67
 3.2 CT and VT Selection and Operation Issue
3.2.1 VT and CT selection
Voltage transformer selection is based on the voltage level of a protected
circuit and the rated voltage (110V) of a voltage relay connected to VT
secondary side. Standard VT ratios are shown in the following table.
Table 3-1 Standard VT ratios
1:1 2:1 2.5:1 4:1 5:1 20:1
40:1 60:1 100:1 200:1 300:1 400:1
600:1 800:1 1000:1 2000:1 3000:1 4500:1

Examples: The ratio of VT at 400kV circuit should be larger than or equal

to 400kV/110V=3636. Therefore 4500:1 ratio is selected.
Current transformer selection is based on the maximum load current and
the rating of a current relay connected at CT secondary side which is 1A
or 5A in Singapore. Standard CT ratios for 5A rating are shown in the
following table.
Table 3-2 Standard CT ratios:
50:5 100:5 150:5 200:5 250:5 300:5 400:5 450:5
500:5 600:5 800:5 900:5 1000:5 1200:5 1500:5 1600:5
2000:5 2400:5 2500:5 3000:5 3200:5 4000:5 5000:5 6000:5
For example, the CT ratio for a circuit with the maximum load current of 90
A should be larger than or = 90/5. Therefore 100:5 ratio is selected.

68
 3.2.2 CT Equivalent Circuit
CT is an important comeponent of a protection system beucause it
provide the signal to current relay. CT equivalent circuit is as follow:

I 1:n Zp’ Zs I’
Ie +
+
Ve Zb V’
Ze
- -
Equivalent circuit Burden
Fig. 3.2
Zp’ : Primary winding impedance refer to the secondary side
Zs : Secondary winding impedance
Ze : Magnetizing impedance
Zb : CT burden which is the total impedance of the circuit connected to
CT (Relay and it connections).
Ve : Secondary exciting voltage
Ie : Secondary exciting current
n : Turns of secondary winding
I : Primary current
I’ : Secondary current

69
 3.2.2 CT Saturation problem during operation
Zp’ Zs
I 1:n I’
Ie +
+
Knee Point Ze
Ve Zb V’
- -
Equivalent circuit Burden

Ve

Problem (from the curve):

Both I’ and Ie increase linearly with Ve
before the knee Point. I’ Is exact
replica of the primary current I.
Ie increase significantly with Ve and I’ 
saturated (no increase) after the knee 
points. CT cannot provide accurate 
Ve and Ie curve current signal to relay for protection

70
 3.2.2 CT Saturation evaluation and adjustment
Knee Point Step 1: Voltage Ve (Vef) is
approximately calculated
from the equivalent circuit
shown in Fig. 3.2 based on
primary current I as:
Ve=I/n×(Zs+Zb)
Step 2: Check CT saturation
from the excitation curve (Ve
, Ie ) of the selected CT ratio.
Ve • CT is saturated if the
operating point is behind
the knee point and not
saturated if it is before
the knee point.
Step 3: If the CT is
saturated, increase the CT
ratio and go to Step 1
otherwise the adjusted CT
ratio is satisfied.
I 1:n Zp’ Zs I’
Ie +
+
Ve Zb V’
Ze
- -
Equivalent circuit Burden
71
 3.2.2 CT Saturation evaluation and adjustment

Knee Point
Example: Evaluate
performance of the multi-
ratio Class-C CT with 100:5
CT ratio setting when
(a) I=100 A, Zb=0.5 Ω
(b) I=280 A, Zb=2.6 Ω.
Ve
(a) I’=100/20=5 A.
Ve=5×(0.082+0.5)=2.91V.
From the curve, Ie=0.2 A, CT
is not saturated.
(b) I’=280/20=14 A,
Ve=14×(0.082+1.6)=23.5 V,
Ie=30 A
From Fig. 3-4, Ie=30 A,
CT is saturated

Increase CT ratio to 150:5

check if CT is saturated ??

72
 3.3 Overcurrent Protection
3.3.1 An overcurrent protection system (overcurrent relay)
An overcurrent protection system is usually designed to protect
distribution networks when short circuit faults occur.

Relay signal: Current I’ on CT secondary side

Relay setting:
Pick-up or threshold current Ipickup
Operating principle:
System normal operation: I’ < Ipickup:
No trip signal; circuit breaker is closed.
Short circuit fault: I’> Ipickup:
Trip signal; Open the breaker to isolate the line.

73
 3.3.2 An induction disc overcurrent relay
The key component of overcurrent protection is overcurrent relay. An
electromagnetic induction disc relay and its components are shown in the figure:

Tm: Mechanical force produced by the spring

Te : Electromagnetic force created by current I’ (opposite to Tm)
Te is proportional to Φ=kNI’, where N is the number of turns of winding and k
is coefficient (constant).
Relay operation depends on the balance between Tm and Te
Normal operation: I’ < Ipickup, Te <Tm, Two contacts are opened; No trip signal.
Fault condition: I’ >= Ipickup, Te >Tm, Two contacts are closed; Trip signal.

74
3.3.3 Relay settings
There are two relay parameters to be selected in overcurrent protection design.
1. Plug Setting (PS): The PS or the pick-up current of a overcurrent relay can be
set to different values through changing the number of turns N for the same Tm.
2. Time dial Setting (TDS): The operating time of relay can be set to different
value through changing the space (TDS) between the fixed and movable contacts
for the same current I’.
3. T-I curve: For a given PS and TDS, the relay operating time changes
nonlinearly with the current through relay, which is represented by a time-current
(T-I) curve. The larger is the current, the shorter the operating time. For a given
current I1, the operating time t1 can be found from T-I curve.
t

t1

I1 I’
T-I curve

75
3.3.4 Time-current curves for different overcurrent relays
1. CO-8 relay: The plug
settings, the time dial
settings and the related I-
T curves for a CO-8 relay
is shown in the figure.
The current axis of the I-
T curves is not absolute
current (A) but the
multiple of pick up
current:
MPC=I’/Ipickup
For Ipickup=5A and I’=25A,
MPC=5.
The fastest TDS setting is
TDS=0.5.

2. IDMT relay: The I-T

curve for the inverse
definite minimum time
(IDMT) is represented by
a equation:
0.14
t  TDS
MPC 0.02  1

76
For given PS and TDS, the relay operating time for a current can be
determined using the I-T curve or the equation on page 72.
Example 3-2: A relay is selected to protect a distribution feeder
(line). The fault current is 2000A and CT ratio is 200:5. PS is set to
200% of the rated current 5 A and TDS is 2. Determine the
operating time of the following two relays.
 A CO-8 relay with the time current curve
 An IDMT relay with the time-current equation

Solutions:
The current through the relay=2000/40=50A
The pickup current is 200%×5=10A
The MPC is 50/10=5

For the CO-8:

The operating time from the curve of TDS=2 is 0.75s

For the IDMT: 0.14 0.14

t  TDS  0.02  2  8.6 s
MPC 0.02  1 5 1

77
3.3.5 Overcurrent protection of distribution network
Over-current protection is commonly used to protect system
components in a radial distribution system as shown in the figure.
When a fault occurs in a distribution system, the related relays and
circuit breakers have to operate reliably to isolate the fault and to
limit the affected area to the minimum.
Reliable operation of the protection system for a short circuit fault
needs one main protection and one back-up protection. If the main
protection fails to operate for a fault, the back-up needs to operate.

For fault F2, B3 is main

protection and B2 is the
back-up of B3.
For fault F1, B2 is main
protection and B1 is the
back-up of B2.

The back-up protection has to operate after the main protection

with a time delay designated as coordination time interval (CTI),
which means that the operating time of the back-up equals to the
backup
operating time of the main plus CTI. t req  tmin
Main
 CTI

78
3.3.5 Overcurrent protection of distribution networks
There are many components in a distribution network. Therefore
many relays and circuit breakers are required for faults at different
parts of network. PSs and TDSs of relays have to be properly selected
based on different fault currents and required operating times.
1) Selection of PS (based on the maximum load current):
Step 1: Determine the relay minimum operating current (MOC) seen
from the primary side of a CT (line) for the relay to pick up.
In order to avoid malfunction of relays during the peak load periods,
MOC is set to 200% of the maximum load current for a phase relay.
MOC
Step 2: Select PS using this formula: I pickup (or PS ) 
CT ratio
Example 3.3: A 50-Hz radial distribution system is shown in the figure.
The loads at Buses 2, 3 and 4 are 12MVA, 5 MVA and 7MVA
respectively with the same power factor. Select PSs for phase relays if
Co-8 relays are provided.
Bus1 Bus2 Bus3 Bus4
B1 B2 B3
G1
Line1 Line2 Line3
34.5kV Load3
Load1 Load2

79
Solutions: Bus2 Bus3 Bus4
Bus1 B3
PS selection: (Ignore B1 B2
line losses and voltage G1
Line1 Line2 Line3
drop when calculate
maximum load current) 34.5kV 7MVA
12MVA 5 MVA
B1 relay (all loads):

CT Primary load current:

S L1  S L 2  S L 3  12  5  7  24 MVA
S L1  S 2  S 3 24  10 6
I L1    401.6 A
3  V1 3  34.5  10 3

Select CT ratio=400/5
MOC=2×401.6=803.2A
CT Secondary current:
MOC 803.2
I 'L1    10.4 A
CT ratio 400 / 5
Select PS1 =12A

80
B2 relay (Load2 anad Load3): S L 2  S L 3  5  7  12 MVA
S2  S3 12  10 6
CT Primary current: I L2    200.8 A
3  V2 3  34.5  10 3

Select CT ratio=200/5,
MOC=2×200.8=401.6A
MOC 401.6
CT Secondary current: I 'L 2    10.04 A
CT ratio 200 / 5
Select PS2 =12A

B3 relay (Load3):
S3 7  10 6
CT Primary current: I L3    117.1 A
3  V3 3  34.5  10 3
Select CT ratio=200/5,
MOC=2×117.1=234.2A
MOC 234.2
CT Secondary current: I 'L 3    5.85 A
CT ratio 200 / 5
Select PS3 =6A

81
2) Selection of TDSs (the maximum three phase fault current):
Example 3.4 is used to illustrate the procedure of TDS selection
Example 3.4: For the same system as shown in example 3.3 The
maximum fault currents at Buses 2, 3 and 4 are 3500A, 2500A and
1000A respectively. The CO-8 relays are provided for breakers. The
ratios of the CTs corresponding to B1, B2 and B3 are 400:5. 200:5 and
200:5 respectively. Set PSs and TDSs for the phase relays. The CTI is
0.5s for two adjacent relays.

Bus2 Bus3 Bus4

Bus1 B3 TDS3=0.5
B1 B2
G1 Fig. 1
Line1 Line2 Line3
34.5kV Load3
Load1 Load2

Step1: Select the minimum TDS for the last relays at the end of a
radial network. The bottom relay for the system as shown in Fig. 1 B3
relay. Therefore TDS3=0.5.
Step2: Find the pairs of main and back up relays. For the system as
shown in Fig.1, there are two pairs of main and back-up relays which
are (B3 and B2) for the faults of line 3, (B2 and B1) for line 2.

82
Step3: Calculate t Main of Bus1 Bus2 Bus3 Bus4
min B1 B2 TDS2=2 B3 TDS3=0.5
the main relay based on the G1
*maximum fault current* Line1 Line2 Line3
through it. 34.5kV
Load1 Load2 Load3
For B3 (main) and B2 (back-up) pair:

B3 relay as main relay (PS3=6A) for the max fault current at bus 3 (2500A):

The minimum operating time: MPC 3 

2500 /( 200 / 5 )
 10.4
6
From TDS3=1/2 curve, Main
tmin  t3  0.07 s
Step 4: Determine the TDS of the back-up relay based on the required
operating time t backup  t Main  CTI and MPC under the same fault current.
req min

B2 relay as back up of B3 (PS2=12A) for the same fault current 2500A, the
required fault clearing time:
t 2  t req
backup Main
 tmin  CTI  t3  0.5 s  0.57 s
For the same current (2500A): 2500 /( 200 / 5 )
MPC 2   5. 2
12
Based on the operating point of B2 relay ( t 2  0.57 s and MPC 2  5.2 ), the
TDS2=2 curve should be selected.

83
84
 Bus1 Bus2 Bus3 Bus4
B1 TDSb1=2 B2 TDSb2=2 B3 TDSb3=0.5
G1
Line1 Line2 Line3
34.5kV Load3
Load1 Load2
For B2 (main) and B1 (back-up) pair:
Step 3: B2 relay as the main protection: (PS2=12A, TDS=2)
For the faults occurring on line2, B2 relay is the main protection.

The max fault current near bus 2 (3500A): MPC 2 

3500 /( 200 / 5 )
 7.3
12
The minimum operating time: T2=0.53s from TDSb2=2 relay curve.

Step 4: B1 relay as back up of B2: (PS1=12A)

For the same fault current 3500A, if B2 cannot operate, B1 should
operate as the back up for B2.
Required fault clearing time for B1: T1=T2+CTI=0.53+0.5s=1.03s.
3500 /( 400 / 5 )
For the same current (3500A): MPC 1   3.645
12
Based on the operating point of T1=1.03 and MPC1  3.645 , select
TDSb1=2 from the relay curves.

85
3) Calculation of operating time after a fault
Bus1 Bus2 Bus3 Bus4
B1 TDSb1=2 B2 TDSb2=2 B3 TDSb3=0.5
G1
Line1 Line2 Line3
34.5kV Load3
Load1 Load2
Calculate the operating time of relays R1, R2 and R3 for a fault
at Bus 4 with the current 2000A

For R3, TDSb3=0.5. 2000 / ( 200 / 5)

MPC3   8.32
From the relay curve, t3=0.1s 6

For R2, TDSb2=2.

2000 / ( 200 / 5)
From the relay curve, t2=1s MPC3   4.16
12

For R1, TDSb1=2.

2000 / ( 400 / 5)
From the relay curve, t1=3.5s MPC1   2.08
12

86
Summary for Protection Zone, CT and VT selection and
overcurrent protection

a) Maximum load current and maximum fault calculation

b) Select CT and VT ratios

c) Main and back up protection

d) Select PS based on maximum load current

e) Select TDS based on CTI between back-up and main protection

87
 3.4 Differential protection
3.4.1 Percentage differential relay
Differential protection is used to protect only internal faults of a
power system element. It is not for protecting the external faults. A
differential protection system with a percentage differential relay for
a single phase is shown in the figure. Two CTs provide two current
signals for the relay. Two circuit breakers are required to isolate the
protected component. The relay has two restraint windings and one
operating winding.

Currents I1’ and I2’

provided by two CTs will go CT CT
through the restraint
windings and produce two
restrain forces Ter1 and Ter2
to inhibit trip signal if they
are in phase.
Current Io=I1’-I2’ in the
operating winding produces
an operating force to create
trip signal. (Teo)

88
3.4.2 Relay operation:
External fault: Relay hardly operates because the operating force is
cancelled by the two restrain forces and the operating current Io=I1’-
I2’ is very small. Relay cannot operate.

I1 CB CB I2 I1 CB Protected CB I2
Protected
component component

I1’ Fe I1’ Fi
I1’ Restraint coils I2’ I1’ I2’ I2’
I2’
Io =I1’-I2’ Operating coil Io =I1’+I2’ Operating coil

Internal fault: Smaller operating current is required for relay operation

because the two restrain forces are cancelled each other. In this case,
relay trip depends on difference between operating current and the
pickup current which is usually set from 0.14 A to 3 A.
To protect a power system component using differential relay, CTs
have to be correctly connected to make sure that two restraint
currents must be in phase for the external faults and normal load.

89
3.4.3 Generator differential protection
Two important aspects of differential protection are CT and relay
connections and current calculation. Relay connection must make sure
that the currents flow in the two restraint windings are in phase for
external faults. Three CTs in both sides of a Y connected generator are
connected in Y as shown in the following figure.
Ia1 Ia2
Ib1 G Ib2
Ic1 Ic2

Ia1’ Op
R R Ia2’

Ib1’ Op Ib2’
R R

Ic1’ R
Op
R Ic2’

From dot convention, Ia1 and Ia1’ (Ia2 and Ia2’) are in phase. For
external fault Ia1 and Ia2 are in phase. Ia1’ and Ia2’ are also in phase.

90
Current calculation: Example 3.4: A Y-connected generator is
connected to a 345 kV system through a Δ-Y 18/345 kV transformer
as shown in figure. A differential relay with 1A pick up current is used
to protect the generator. The system parameters are also shown in
figure. CT ratio is 1100:1. Determine relay operation for three phase
faults at F1 and F2.
Δ
SBN=100 MVA
CT B B CT B B System:
VBN=18 kV at G: G 345kV
100000 100MVA
IB   3207.5 A 18kV F1 F2 18/345kV
3  18 X S1=5%
160MVA 160MVA
X SN 1  0.05 X G1=0.3pu X T1=15%
S 100
X GN 1  X G 1 BN  0.3  0.1875
S BO 160
100
X TN 1  0.15  0.09375
160
VF
I FS   I B / CTratio  20.28 A
X TN 1  X SN 1
VF 1
I FG   I B / CTratio   3207.5 / 1100  15.55 A
X GN 1 0.1875

91
 IFG IFG IFS
For external fault F2:
G F2
Two restraint currents
are the same:
I FG  15.55 A
IFG Op
R R IFG
Operating current:
I o  I FG  I FG  0 A Op
R R

Relay does not operate Op

R R

For internal fault F1: IFG F1 IFS

Two restraint currents G
IFG and IFS are opposite
and different:

Operating current: IFG Op

R R IFS
I o  I FG  I FS  35.83 A
Op
R R
Relay operates
because Io>1A Op
R R

92
3.4.4 Transformer differential protection
CT and relay connections for a Δ-Y transformer are shown in the
figure. The two restraint currents IHa and ILa are in phase for the
normal load from the phasor diagram.

138kV Ia1-Ib1 Δ/Y 50MVA 69kV

Ia1 Ia2
Ib1-Ic1 Ia2’

Ib1 Ib2 Ib2’

Ic1-Ia1

Ic1 Ic2
’
Ia1 -Ib1 ’ Ic2’
Ia2’-Ib2’
CT: Y CT: Δ
R R
IHa Op IHa-ILa ILa
Ib1’-Ic1’ Ib2’-Ic2’
R R
IHb Op IHb-ILb ILb
’ ’
Ic1 -Ia1 Ic2’-Ia2’
R R
IHc Op IHc-ILc ILc
Current calculations: When CT ratios are selected based on the
maximum load current and the operating current is calculated as
follow:
50 MVA
The current at 138 kV (CT primary side): I a 1  I b1   209.18 A
3  138kV
Select CT ratio 250:5 =50
The current at left-hand side of the restraint winding:
I a1  I b1
I Ha  I a' 1  I b' 1   4.18 A
CTratio
50 MVA
The current at 69 kV (CT primary side): I a2   418.37 A
3  69kV
Select CT ratio 500:5 =100
Ia2 418.37
The current at the secondary side of CT:  I a' 2 
 4.18 A
CTratio 100
The current at right-hand side of the restraint winding (∆ CTs):
I La  I a' 2  I b' 2  3 I a' 2  7.25 A
The operating current:

I o  I Ha  I La  3.07 A

94
Example 3.5 For the transformer in Section 3.4.4, the CT ratios at high
and low voltage sides of the transformer are 200:5 and 400:5
respectively. The transformer positive impedance is 0.5 pu. Ignore the
source impedance. Calculate the currents in two restraint windings for
an external three phase to ground fault which occurs at low voltage
side of the transformer.

Solution:
SB 50 MVA
The base current at 138 kV: I Bp    209 A
3VB 3  138kV
The base current at 69 kV: IB=418 A
The fault current=1/0.5=2pu
The fault currents at 138kV and 69kV from CT primary side are 418A
and 836A respectively.
The current at left-hand side of the restraint winding:
IH=418/40=10.45
The current at right-hand side of the restraint winding:
IL=836/80 3 =18.1

95
 Summary for Differential Protection

a) Configuration of percentage differential relay (two restraint

windings and operating winding.

b) Principle of relay operation

c) CT and relay connections for power system components

d) Requirements for relay connection: IHa and Ila in phase for normal
operation and external fault.

e) Current mismatch calculation for the internal and external faults.

96
2.4.4 Sequence circuits of a synchronous generator (Appendix)
KVL: Vag  Ean  ZI a  Z n I n  Ean  ZI a  Z n I a  Z n I b  Z n I c  Ean  Z  Z n I a  Z n I b  Z n I c
Vbg  Ebn  Z n I a  Z  Z n I b  Z n I c a
Vcg  Ecn  Z n I a  Z n I b  Z  Z n I c Ia
Vag Z
Matrix form:
Vag   Ean  Z  Z n  Zn Zn  Ia  E
Z n I an
V    E    Z Z  Z n  Z n   I b  g n n
 bg   bn   E bn
Z  Z n   I c 
n

Vcg   Ecn   Z n Zn
Z
E cn
Z Ib
 Ean  Z  Z n 
0 
Vag  0 
Zn Zn  Ia 
0 
c b
AVag1   A Ean1    Z n Z  Z n  Z n  A I a1  Ic
 2    2    Z   I 2  
Vag   an 
E  n
Z n
 Z  Z n
  a 
Vag0    Ean0   Z  Z n 
0 
Zn Zn  Ia 
V 1    E 1   A1  Z  Z  Z  Z  A  I 1  
 ag 2    an 2    Z  Z n   I a 2  
 
n n n a

Vag   Ean   Zn Zn

Vag0    0  Z  3Z n  0 0   I a0    Ean0    Ean   Ean   0 

V 1    E    0 Z 0   I a1   Ean   A  Ebn   A a 2 Ean    Ean 
 1  1 1

 2     
ag an
0 0 Z   I  2    2   E   aE   0 
 ag 
V  0    a   Ean   cn   an   

97
 a I(0)
Sequence circuits: a

Zg0
Vag0   Z  3 Z n I a0  n Only zero sequence
VVaga0 
(0)

3Z n current through ZN

Reference

a I(1)
a a I(2)
a

Z1
Vag1   Ean  ZI a1  V 1
(1) Vag 2    ZI a 2  Z2
(2)
Vag2
V aag
a
E an
Reference
Reference

For neutral solidly grounded Zn =0 and for neutral opened Zn =∞

2.4.6 Sequence circuits of a synchronous motor

When a fault occurs, synchronous motors temporarily act as generators. The
sequence networks are the same with generator.

98
 2.4.7 Sequence circuits of transmission lines (Appendix)

ZAA: self-impedance of a phase line A IA Z AA A'

+ +
Znn: self-impedance of neutral line
Z AB Z AB
ZAB: mutual impedance between any VAn B IB Z AA B' VA ' n '
two phase lines + +
ZAn: mutual impedance between any Z AB
phase line and neutral line VBn C IC Z AA C' VB ' n '
+ +
KVL(the relationship of phase VCn Z An VC ' n '
In Z nn
currents and voltages): - - - - - -
n n'
VAn  VAA'  VA' n '  Vn ' n VAn  VA ' n '  VAA '  Vn ' n
Line circuit model
VBn  VBB'  VB' n '  Vn ' n VBn  VB' n '  VBB'  Vn ' n
VCn  VCC'  VC' n '  Vn ' n VCn  VC' n '  VCC'  Vn ' n

VAA '  Z AA I A  Z ABI B  Z ABIC  Z An I n   Z AA  Z An  I A   Z AB  Z An  I B   Z AB  Z An  IC

Vn ' n   Z An I A  Z An I B  Z An IC  Z nn I n   Znn  Z An  I A   Z nn  Z An  I B   Znn  Z An  IC

VAn  VA' n'  Z s I A  Z m I B  Z m I C where:

 VAn  VA ' n '   Z s Zm Zm  IA 
V  V   Z Z s  Z AA  2 Z An  Z nn 
VBn  VB' n'  Z m I A  Z s I B  Z m I C Zs Zm   IB 
 Bn B'n'
  m  
VCn  VC' n'  Z m I A  Z m I B  Z s I C  VCn  VC ' n '   Z m Zm Z s   I C  Z m  Z AB  2 Z An  Z nn 

99
Same method with 2.4.1 to obtain relationship of sequence components:
VAn 0   VA 0'n'   V  V  IA   I A 0  
 VAn  VA ' n '   Z s Z m Z m   I A 
 1  An A'n '
V  V   Z  I   A  I 1 
A VAn  VA ' n '    VBn  VB ' n ' 
1
Z s Zm   IB   B  A 
   Bn B'n'
  m
    2 
  2    V  V   VCn  VC ' n '   Z m Z m Z s   I C   I C 
2
VAn  VA ' n '   Cn C ' n '   I A 
VAn 0   VA 0' n'   Z  2Z   I A 0    Z  IA 
0
 1 1
  s m
  1   0   I 1 
VAn  VA ' n '    Zs  Zm
 A  
I  Z1
 A 
  2  2       2   Z 2   I A 2  
 An
V  V A' n '    Z s Z m   I A    

VAn 0  VA 0' n'  Z 0 I A 0 VAn   VA ' n '  Z1 I A 

1 1 1
VAn   VA ' n'  Z1 I A 
2 2 2

(1) Z1 (2) Z2
(0)
A IA Z0 A' A IA A' A IA A'

VA(0) VA'(0) VA(1) VA'(1) VA(2) VA'(2)

Reference Reference Reference
Zero-sequence circuit Positive-sequence circuit Negative-sequence circuit
Z0= Zs +2Zm: zero sequence impedance
Where:
Z1= Zs -Zm: positive sequence impedance
Z2= Zs -Zm: negtive sequence impedance

100