Engineering Physics KAS 101T/201T

Module-2-Electromagnetic Field Theory CO2

2.2 Differential form of Maxwell’s equations

2.2.1 First equation (Gauss Law of Electrostatic)
Gauss law of electrostatic states that the total electric flux E coming out from a closed surface is equal to
1/ε0 times the net charge enclosed by the surface i.e, ∯

∯ =∫∫∫ρdv …. (1)

Applying Gauss’s Divergence theorem to change L.H.S. of equation (1) ∯ =∫v (∇.D) dv

Using this equation in equation (1), we will get

∫∫∫ (∇.D)dv=∫∫∫ρdv

As two volume integrals are equal, so their integrands are also equal.
Thus, ∇.D=ρ …. (2)

The above equation is the Differential form of Maxwell’s first equation.

2.2.2 Second equation(Gauss Law of Magnetostatic)

Gauss law of magnetostatic states that the total magnetic flux φm coming out through surface of a volume
is always equal to zero.
φm=∯ .…(3)

Applying Gauss’s Divergence theorem ∯ =∫∫∫(∇.B)dv

Putting this in equation (3) ∫∫∫ (∇.B)dv =0

Thus , ∇.B=0 …..(4)

This equation (4) is differential form of Maxwell’s second equation.

2.2.3 Third Equation(Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction)

1. It states that, if there is a change of magnetic flux linked with a circuit then electromotive force (emf) is
induced in the circuit. This induced emf lasts as long as the change in magnetic flux continues.

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2. The magnitude of induced emf is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit.

Therefore, induced emf …..(5)

Where, φm= ∫∫B.ds …..(6)
Here negative sign indicates the induced emf set up a current in such a direction that the magnetic effect
produced by it opposes the cause producing it.

Again we know emf is the closed line integral of the non-conservative electric field generated by the
battery.
That is emf=∮ …..(7)

Putting equations (6) and (7), in equation (5) we get

∮ = – ∫∫ .ds …..(8)
Using Stoke’s theorem to the L.H.S. of equations (8) ∮ = ∫∫ (∇ x E).ds

Substituting above equation in equation (8), we get

∫∫ (∇ x E).dS = -∫∫ .ds

Two surface integral are equal only when their integrands are equal.

Thus ∇xE=– …..(9)

This is the differential form of Maxwell’s 3rd equation.

2.2.4 Forth Equation (Modified Ampere’s Circuital Law)

To come to the Maxwell’s 4th equation, let us first discuss Ampere’s circuital law.

Ampere’s circuital law: This law states that the line integral of the magnetic field H around any closed
path or circuit is equal to the current enclosed by that path.
That is ∮ =I
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If J is the current density, then I=∫∫J.ds

This implies that ∮ =∫∫J.ds …..(10)

Applying Stoke’s theorem to L.H.S. of above equation ∮ =∫∫(∇xH).ds

Substituting above equation in equation (10), we will get ∫∫(∇xH).ds =∫∫J.ds

Two surface integrals are equal only if their integrands are equal

Thus, ∇x H=J …..(11)

This is the differential form of Ampere’s circuital Law for steady currents.
Now, taking divergence on both side of equation (10) ∇.(∇xH)= ∇.J

As divergence of the curl of a vector is always zero, therefore ∇.(∇xH)=0

It means ∇.J=0

Now, this is continuity equation for steady current but not for time varying fields, as equation of
continuity for time varying fields is
So, Ampere’s circuital law is incomplete, valid only for steady state current. This is the reason that led
Maxwell to modify Ampere’s circuital law.
Modification of Ampere’s circuital law: Maxwell modified Ampere’s law by giving the concept of
displacement current and displacement current density for time varying fields.
He considered that equation (10) for time varying fields can be written as ∇xH=J + Jd …. (12)

By taking divergence on both side of equation (12), we will get ∇. (∇ xH)= ∇.J+ ∇.Jd

As the divergence of curl of a vector is always zero, therefore ∇. (∇ xH)= 0

So, ∇ .(J+Jd)=0 Or ∇. J= -∇.Jd

But from equation of continuity for time varying fields,

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From the above two equations of j, we get

( )
∇. Jd = … (13)
As from Maxwell’s first equation ∇.D=ρ

Now, from equation (13) we can write

Using the above equation in equation (12), we get

∇ x H=J + ….(14)

Here, =Displacement current density

The equation (14) is the Differential form of Maxwell’s fourth equation or Modified Ampere’s circuital
law.

2.3 Integral form of Maxwell’s equations

2.3.1 First Equation:
Gauss law of electrostatic states that the total electric flux E coming out from a closed surface is
equal to 1/ε0 times the net charge enclosed by the surface i.e.
∯ …..(1)
Let ρ is the volume charge density distributed over a volume V.

Therefore, q=∫ ρ dv

So, ∯ …..(2)
This equation is the integral form of Maxwell’s first equation or Gauss’s law in electrostatics.
2.3.2 Second equation:

Gauss law of magnetostatic states that the total magnetic flux φm coming out through surface of a volume
is always equal to zero i.e.
φm=∯ .…(3)

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The above equation is the intergal form of Maxwell’s second equation.

The above equation also suggest that magnetic monopole does not exist.

2.3.3 Third Equation:

1. It states that, if there is a change of magnetic flux linked with a circuit then electromotive force (emf) is
induced in the circuit. This induced emf lasts as long as the change in magnetic flux continues.
2. The magnitude of induced emf is equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit.

Therefore, induced emf …..(4)

Where, φm= ∫∫B.ds …..(5)
Here negative sign indicates the induced emf set up a current in such a direction that the magnetic effect
produced by it opposes the cause producing it.

Again we know emf is the closed line integral of the non-conservative electric field generated by the
battery.
That is emf=∮ …..(6)

Using equations (5) and (6), in equation (4) we get

∮ = – ∫∫ .ds …..(7)
The above equation is the integral form of Maxwell’s third Equation or Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction.

2.3.4 Fourth equation:

The line integration of the magnetic field H around a closed path or circuit is equal to the conductions
current plus the time derivative of electric displacement through the surface bounded by the closed path
i.e,

∮ =∬( ) .....(8)

The above equation is the integral form of Maxwell’s fourth equation.

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2.5 Displacement Current:

According to Maxwell not only conduction current produces magnetic field but also time varying electric
field produces magnetic field. This means that a changing electric field is equivalent to a current which
flows as long as electric filed is changing. This is current only in the sense that it produces same magnetic
effect as conduction current does; there is no actual flow of electron.

If E is the electric field developed between the plates of surface area A Then the displacement current is
given by

2.6 Electromagnetic wave Equation in Free Space

Now in free space there is no charge so charge density ρ=0 and current will also be zero. Thus, current
density J is also equal to zero.

Hence, Maxwell’s equation in free space is given by

…..(1) where ( )

.….(2)

…..(3) where ( )

…..(4) where ( )

2.6.1 Maxwell’s Electromagnetic wave Equation in Free Space for the field vector E

we take curl on both side of Maxwell’s 3rd equation represented in equation (3).

( )

( )
( ) [(using vector identity, ( ) ( ) ]

Now, from equation (1) and (4) in the above equation

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( )

Or, ….(5)

Similarly, we can find an equation for the field vector B, when we take the Maxwell’s 4th and repeat the
process of field vector E.

…(6)

Equation (5) and (6) is the guiding equation for field vector E and B respectively in free space.

Thus, we can see that time varying electric field produces magnetic field and time varying magnetic field
produces electric filed and follow the above guiding equation. Comparing the above equation with the
standard wave equation , -------(7)

Compare equation (6) and (7), we get

√ √
√

Because { }

Hence, =c

Hence, this field vectors propagates in free space with the speed of light. So, from here Maxwell
concluded that light is an electromagnetic wave.

2.7 Electromagnetic wave Equation in non-conducting medium

Now in non-conducting medium there is no free charge, so current density J and total charge inside the
material is zero, so charge density ρ is also equal to zero. Maxwell’s equation in a non-conducting
medium of permittivity and permeability is reduces to

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…..(1) where ( )

.….(2)

…..(3) where ( )

…..(4) where ( )

2.7.1 Maxwell’s Electromagnetic wave Equation in Free Space for the field vector E

we take curl on both side of Maxwell’s 3rd equation represented in equation (3).

( )

( )
( ) [(using vector identity, ( ) ( ) ]

Now, using equation (1) and (4) in the above equation

( )

Or, ….(5)

Similarly, we can find an equation for the field vector B, when we take the Maxwell’s 4th and repeat the
process of field vector E.

…(6)

Equation (5) and (6) is the guiding equation for field vector E and B respectively in non-conducting
medium.

Comparing the above equation with the standard wave equation , ----------(7)

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we can see that this field vectors propagate in non-conducting medium with a speed

, As 𝑐
√ √ √ √

For non-magnetic medium 𝑟=1

So, here √ 𝑟 𝑛 is the refractive index of the medium.

√

Hence, electromagnetic wave propagate in non-conducting medium with a speed times the speed of
electromagnetic wave in free space.

2.8 Transverse nature of electromagnetic wave

Science we know that the plane electromagnetic wave equation are

---(1)

---(2)

Solution of these wave equation, considering the propagation of the wave in any arbitrary direction of
three dimensional space is given by

⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ (⃗ 𝑟 ) ...(3)

⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ (⃗ 𝑟 ) …(4)

Where E0 and B0 are the amplitudes of electric and magnetic field respectively and ⃗ is propagation vector
given by ⃗ 𝑛̂ = 2π/λ = 2πν/c = ω/c.

Now, Maxwell’s first and second equation in free space is

⃗∇ ⃗ =0 …(5)

⃗∇ ⃗ …(6)

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⃗
Where ∇ ̂ ̂ ̂ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ̂ ̂ ̂
𝑦 𝑧
Putting the above expressions in L. H. S of equation (5)

⃗∇ ⃗ = ( ̂ ̂ ̂ ). ⃗⃗⃗⃗ (⃗ 𝑟 ) ------ (7)

Where ⃗ ̂k ̂ky ̂k
z
and 𝑟 = ̂ ̂y ̂

So, ⃗ . 𝑟 = k yky kz

Thus equation (7) can be written as

𝛻⃗ ⃗ = ( ̂ ̂ ̂ ).( ̂ ̂ 𝑦
̂
𝑧 ) exp ί*( k yky kz )- +

𝛻⃗ ⃗ = [ exp ί *( k yky kz ) - +]+ [ 𝑦exp ί *( k yky kz ) - +]+ [ 𝑧

exp ί *( k yky kz ) - +]
𝛻⃗ ⃗ =(ί k ) exp ί *( k yky kz ) - + +(ίky) 𝑦exp ί *( k yky kz) - + +(ίkz )
𝑧 exp ί *( k yky kz ) - +
𝛻⃗ ⃗ = ί[ k + 𝑦ky+ 𝑧 kz] exp ί *( k yky kz) - +
𝛻⃗ ⃗ = ί[( ̂k ̂ky ̂ kz ).( ̂ ̂ 𝑦 ̂ 𝑧 )] exp ί *( k yky kz ) - +
𝛻⃗ ⃗ = ί( ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗ )exp(( ⃗ 𝑟 )= ί ⃗ ⃗
𝛻⃗ ⃗ = ί ⃗ ⃗ using equation (3).

Now putting the value of 𝛻⃗ ⃗ in equation (5)

𝛻⃗ ⃗ = ί ⃗ ⃗
Or ⃗ ⃗ …… (8)

Similarly, putting equation (4) in equation (6) we will get ⃗ ⃗ .…(9)

Equation (8) & (9) suggest that electric and magnetic field vectors are perpendicular to propagation
vector. So, we can say that electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.

Again, using Maxwell’s 3rd and 4th equations in free space are

⃗
𝛻⃗ ⃗ ….(10)

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⃗
𝛻⃗ ⃗ ….(11)

Now, if we put the expression of ⃗ from equation (3) in above Maxwell’s equation (equation No. 10) then
we can write

ί [⃗ ⃗ ]= ,⃗⃗⃗⃗ (⃗ 𝑟 )]

= -(- ) ⃗⃗⃗⃗ (⃗ 𝑟 )

⃗ ⃗ = ⃗ …..(12)

Similarly, putting the expression of ⃗ from equation (4) in equation (12) we will get

⃗ ⃗ =- ⃗ -----(13)

From equation (12) we can say magnetic field vector is perpendicular to both ⃗ & ⃗ and from (13) we
can say Electric field vector is perpendicular to both ⃗ ⃗ . Thus electric field vector, magnetic field
vector and propagation vector are mutually perpendicular to each other.

Characteristic Impedance
As ⃗ & ⃗ are perpendicular to each other and ⃗ , ⃗ & ⃗ are mutually perpendicular, so from
equation (12)
⃗ ⃗ = ⃗

Or,

Or, = νλ = c
Thus, =c
Or, = µ0 c and 𝑐
√

Or, = =√ = 376.72 Ω
√

The quantity = Z0 = 376.72Ω is known as characteristic Impedance or Intrinsic Impedance of free

space.

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2.9 Energy in an electromagnetic field

The Energy of electromagnetic Wave is the sum of electric (E) and magnetic (B) field energy.

The electric energy per unit volume is given by U

E

The magnetic energy per unit volume is given by U

B

So, the total energy per unit volume in electromagnetic wave is

U =

As and ; So, U = + = + = Ɛ0E2

√

2
Therefore, energy per unit volume in electromagnetic wave is U = Ɛ0E

2.10 Skin Depth

Skin depth or depth of penetration is defined as the depth in which the strength of electric field associated
with electromagnetic wave reduces to 1/e times of its initial value. The figure below shows the variation
of field vector E with distance of electromagnetic wave inside a conducting medium and the value of skin

depth inside a good conductor is given by √ ; Here is the conductivity of the medium and
is angular frequency of the electromagnetic wave.

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2.11 Poynting vector and Poynting Theorem

Poynting vector: When electromagnetic wave propagates through space it carries energy with it. The
amount of energy passing through unit area in the perpendicular to direction of propagation of the
electromagnetic wave per second is given by S = E x H
This quantity S is called Poynting vector. E electric field vector and H is magnetic field vector of the
electromagnetic wave. The direction of S is perpendicular to E and H and in the direction of vector E x H.

Theorem: Consider Maxwell’s fourth equation (Modified Ampere’s Circuital Law), that is
∇ x H = J + ε dE/dt

or J = (∇ x H) – ε dE/dt

The above equation has the dimensions of current density. Now, to convert the dimensions into rate of
energy flow per unit volume, take dot product of both sides of above equation by E, that is

E. J = E. (∇ x H) – εE. dE/dt (1)

Now using vector Identity

∇. (E x H) = H. (∇ x E) – E. (∇ x H)
or E. (∇ x H) = H. (∇ x E) – ∇ ( E x H )

By substituting value of E. (del x H) in equation (1) , we get

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E. J. =H.(∇ x E) – ∇.(E x H) – εE.dE/dt (2)

Also from Maxwell’s third equation (Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction).

∇ x E = μdH/dt

By substituting value of ∇ x E in equation (2) we get

E. J =μH.dH/dt – εE. dE/dt – ∇. (E x H) (3)

We can write
H. dH/dt = 1/2 dH2/dt (4a)

E. dE/dt = 1/2 dE2/dt (4b)

By substituting equations 4a and 4b in equation 3, we get

E. J = -μ/2 dH2/dt – ε/2 dE2/dt – ∇. (E x H)

E. J. = -d(μH2/2 + εE2 /2)/dt – ∇. (E x H)

By taking volume integral on both sides, we get

∫∫∫E. JdV = -d[∫∫∫ (μH2/2 + εE2 /2)dV]/dt – ∫∫∫ ∇. (E H) dV (5)

Applying Gauss’s Divergence theorem to second term of R.H.S., to change volume integral into surface
integral, that is
∫∫∫ ∇.(E H) dV = ∯( )

Substitute above equation in equation (5)

∫∫∫E. JdV = -d[∫∫∫ (μH2/2 + εE2 /2)dV]/dt – ∯ (6)

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or ∯ = -∫∫∫[d(μH2/2 + εE2 /2)/dt] dV –∫∫∫E. J dV

Interpretation of above equation:

L.H.S. Term
∯ → It represents the rate of outward flow of energy through the surface of a volume V and
the integral is over the closed surface surrounding the volume. This rate of outward flow of power from a
volume V is represented by
∯ ∯
where Poynting vector, S = E H

Inward flow of power is represented by ∯ ∯

R.H.S. First Term

-∫∫∫[d(μH2/2 + εE2 /2)/dt] dV → If the energy is flowing out of the region, there must be a
corresponding decrease of electromagnetic energy. So here negative sign indicates decrease.
Electromagnetic energy is the sum of magnetic energy, μH2/2 and electric energy, εE2 /2. So, first term of
R.H.S. represents rate of decrease of stored electromagnetic energy.

R.H.S. Second Term

–∫∫∫E. J dV →Total ohmic power dissipated within the volume.

So, from the law of conservation of energy, equation (6) can be written in words as
Rate of energy dissipation in volume V = Rate at which stored electromagnetic energy is decreasing in V
+ Inward rate of flow of energy through the surface of the volume.

2.12 Radiation Pressure:

The electromagnetic waves exert a “Radiation Pressure” on a surface due to absorption and reflection of
the electromagnetic wave. An object absorbing an electromagnetic wave would experience a force in the
direction of propagation of the wave. During these processes momentum is exchanged between the
surface and the electromagnetic wave.

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Consider an e.m wave of average energy density <u> and average poynting vector <S> be incident
normally on a surface then the radiation pressure P, exerted by e.m waves on this surface is :

…. (1)

where <F> is the average force exerted by the e.m waves.

Now, using Newton’s Second Law,

….(2)

Where, <P> is the momentum of incident e.m waves.

For electromagnetic wave, we know that ,

….(3)

Putting equation ( 3 ) in ( 2 )

….(4)

Since S= Power/Area and Power = Energy/Time

Therefore S=

So, we can write

…(5)

Now using equation ( 5 ) in ( 4 )

𝑐 …(6)

Using equation ( 6 ) in ( 1 ) radiation pressure due to absorption of electromagnetic wave is

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