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Gravitation

Gravitation
NEWTON’S UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION Section - 1

Every body attracts in this universe every other body with a force that is directly proportional to the product
of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Let m1 and m2 be the masses of two bodies and r be the separation between them.
m m
F 1 2
r2
G m1 m2
 F
r2
Where G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY (of Earth) : Section - 2

If M is the mass of earth and R is the radius, the earth attracts a mass m on its surface by a force
F given as :
GM m
F
R2
This force imparts an acceleration to the mass m which is known as

Acceleration Due to Gravity(g)

By Newton’s IInd Law, we have :
force
Acceleration =
mass
GM m
 g
F
 R2 
GM
m m R2
GM
 On the surface of earth, g =
R2
Substituting the values of G, M, R we get :
g = 9.81 m/s2.

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Variation in acceleration due to gravity :

(a) Above the Surface of Earth :
At a point which is located at a height h above the earth’s surface,
acceleration due to gravity (g) is given as :
GM m
2
force  R  h  GM
g   
mass m  R  h 2
2
 R 
 g  g   where g = acceleration due to gravity at the surface.
 R  h

(b) Below the Surface of Earth :

Let us place a mass m at a depth h below the surface of earth. This mass m is attracted towards the
centre of earth by gravitational force due to shaded sphere of radius (R – h). The net gravitational
force on m due to the remaining portion of earth (outside the shaded portion) is zero.
Let the mass of the shaded portion  M 
Assuming earth to be a sphere of uniform density d,
M
d
4
 R2
3
 M   (volume of shaded part) (density)
3
4 3 M R  h
M     R  h  M  
 3 4  R 
 R3
3
The net force on m = force exerted by shaded portion
3
G Mm GM m  R  h  GM m
Force 
2

2
  R  h
 R  h  R  h  R3 R3

 h
 g   g 1  
 R

Where g = acceleration due to gravity at the surface.

Note : It should be noted that value of g decreases if we move above

the surface or below the surface of the earth.

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(a) With Latitudes :

Consider a point A on the earth’s surface where the line joining centre O to A makes an angle  with
the equatorial plane as shown. The angle  is said to be the latitude of the point A.
Let us place a small mass m at A. Analysing the forces on m, from the reference frame of (or relative to) the
earth, we find two forces - gravitational force (mg) and pseudo force (m 2r).
Here r is the radius of the circular path followed by m.
 r = R cos
The resultant force on masses m is given by

F   
m2 g 2  m 2 4 r 2  2  mg  m 2 r cos     

The effective gravity at point A is

F
g   g 2   4 r 2  2 2 g r cos 
m

2
 2 R  2
 2R 
 g  g 1    cos   2   cos 
 g   g 
   
Where g is the acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth neglecting the effect of the rotation.
In Particular
1. At Poles :
 = 90°
 g = g
Hence the rotation of the earth has no effect on the gravity at poles.

2. At Equator :
 = 0°
 2 R 
g   g 1  
 g 


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ESCAPE VELOCITY Section - 3

It is the minimum velocity with which a body must be projected from the surface of earth so that it permanently
overcomes and escapes the gravitational field of the earth. We can also say that a body projected with
escape velocity will be able to go to a point which is at infinite distance from the earth.
Let us imagine what happens to a body of mass m if it is thrown from the
earth with a velocity Ve (escape velocity). As the body moves away
from the earth, it slows down (due to gravitational pull of the earth) and
hence its kinetic energy is converted into gravitational potential energy
of the mass-earth system. Let us imagine that is just able to reach upto
infinity (where G.P.E is zero)
K.E. lost by mass m = gain in G.P.E. of mass-earth system
1
mVe2   G.P.E. f   G.P.E.i
2
1  GM m
mVe2  0    
2  R 

2G M
 Ve  or Ve  2g R
R
Substituting the values of g = 9.81 m/s2 and R = 6400 Km, we get :
Ve = 11.3 km/s
Hence any object thrown with a velocity of 11.3 km/s or more will escape the gravitational field of the earth
and will never come back to the earth.

MOTION OF A SATELLITE AROUND EARTH Section - 4

Consider a satellite of mass m revolving in a circle around the

earth which is located at the centre of its orbit. If the satellite is
at a height h above the earth’s surface, the radius of its orbit is
r = R + h, where R is the radius of the earth. The gravitational
force between m and M provides the centripetal force necessary
for circular motion.

Orbital Velocity :
The velocity of a satellite in its orbit is called orbital velocity. Let v be the orbital velocity of satellite, then

G Mm mv 2

r2 r

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GM GM
 v or v 
r Rh

Hence the orbital velocity of a satellite is decided by the radius of its orbit or its height above the
earth’s surface.
For a satellite very close to the earth’s surface,
GM GM
v   gR
r R

Time Period :
The time taken to complete one revolution is called the time period.
It is given by :
2 r r
T  2 r
v GM

2 r r 4 2 3
 T  T2  r
GM GM

Note : For a satellite whose time period is 24 hrs (same as the time period of the earth’s rotation)

GMT 2
Radius of orbit r = 3 (T = 24 hrs.)
4 2

This satellite seems stationary if observed from the surface of earth. This is also known as Geostationary
Satellite.

Total Energy of the Satellite

TE =K+U (K : kinetic energy and U : potential energy)

1  G M m
TE  mv 2    
2  r 
1 G M  GM m
TE  m 
2  r  r

G M   GM m
TE     
 2r   r 

GM m
 TE  
2r

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GMm
Binding Energy = – (Total Energy) 
2r
The energy that must be given to the orbiting satellite to make it escape to infinity is known as binding energy.

Trajectory of a Satellite for different speeds :

Let v be the velocity given to a satellite. Let Vc represent the velocity for a circular orbit and Ve be the escape
velocity.
GM 2G M
Vc  and Ve 
r r
Where r is the distance of the satellite from centre of the earth.
(i) v < Vc The satellite follows an elliptical path with centre of earth as the farther focus. In this
case, if satellite is projected from near the surface of earth, it will hit the earth’s surface
without completing the orbit.
(ii) v = Vc The satellite follows a circular orbit with the centre of earth as the centre of orbit.
(iii) Vc < v < Ve The satellite follows an elliptical orbit with the centre of earth as the focus nearer to
the point of projection.
(iv) v = Ve The satellite escapes from the field of earth along a parabolic trajectory.
(v) v > Ve The satellite escapes the field of earth along a hyperbolic trajectory.

KEPLER’S LAWS Section - 5

1. Law of Orbits : Each planet revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one focus of the
ellipse.
2. Law of Areas : This law states that the radius vector from the sun to the
planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals. Both shaded areas are
equal if t he t ime from A t o B is equal to the time from
to Q.
3. Law of Periods : It states that the square of the time taken by the planet
about the sun is proportional to the cube of the planet’s mean distance from
the sun.
If T be the time period of the planet and r be the mean distance of planet
from the sun (average of maximum and minimum distances from sun)
r  rmax
r  min
2
 T2/r3 is same for all planets.

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Illustration - 1 Two planets have masses in the ratio 1 : 10 and radii in the ratio 2 : 5. Compare
(i) their densities, (ii) the acceleration due to gravity on their surface,
(iii) escape velocities from their surfaces and (iv) the periods of revolutions of satellites near to their
surfaces.
SOLUTION :
Let M1, M2 be the masses and R1, R2 be radii of  Ratio of g1 and g2
planets. 2 2
g1 M R  1 5 5
M1 1 R1 2 =  1  2    
  and  g 2 M 2  R1  10 2 8
M 2 10 R2 5
d1 2G M
(i) Ratio of densities = d (iii) Escape velocity =
2 R

  4 3
Ve1 M1 R2 1 5 1
 M1   3  R2  Ve2

M2 R1
 . 
10 2 2
   
 4  R13   M2 
3    (iv) Time period of a satellite near surface
3 2
d1 M R  (orbit radius = R) = R R
  1  2 GM
d 2 M 2  R1 
3 T1 M 2  R1  R1
d1  1   5  25  
      T2 M1  R 2  R2
d2  10   2  16
(ii) Acceleration due to gravity at 10  2  2 4
 
1  5  5 5
GM
surface  g 
R2

Illustration - 2 Consider an earth satellite so positioned that it appears stationary to an observer on the
earth. What would be the height at which the satellite should be positioned ?
SOLUTION :
Time period of the satellite = Time period of
Substituting : Mearth = 6 × 1024 kg ;
earth’s rotation = 24 hrs.
G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2.
If r is the radius of orbit,
 r ~ 42330 km
then, T  2  r r If h be the height of satellite, then
GM h=r–R
2  h = (42330 – 6400) km
 24  3600  r r
GM  h = 35930 km

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Illustration - 3 A body is thrown from the surface of earth with the velocity 1 km/s. Find the maximum
height above the surface of the earth upto which it will go ?
SOLUTION :
Let u = 1km/s, h = height attained by the body 1 2 GM GM g R2 g R2
 u   
and R = radius of the earth 2 R Rh R Rh
We have, GM = gR2
u2 h
As the body goes away, it loses K.E. and gains  
2 R  R  h
P.E. 2g R
Loss in K.E. = Gain in G.P.E. u2R
 h
1/2 mu2 – 0 = (G.P.E.)f – (G.P.E.)i 2 g R  u2
1  GM m   GM m  2

2
mu 2  
 R  h
  
  R  
103    6400  103 
2
2  9.8  6400  103  103 
 h = 51430.408 m = 51.43 km.

Illustration - 4 (a) Find the height from the earth’ surface where g will be 25% of its value on the
surface of earth.(R = 6400 km)
(b) Find the % age change in the value of g when we go 4 km below the surface of earth.
SOLUTION :
(a) At a height h above the earth’s surface, we (b) At a depth h below earth’ surface, we have
have
 h g 4
2 g   g 1     1
 R   R g 6400
g  g  
 R  h
g  g 4 g 1
   
2 g 6400 g 1600
 R 
 g / 4 g  
R  h g 1
 % age =  100  % decrease.
g 16
R 1
 
Rh 2
 h = R = 6400 km.

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Illustration - 5 Calculate the orbital velocity of a satellite revolving at a height h above the earth’ s
surface if h = R. Also calculate the time period of this satellite. (g = 9.8 m/s2, R = 6400 km)
SOLUTION :
For orbital velocity in a circular orbit, we have 6400  103  9.8
 v  5.6 km / s
2
GM GM
v  (r = R + h) 2 r 2   2R 
r Rh Time period = T = 
v 4 2  103

gR 2 gR 4  103  9.8
 v   (GM = gR2 and h = R)  T  14212 s  3.95 hrs
2R 2 2

Illustration - 6 The mean distance of Mars from the sun is 1.524 times that of earth from the sun. Find the
number of years required for Mars to make one revolution about the sun.
SOLUTION :
3/ 2
For planets revolving around the sun T1 r 
T2  r3    1
T2  r2 
T12 r13
  3/ 2
T22 r23  r1 
 T1 = T2  
(T1 : time period of mars)  r2 
(T2 : time period earth) = (1 yr) (1.524)3/2 = 1.88 yrs.

Illustration - 7 Two particles of mass m and M are initially at rest at an infinite distance apart. They move
towards each other and gain speeds due to gravitational attraction. Find their speeds when the separation
between the masses becomes equal to d.
SOLUTION :
GM m 1 1
Let v1 and v2 be the speeds of two masses m   mv12  Mv22
and M respectively when they are at a d 2 2
separation d. As there is no external force on this system, its total
As they approach each other, the kinetic momentum remains conserved.
energy increases and G.P.E. decreases. Hence Pi = Pf
for the system : 0 = mv1 – Mv2
Loss in G.P.E. = Gain in K.E. Combining the two equations, we have
(G.P.E.)i – (G.P.E.)f = K.Ef – K.E.i
2G M 2 2 G m2
v1  and v2 
 GM m 1 2 1 2 d m  M  d m  M 
0     mv1  Mv2   0
 d  2 2 

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Illustration - 8 What should be the time period of rotation of earth so that the bodies at the equator
would weigh 40 % of their actual weight ?
SOLUTION :

Gravity at the equator is given by :

0.6 g
 2 R   
g   g 1   R
 g 
 
 Apparent weight at the equator 2 R
  2
 0.6 g
 2 R 
 W   mg 1  
 g 
 
6400  103
 2  6489.245 sec
40  2 R  0.6  10
 mg  mg  1  
100  g 

Illustration - 9 A space-ship into a circular orbit close to the earth’s surface. What additional velocity
must be imparted to the ship so that it is able to escape the gravitational pull of the earth ?
(R = 6400 km, g = 9.8 m/s2)
SOLUTION :
The orbital velocity in a circular orbit close to
the earth is v  gR
ve  v   2 1 gR

The velocity required to escape ve  v  0.414  9.8  6400  103

 ve  2 g R
 3278.71 m / s  3.278 km / s
Hence additional velocity required is :

Illustration - 10 Calculate the time period of revolution and orbital speed of a satellite describing an
equatorial orbit at 1400 km above the earth’s surface. If the satellite is travelling in the same direction as the
rotation of the earth, calculate the interval between two successive appearances of the satellite for an observer
on a fixed point on the earth just below the satellite.
SOLUTION : 3
Radius of the orbit = r = R + h 

4 2 7.8  106   6830 sec
2
9.8   6.4  106 
6
= 6400 + 1400 = 7800 km = 7.8 × 10 m
Time period of the satellite (Ts) is given by :
GM
2 2 Orbital velocity of satellite  v 
4 4 r
Ts  r3  r3
GM 2 2
g R
 v 

9.8  6.4  106   7.17 km / s
7.8  106

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If the observer and satellite are rotating in the 2 2 2 TS TE

   TSE 
same sense, the relative time period of TSE TS TE
satellite is given by : TE  TS
SE  S  E 6830   3600  24 
 TSE   7416.26 sec
3600  24  6830

Illustration - 11 Two satellites S and S revolve around a planet in coplanar circular orbit in the same
1 2
sense. Their period of revolutions are 1 hr and 8 hrs respectively. The radius of the orbit of S1 is 104 km.
When S2 is closest to S1, find :
(i) the instantaneous speed of S2 relative to S1,
(ii) the instantaneous angular speed of S2 actually observed by an astronaut in S1.

SOLUTION :
2  r1
Let r1, r2 be the radii of orbits and T1, T2 be Speed of S1  v1 
the periods for the satellites. T1

T 2  r3 
 T2 
2
 r2 
3
 v1 
   6.28  104 km / hr
2  104
    1
 T1   r1 
2 (i) vs2 s1  vs2  vs1
T22 3 8
 r23  r13
T12
 10 4
 
1 Relative speed = | V2 – V1 |

4 = | 3.14  104 – 6.28  104 |

 r2  4  10 km
= 3.14  104 km/hr
2  r2
Speed of S 2  v2 
T2 v2  v1
(ii) 21 

 v2 

2  4  104  r2  r1

8
4
3.14  104 1
= 3.14  10 km.hr   rad / s
3  104 3600

Illustration - 12 A satellite of mass 1000 kg is rotating around the earth in a circular orbit of radius 3R.
What extra energy should be given to this satellite if it is to be lifted into an orbit of radius 4R.
SOLUTION :
Energy required = (TE)f – (TE)i GM m GM m
  4  3 
24 R 24 R
 GMm   GMm  GMm GMm 2
         
 2  4 R    2  3R   8R

6R 

9.8  6400  103   1000
 2.614  199 J

24  6400  103 
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THINGS TO REMEMBER

1. Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation

Let m1 and m2 be the masses of two bodies and r be the separation between them.
m m
F 1 2
r2
G m1 m2
F
r2
Where G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2

2. Acceleration due to gravity (of Earth)

GM
(a) On the surface of earth, g =
R2
Variation in acceleration due to gravity :
(b) Above the Surface of Earth :
2
 R 
g  g   where g = acceleration due to gravity at the surface.
 R  h

(c) Below the Surface of Earth :

 h
g   g 1  
 R
Where g = acceleration due to gravity at the surface.

(d) At a Lat it ude 

2
 2 R  2
 2R 

g g 1   cos   2   cos 
 g   g 
   
Where g is the acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth neglecting the effect of the
rotation.
In Particular
1. At Poles :
 = 90°
 g = g
Hence the rotation of the earth has no effect on the gravity at poles.

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2. At Equator :
 = 0°
 2 R 
g   g 1  
 g 
 
3. Escape Velocity :
It is the minimum velocity with which a body must be projected from the surface of earth so that it permanently
overcomes and escapes the gravitational field of the earth. We can also say that a body projected with escape
velocity will be able to go to a point which is at infinite distance from the earth.
2G M
Ve  or Ve  2 g R = 11.3 km/s
R

4. Motion of a Satellite of mass M around earth (M) :

(a) Orbital Velocity :
GM GM
v or v 
r Rh
For a satellite very close to the earth’s surface,
GM GM
v   gR
r R

(b) Time Period :

2 r r 2 4 2 3
T  T  r
GM GM

Note : For a satellite whose time period is 24 hrs (same as the time period of the earth’s rotation)

GMT 2
Radius of orbit r = 3 (T = 24 hrs.)
4 2
This satellite seems stationary if observed from the surface of earth. This is also known as Geostationary
Satellite.

(c) Total Energy of the Satellite

GMm
Binding Energy = – (Total Energy – )
2r
The energy that must be given to the orbiting satellite to make it escape to infinity is known as binding
energy.

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5. Kepler’s Laws :
1. Law of Orbits : Each planet revolves around the sun in an
elliptical orbit with the sun at one focus of the ellipse.
2. Law of Areas : This law states that the radius vector from the
sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals.
Both shaded areas are equal if the time from A to B is equal to
the time from to Q.

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