Electronics

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the technical field. For personal/home-use electronic devices, see consumer
electronics. For the journal, see Electronics (magazine).

Modern surface-mount electronic components on a

printed circuit board, with a large integrated circuit at the top
Electronics is a scientific and engineering discipline that studies and applies the principles of
physics to design, create, and operate devices that manipulate electrons and other electrically
charged particles. Electronics is a subfield of electrical engineering, but it differs from it in that it
focuses on using active devices such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits to control and
amplify the flow of electric current and to convert it from one form to another, such as from
alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) or from analog to digital.[1] Electronics also
encompasses the fields of microelectronics, nanoelectronics, optoelectronics, and quantum
electronics, which deal with the fabrication and application of electronic devices at microscopic,
nanoscopic, optical, and quantum scales.

Electronics have a profound impact on various aspects of modern society and culture, such as
communication, entertainment, education, health care, industry, and security. The main driving
force behind the advancement of electronics is the semiconductor industry, which produces the
basic materials and components for electronic devices and circuits. The semiconductor industry
is one of the largest and most profitable sectors in the global economy, with annual revenues
exceeding $481 billion in 2018. The electronics industry also encompasses other sectors that rely
on electronic devices and systems, such as e-commerce, which generated over $29 trillion in
online sales in 2017.

History and development

See also: History of electronic engineering and Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering

One of the earliest Audion radio receivers, constructed by De

Forest in 1914

Electronics has hugely influenced the development of modern society. The identification of the
electron in 1897, along with the subsequent invention of the vacuum tube which could amplify
and rectify small electrical signals, inaugurated the field of electronics and the electron age.[2]
Practical applications started with the invention of the diode by Ambrose Fleming and the triode
by Lee De Forest in the early 1900s, which made the detection of small electrical voltages such
as radio signals from a radio antenna possible with a non-mechanical device.

Vacuum tubes (thermionic valves) were the first active electronic components which controlled
current flow by influencing the flow of individual electrons,[3] They were responsible for the
electronics revolution of the first half of the twentieth century,[4][5] They enabled the construction
of equipment that used current amplification and rectification to give us radio, television, radar,
long-distance telephony and much more. The early growth of electronics was rapid, and by the
1920s, commercial radio broadcasting and communications were becoming widespread and
electronic amplifiers were being used in such diverse applications as long-distance telephony and
the music recording industry.

The next big technological step took several decades to appear, when the first working point-
contact transistor was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain at Bell Labs in
1947.[6] However, vacuum tubes played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power
transmission as well as television receivers until the middle of the 1980s.[7] Since then, solid-state
devices have all but completely taken over. Vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist
applications such as high power RF amplifiers, cathode ray tubes, specialist audio equipment,
guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices.

In April 1955, the IBM 608 was the first IBM product to use transistor circuits without any
vacuum tubes and is believed to be the first all-transistorized calculator to be manufactured for
the commercial market.[8][9] The 608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors. Thomas
J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design. From that time on
transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic and peripherals. However, early
junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-
production basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.[10]

The MOSFET (MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell
Labs in 1959.[11][12][13][14] The MOSFET was the first truly compact transistor that could be
miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.[10] Its advantages include high
scalability,[15] affordability,[16] low power consumption, and high density.[17] It revolutionized the
electronics industry,[18][19] becoming the most widely used electronic device in the world.[13][20]
The MOSFET is the basic element in most modern electronic equipment.[21][22]

As the complexity of circuits grew, problems arose.[23] One problem was the size of the circuit. A
complex circuit like a computer was dependent on speed. If the components were large, the wires
interconnecting them must be long. The electric signals took time to go through the circuit, thus
slowing the computer.[23] The invention of the integrated circuit by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce
solved this problem by making all the components and the chip out of the same block (monolith)
of semiconductor material. The circuits could be made smaller, and the manufacturing process
could be automated. This led to the idea of integrating all components on a single-crystal silicon
wafer, which led to small-scale integration (SSI) in the early 1960s, and then medium-scale
integration (MSI) in the late 1960s, followed by VLSI. In 2008, billion-transistor processors
became commercially available.[24]

Subfields
 Analog electronics
 Audio electronics
 Bioelectronics
 Circuit design
 Digital electronics
 Embedded systems
  Integrated circuits
 Microelectronics
 Nanoelectronics
 Optoelectronics
 Power electronics
 Semiconductor devices
 Telecommunications

Devices and components

Main article: Electronic component

Various electronic components

An electronic component is any component in an electronic system either active or passive.

Components are connected together, usually by being soldered to a printed circuit board (PCB),
to create an electronic circuit with a particular function. Components may be packaged singly, or
in more complex groups as integrated circuits. Passive electronic components are capacitors,
inductors, resistors, whilst active components are such as semiconductor devices; transistors and
thyristors, which control current flow at electron level.[25]

Types of circuits
Electronic circuit functions can be divided into two function groups: analog and digital. A
particular device may consist of circuitry that has either or a mix of the two types. Analog
circuits are becoming less common, as many of their functions are being digitized.

Analog circuits

Main article: Analog electronics

 Hitachi J100 adjustable frequency drive chassis

Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of
a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage or current as
opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits.

The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a 'circuit' can
be defined as anything from a single component, to systems containing thousands of
components.

Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in
analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include
vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and oscillators.

One rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog – these days analog circuitry may use
digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance. This type of circuit is usually
called "mixed signal" rather than analog or digital.

Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have
elements of both linear and non-linear operation. An example is the comparator which takes in a
continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit. Similarly,
an overdriven transistor amplifier can take on the characteristics of a controlled switch having
essentially two levels of output. In fact, many digital circuits are actually implemented as
variations of analog circuits similar to this example – after all, all aspects of the real physical
world are essentially analog, so digital effects are only realized by constraining analog
behaviour.

Digital circuits

Main article: Digital electronics

Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits
are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra and are the basis of all digital
computers. To most engineers, the terms "digital circuit", "digital system" and "logic" are
interchangeable in the context of digital circuits. Most digital circuits use a binary system with
two voltage levels labelled "0" and "1". Often logic "0" will be a lower voltage and referred to as
"Low" while logic "1" is referred to as "High". However, some systems use the reverse definition
("0" is "High") or are current based. Quite often the logic designer may reverse these definitions
from one circuit to the next as they see fit to facilitate their design. The definition of the levels as
"0" or "1" is arbitrary.[26]

Ternary (with three states) logic has been studied, and some prototype computers made. Mass-
produced binary systems have caused lower significance for using ternary logic.[27] Computers,
electronic clocks, and programmable logic controllers (used to control industrial processes) are
constructed of digital circuits. Digital signal processors, which measure, filter or compress
continuous real-world analog signals, are another example. Transistors such as MOSFET are
used to control binary states.

 Logic gates
 Adders
 Flip-flops
 Counters
 Registers
 Multiplexers
 Schmitt triggers

Highly integrated devices:

 Memory chip
 Microprocessors
 Microcontrollers
 Application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC)
 Digital signal processor (DSP)
 Field-programmable gate array (FPGA)
 Field-programmable analog array (FPAA)
 System on chip (SOC)

Design
Electronic systems design deals with the multi-disciplinary design issues of complex electronic
devices and systems, such as mobile phones and computers. The subject covers a broad
spectrum, from the design and development of an electronic system (new product development)
to assuring its proper function, service life and disposal.[28] Electronic systems design is therefore
the process of defining and developing complex electronic devices to satisfy specified
requirements of the user.

Due to the complex nature of electronics theory, laboratory experimentation is an important part
of the development of electronic devices. These experiments are used to test or verify the
engineer's design and detect errors. Historically, electronics labs have consisted of electronics
devices and equipment located in a physical space, although in more recent years the trend has
been towards electronics lab simulation software, such as CircuitLogix, Multisim, and PSpice.

Computer-aided design

Main article: Electronic design automation

Today's electronics engineers have the ability to design circuits using premanufactured building
blocks such as power supplies, semiconductors (i.e. semiconductor devices, such as transistors),
and integrated circuits. Electronic design automation software programs include schematic
capture programs and printed circuit board design programs. Popular names in the EDA software
world are NI Multisim, Cadence (ORCAD), EAGLE PCB[29] and Schematic, Mentor (PADS
PCB and LOGIC Schematic), Altium (Protel), LabCentre Electronics (Proteus), gEDA, KiCad
and many others.

Negative qualities
Thermal management

Main article: Thermal management of electronic devices and systems

Heat generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated to prevent immediate failure and
improve long term reliability. Heat dissipation is mostly achieved by passive
conduction/convection. Means to achieve greater dissipation include heat sinks and fans for air
cooling, and other forms of computer cooling such as water cooling. These techniques use
convection, conduction, and radiation of heat energy.

Noise

Main article: Electronic noise

Electronic noise is defined[30] as unwanted disturbances superposed on a useful signal that tend to
obscure its information content. Noise is not the same as signal distortion caused by a circuit.
Noise is associated with all electronic circuits. Noise may be electromagnetically or thermally
generated, which can be decreased by lowering the operating temperature of the circuit. Other
types of noise, such as shot noise cannot be removed as they are due to limitations in physical
properties.

Packaging methods
Main article: Electronic packaging

Many different methods of connecting components have been used over the years. For instance,
early electronics often used point to point wiring with components attached to wooden
breadboards to construct circuits. Cordwood construction and wire wrap were other methods
used. Most modern day electronics now use printed circuit boards made of materials such as
FR4, or the cheaper (and less hard-wearing) Synthetic Resin Bonded Paper (SRBP, also known
as Paxoline/Paxolin (trade marks) and FR2) – characterised by its brown colour. Health and
environmental concerns associated with electronics assembly have gained increased attention in
recent years, especially for products destined to go to European markets.

Through-hole devices mounted on the circuit board of a mid-

1980s home computer. Axial-lead devices are at upper left, while blue radial-lead capacitors are
at upper right.

Electrical components are generally mounted in the following ways:

 Through-hole (sometimes referred to as 'Pin-Through-Hole')

 Surface mount
 Chassis mount
 Rack mount
 LGA/BGA/PGA socket

Industry
Main article: Electronics industry
Further information: Consumer electronics, List of best-selling electronic devices, and
Semiconductor industry

The electronics industry consists of various sectors. The central driving force behind the entire
electronics industry is the semiconductor industry sector,[31] which has annual sales of over
$481 billion as of 2018.[32] The largest industry sector is e-commerce, which generated over
$29 trillion in 2017.[33] The most widely manufactured electronic device is the metal-oxide-
semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), with an estimated 13 sextillion MOSFETs
having been manufactured between 1960 and 2018.[34] In the 1960s, U.S. manufacturers were
unable to compete with Japanese companies such as Sony and Hitachi who could produce high-
quality goods at lower prices. By the 1980s, however, U.S. manufacturers became the world
leaders in semiconductor development and assembly.[35]

However, during the 1990s and subsequently, the industry shifted overwhelmingly to East Asia
(a process begun with the initial movement of microchip mass-production there in the 1970s), as
plentiful, cheap labor, and increasing technological sophistication, became widely available
there.[36][37]
Over three decades, the United States' global share of semiconductor manufacturing capacity fell,
from 37% in 1990, to 12% in 2022.[37] America's pre-eminent semiconductor manufacturer, Intel
Corporation, fell far behind its subcontractor Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company
(TSMC) in manufacturing technology.[36]

By that time, Taiwan had become the world's leading source of advanced semiconductors[37][36]—
followed by South Korea, the United States, Japan, Singapore, and China.[37][36]

Important semiconductor industry facilities (which often are subsidiaries of a leading producer
based elsewhere) also exist in Europe (notably the Netherlands), Southeast Asia, South America,
and Israel.[36]

See also

 Electronics portal

 Index of electronics articles

 Outline of electronics
 Atomtronics
 Audio engineering
 Avionics
 Biodegradable electronics
 Broadcast engineering
 Computer engineering
 Electronics engineering
 Electronics engineering technology
 Fuzzy electronics
 Marine electronics
 Photonics
 Robotics

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