TOPIC 7

Wave Mechanics

MECHANICAL WAVES
Why do we study waves?

 People study waves because the

ideas learned from a vibrating string
are the same as those found within
atoms and molecules, electronic
apparatus and antennas
 WAVE
Disturbance of a system
from equilibrium that
propagates from one region
of the system to another

 Impulsive waves
 Periodic waves
PROPERTIES
OF
MECHANICAL
WAVES
 PROPERTIES

Mechanical Waves – require a  Disturbance travels or

propagates with definite
medium in order to propagate speed through the medium

 The medium does not

travel through space – each
particle of the medium
undergo oscillation along
their equilibrium point

 Waves transport energy

but not matter from one
region to another
Kinds of
Mechanical
Waves
 Transverse Wave

 Particlesin the medium vibrate perpendicular to the

direction of the propagation of the wave
As the wave passes, each particle moves up and down
 Longitudinal Wave

 Particles in the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of

the wave
As the wave passes, each particle moves
forward and back
Each particle of the surface moves in a circle
Crest, trough, amplitude, wavelength
wavelength Amplitude
CREST (the peak or high points on a wave) -magnitude of the
maximum disturbance
caused by the wave.
-height of the crest or
depth of the trough.
AMPLITUDE
equilibrium

Wavelength
distance between two
crests or two troughs or
between two points on
back-to-back cycles of a
TROUGH (the low points on a wave) wave.
 Period, Frequency

𝟏
Period – time elapsed
𝑻 = ; 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔 (𝒔)
𝒇 between two successive
crests passing the same
point in space

Frequency – number of cycles

𝒇=
𝟏
; 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝑯𝒛 (𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒛) that pass a given point per unit
𝑻
time. It is usually measured in
cycles per second, also known
as hertz (Hz).
Wave number k – number of waves in a unit
distance
2𝜋
𝑘=
𝜆

Angular frequency - angular displacement per

unit time
2𝜋
ω = 2πf =
𝑇
 Wave Speed

 The distance that disturbance travels per unit time.

𝜆
𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 =
𝑇
 Dependent on the properties of the medium in which it
travels.
Wave Speed

𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦
𝑣=
𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦
For instance…
Now,

𝐹
𝑣=
𝜇

𝑚
Linear mass density:
𝐿
 Type of wave Wave speed
F
Transverse wave on a
𝜇
string

𝑌
Longitudinal waves in solid
𝜌

Longitudinal waves in 𝐵𝑎𝑑

fluids 𝜌

Sound in an ideal gas γRT

M
MATHEMATICAL
REPRESENTATION WAVE FUNCTION
FOR A
OF A TRAVELING
SINUSOIDAL
WAVE WAVE
 Sinusoidal wave

Periodic wave
with simple
harmonic motion
𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑥
𝑡=
𝑦 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑣
Sine Wave

𝑡 𝑥
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 2𝜋 −
+x direction
𝑇 𝜆
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥
Sine Wave

𝑡 𝑥
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 2𝜋 +
-x direction
𝑇 𝜆
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥
Cosine Wave

+x direction 𝑡 𝑥
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋 −
𝑇 𝜆
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥
Cosine Wave

𝑡 𝑥
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋 +
-x direction 𝑇 𝜆

𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥
 Sample Problem 1

A transverse wave on the string has a wave speed of

12.0 m/s, amplitude 0.0500 m, and wavelength 0.400
m.
The waves travel in the +x-direction, and at t=0, the
x=0 end of the string has zero displacement and is
moving upward.
 (a) Find: f, T, k, ω

A transverse wave on 𝑣 12.00 𝑚/𝑠

𝑓= = = 30.0 𝐻𝑧
the string has a wave 𝜆 0.400 𝑚
speed of 12.0 m/s, 1 1
𝑇= = = 0.033 𝑠
𝑓 30.0 𝐻𝑧
amplitude 0.0500 m,
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
and wavelength 0.400 𝑘= = = 15.71 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚
𝜆 0.400 𝑚
m.
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 30.0 𝐻𝑧 = 188.50 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
(b) Write a wave function describing the wave

The waves travel in the +x-direction, and at t=0, the x=0 end of
the string has zero displacement and is moving upward.

𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥

𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0.0500𝑚 sin (188.50 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)𝑡 − (15.71 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚)𝑥

 (c) Find the transverse displacement of a point at
x=0.250 m at time t=0.150 s.

𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0.0500𝑚 sin (188.50 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)𝑡 − (15.71 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚)𝑥

𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0.0500𝑚 sin (188.50 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)(0.150𝑠) − (15.71 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚)(0.250𝑚)

𝑦 𝑥 = 0.250𝑚, 𝑡 = 0.150𝑠 = −0.035m

 Sample Problem 2

Transverse waves on a string have speed 8.00 m/s, amplitude

0.0700 m and wavelength 0.320 m. The waves travel in –x-direction
and at t=0 the x=0 end of the string has its maximum upward
displacement.

Find the wave number, angular velocity, and write a wave function
describing the wave.
 Wave number
k = 2π/λ = 19.63 m-1
 Angular velocity/angular frequency
ω= 2πf = 157 rad/s
 Wave function
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0.0700 𝑚 cos (157 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)𝑡 + (19.6 𝑚−1 )𝑥
 Activity

The right end of a string is attached to a stationary support. The other

end is wiggled up and down with frequency 2.0 Hz and amplitude 0.25
m. The wave speed is observed to be v = 10 m/s. At time t = 0, the
displacement is zero and is moving in the +x-direction. Assume that no
waves bounces back from the far end. Find the following:

A. amplitude, wavelength, wave number, angular frequency.

B. wave equation describing the wave
 A. 2𝜋
𝐴 = 0.25 𝑚 𝑘= = 1.26 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚
λ
𝑣 10 𝑚/𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑑
λ= = = 5.0 𝑚 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 2.0 𝐻𝑧 = 4𝜋 𝑜𝑟 12.6 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑓 2.0 𝐻𝑧 𝑠

B.
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔t − kx)

𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 0.25 𝑚 sin((4 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)𝑡 − (1.26 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚)𝑥)

REFLECTION

The reflection of a traveling pulse at the fixed

end of a stretched string. The reflected pulse is
inverted, but its shape is otherwise unchanged
The reflection of a traveling pulse at the
free end of a stretched string. The
reflected is not inverted.
 WAVE INTERFERENCE

The resulting effect

when two or more
waves overlap in the
same region of space.
The Principle of
Superposition

 When two or more waves

overlap, the displacement at
any point is the algebraic
sum of the displacement of
the corresponding points of
the overlapping waves.
Types of Interference

 CONSTRUCTIVE INTEFERENCE  DESTRUCTIVE INTEFERENCE

Constructive Interference

 Resultswhen the waves

are in phase
 Constructive
Interference

Path difference between

the two waves is
𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒏𝝀
𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3
Sample Problem (Constructive Interference)

A person taking a walk stops to listen to two people playing guitar

together on the street. The person stops directly in front of the first
guitarist standing 1.8 m away. The guitarists are tuning the low E string on
their guitars and are both producing a sound wave with a frequency of
82 Hz. The sound waves from the two guitars are in constructive
interference with one another. How far are the guitarists? Assume that
the speed is 343 m/s and that the guitarists are separated by the
smallest nonzero distance at which constructive interference will occur.
 Sample Problem (Constructive Interference)

???  Solution:
𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 = 𝒏𝝀
𝒓𝟐 = 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒏𝝀
1.8m 𝑣 343 𝑚/𝑠
(r1) Here, n=1, 𝜆 = 𝑓 = = 4.18 𝑚
82 𝐻𝑧
5.98m
b
(r2) So, 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝒎 + 𝟏 𝟒. 𝟏𝟖. 𝟓𝒎 = 𝟓. 𝟗𝟖𝒎
c
Recall: Pythagorean Theorem, 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 ;

𝑎 = 𝑐 2 − 𝑏2 = (5.98𝑚)2 −(1.8𝑚)2 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟎𝒎 (distance of the guitarist with each other)

 Destructive Interference

 Results when the waves

are out phase
Destructive
Interference
Path difference
between the
two waves is
1
𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = 𝑛 + 𝜆
2
𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3
 Destructive
Interference

Noise cancellation headphones

 Sample Problem (Destructive Interference)

Two speakers, placed facing each other, emit sound waves at 625 Hz
and are positioned to create constructive interference. The speed of
sound in air is 343 m/s. What is the minimum change in distance
between the speakers that will result in destructive interference?

1 The minimum change in distance is when n=0,

𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = 𝑛 + 𝜆
2 𝒗
Recall: 𝝀 = 𝒇 =
𝟑𝟒𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝑯𝒛
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒𝟗 𝒎

𝟏 𝟏
So, 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 = 𝝀= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒𝟗 𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟓 𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
 Standing wave

 Occurs when two waves of the same frequency

and amplitude but traveling in opposite direction
interfere

 Does not appear to be moving in either direction

 Standing wave

 Node– points that never move at all;

manifests destructive interference
 Antinode – points that have greatest
amplitude; manifests constructive
interference
 Does not transfer energy – there is
local flow of energy from each node
to the next; but average energy
transfer is zero.
 𝑦1 𝑥, 𝑡 = −𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

𝑦2 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥)

𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑦1 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝑦2 𝑥, 𝑡

𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 cos 𝜔𝑡
Recall: Amplitude for
𝐴𝑆𝑊 = 2𝐴 standing wave
Location of the displacement nodes
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 cos 𝜔𝑡 = 0

sin 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, …

𝑘𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋

𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑥 = 0, , , ,…,
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
2𝜋 𝜆 2𝜆 3𝜆 𝑛𝜆
since 𝑘= 𝑥 = 0, , , , … ,
𝜆 2 2 2 2
Location of the displacement antinodes
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 cos 𝜔𝑡 = 2𝐴

sin 𝑘𝑥 = ±1

𝑛𝜋
𝑘𝑥 = , 𝑛 = 1,3,5 …
2

𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑥= , , ,…,
2𝑘 2𝑘 2𝑘 2𝑘
𝜆 3𝜆 5𝜆 𝑛𝜆
𝑥 = , , ,…,
4 4 4 4
Normal Modes Of A String
Normal Modes Of A String
 Length
𝑛𝜆𝑛
𝐿=
2
 Wavelength
2𝐿
𝜆𝑛 =
𝑛
 Frequency
𝑣 𝑛𝑣
𝑓𝑛 = = = 𝑛𝑓1
𝜆𝑛 2𝐿
1 𝐹
𝑓1 =
2𝐿 𝜇
Normal Modes Of A String
𝑣
𝑓1 =
1st harmonic 2𝐿 Fundamental frequency

2𝑣
2nd harmonic 𝑓2 = 1st overtone
2𝐿

3𝑣
3rd harmonic 𝑓3 = 2nd overtone
2𝐿

HARMONIC SERIES – sequence of frequencies in which each frequency is

an integer of a fundamental

OVERTONE – any frequency greater than the fundamental frequency

 Sample Problem 3

A steel wire 1.0 m long having a mass of 5.0 g is under tension

of 500 N.
What is the fundamental frequency of vibration?
𝑛𝑣 𝑛 𝐹 𝑛 𝐹𝐿
𝑓𝑛 = = =
2𝐿 2𝐿 𝜇 2𝐿 𝑚

1 (500 𝑁)(1.00 𝑚)
𝑓1 = −3
= 158.11 𝐻𝑧
2(1.0 𝑚) 5.00 × 10 𝑘𝑔
 Sample Problem 3

How many overtones can be heard by a person capable of

hearing frequencies up to 9480 Hz?

𝑓𝑛 9480 𝐻𝑧
𝑛= = = 60
𝑓1 158 ℎ𝑧

# 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑠 = 𝑛 − 1 = 60 − 1 = 59
Longitudinal Standing Waves
Longitudinal Normal Modes: Open Pipe

 Length
𝑛𝜆𝑛
𝐿=
2
 Wavelength
2𝐿
𝜆𝑛 =
𝑛
 Frequency
𝑣 𝑛𝑣
𝑓𝑛 = = = 𝑛𝑓1
𝜆𝑛 2𝐿

𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, …
Longitudinal Normal Modes: Closed Pipe

 Length
𝑛𝜆𝑛
𝐿=
4
 Wavelength
4𝐿
𝜆𝑛 =
𝑛
 Frequency
𝑣 𝑛𝑣
𝑓𝑛 = = = 𝑛𝑓𝑛
𝜆𝑛 4𝐿

𝑛 = 1,3,5, …
 Sample Problem 4

Find the fundamental frequency and the first two overtones of

a pipe 40.0 cm long.
(a) if the pipe is open at both ends;
(b) if the pipe is closed at one end.
Take the speed of sound in air to be 344 m/s.
 Open pipe Closed pipe
𝑛𝑣 𝑛𝑣
𝑓= 𝑓=
2𝐿 4𝐿

(1)(344𝑚/𝑠) (1)(344𝑚/𝑠)
𝑓1 = = 430 𝐻𝑧 𝑓1 = = 215 𝐻𝑧
2(0.40 𝑚) 4(0.40 𝑚)

𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓1 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓1
𝑓2 = (2)𝑓1 = 860 𝐻𝑧 𝑓3 = (3)𝑓1 = 645 𝐻𝑧
𝑓3 = (3)𝑓1 = 1290 𝐻𝑧 𝑓5 = (5)𝑓1 = 1075 𝐻𝑧
(c) For each of the cases above, what is the number of the
highest harmonic that may be heard by a person who can
hear frequencies from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz?

Open pipe Closed pipe

𝑓𝑛 20,000𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝑛 20,000𝐻𝑧
𝑛= = ≅ 46 𝑛= = ≅ 93
𝑓1 430 𝐻𝑧 𝑓1 215 𝐻𝑧
 Sample Problem 5

On the day when the speed of sound is 344 m/s, the

fundamental frequency of the stopped pipe is 230 Hz.
(a) How long is the stopped pipe?
(b) What are the third, fourth, and fifth harmonics?
 Sample Problem 5

On the day when the speed of sound is 344 m/s, the

fundamental frequency of the stopped pipe is 230 Hz.
(a) How long is the stopped pipe?
(b) What are the third, fourth, and fifth harmonics?
(c) The third harmonics of this stopped pipe has the same
wavelength as the fifth harmonic of another open pipe. How
long is the open pipe?
On the day when the speed of sound is 344 m/s, the
fundamental frequency of the stopped pipe is 230 Hz.
(a) How long is the stopped pipe?
𝑓1 = 230 𝐻𝑧 𝑛𝑣 𝑣
𝑓= 𝑓1 =
4𝐿 4𝐿
𝑣 344 𝑚/𝑠
𝐿= = = 0.37 𝑚
4𝑓1 4(230 𝐻𝑧)
On the day when the speed of sound
is 344 m/s, the fundamental
frequency of the stopped pipe is 230
Hz.

(b) What are the third, fourth,

and fifth harmonics?

𝑓3 = 3 𝑓1 = 690 𝐻𝑧
𝑛𝑜 𝑓4
𝑓5 = 5 𝑓1 = 1150 𝐻𝑧
On the day when the speed of sound
is 344 m/s, the fundamental
frequency of the stopped pipe is 230
Hz.

(b) What are the third, fourth, (c) The third harmonic of this stopped
pipe has the same wavelength as
and fifth harmonics?
the fifth harmonic of another open
pipe. How long is the open pipe?
𝑓3 = 3 𝑓1 = 690 𝐻𝑧
𝑓3 (𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑) = 𝑓5 (𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛)
𝑛𝑜 𝑓4
𝑣
𝑓5 = 5 𝑓1 = 5 = 690 𝐻𝑧
𝑓5 = 5 𝑓1 = 1150 𝐻𝑧 2𝐿
𝑣
𝐿=5 = 1.25 𝑚/𝑠
2𝑓1
Resonance

A phenomena that occurs if

the frequency is equal to the one of the
normal modes of frequencies, the amplitude
of the resulting force oscillation can become
very large.
Resonance
SOUND AND HEARING
Sound Waves
Sources and speed of sound waves

Sound – longitudinal mechanical waves and is associated with

the sense of hearing

 There must be a source

 Energy is transferred from the source
 Sound is detected by an ear or an instrument
 Sound Waves

 Fluctuationsin
pressure within
normal atmospheric
pressure.
End of Topic 7…..