ME 2031

Auxiliary View

1
AUXILIARY VIEW

2
AUXILIARY VIEW

3
AUXILIARY VIEW

4
AUXILIARY VIEW

5
AUXILIARY VIEW

6
AUXILIARY VIEW

7
AUXILIARY VIEW

8
AUXILIARY VIEW

9
AUXILIARY VIEW

10
AUXILIARY VIEW

11
AUXILIARY VIEW

12
AUXILIARY VIEW

13
AUXILIARY VIEW

14
AUXILIARY VIEW

15
AUXILIARY VIEW

16
AUXILIARY VIEW

17
AUXILIARY VIEW

18
ORTHOGRAPHIC
PROJECTION

1
 Introduction and Objectives
 Ortho_ Greek word meaning perpendicular.
 A system of drawing to represent 3D objects by using multiple-
view drawings.
 In this system of projection, the 3D object is projected
perpendicularly onto a projection plane with parallel projectors.

Objectives:

 To understand the basic

principles of orthographic projection
 To be able to construct
orthographic views of simple
objects
 To visualize 3D objects from
drawings showing their
orthographic views

2
THEORY OF PROJECTION

Technical drawing is a "Universal Graphic Language" by

means of which the shape, size, finish; construction of an
object can be described accurately and clearly. Only as a
supplement, for notes and specifications is the word-
language used. This language used by engineers and
architects to develop and record their ideas and then
communicate every detail of their design to the people
who are to execute the design and to manufacturers.

The descriptions must be prepared that show every

aspects of the shape and size of each part and of the
complete machine and structure shape described by
projection, that is, by the process of causing an image to
be formed by rays of sight taken in a particular direction
from an object to a picture plane.

3
 Projection Theory
A projection is a mapping of a 3D space onto a 2D subspace
2D space is called the projection plane
Projection also refers to image resulting from such a
mapping

4
 Common Elements of
a Projection System

• Center of Projection
(Perspective)/Direction of
Projection (Parallel)
• Projection Plane
• Object(s) to be projected

• Projectors

5
 Some Terminology

• Center of Projection = Station Point =

Viewpoint of observer
• Projection Plane = Viewplane = Picture
Plane
• Projectors = Sightlines = Line of Sight

6
Projection Methods: Perspective projection

Fig.4.1. Perspective projection

Projection methods vary according to the direction in which the rays

of sight are taken to the plane. If the rays are taken to a particular
station point result is called “perspective projection" or "central
projection" (Fig.4.1)
7
Projection Methods: Parallel projection

Fig.4.2. Parallel projection

When the station point O is infinitely distant from the

projection plane, the rays of projection will be parallel to each
other as shown in (Fig.4.2). In this case the projection is called
“parallel projection”.

8
If the rays of parallel projection are perpendicular to the plane of
projection, the resulting projection is an “Orthographic projection”, if the
rays of parallel projection, oblique to the plane of projection the resulting
projection is an “oblique projection” (Fig.4.3).

Fig.4.3. Orthographic and oblique projections

9
Projection Methods: Parallel projections

Orthographic Oblique

Line of sight is perpendicular to plane Line of sight is oblique to plane

10
As shown in (Fig.4.3) the cube can have only one orthographic
projection; but it can have any number of oblique projections on the
plane since any number of lines can be drawn through any point in the
cube oblique to the plane.

Projective theory is the basis of background information necessary for

shape representation. In engineering drawing, two fundamental methods
of shape representation are used:

1-Orthographic projections,
2-Pictorial projections

In this section we will discuss only the orthographic projection

11
Projection Methods

Perspective projection Parallel projection

12
 Classification of Projections
Projection Theory

Perspective Parallel
Projection Projection

One-point Oblique Orthographic

Two-point
Cavalier Axonometric Multiview
Three-point
Cabinet
Isometric
General
Dimetric

Trimetric
13.08.2022 CHAPTER 4 13
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
 DEFINITION OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Orthographic projection is the method of representing the exact
shape of an object by dropping perpendiculars from two or more
sides of the object to planes, generally at right angles to each
other; collectively, the views on these planes describe the object
completely.

Views may be thought of as

being projected onto planes
that form a transparent "box"
around the object:

14
Glass-box approach
Place the object in a glass box
Glass-box approach is used for developing orthographic projection drawings

Project points on the front view of the glass-box

15
Glass-box approach

16
Glass-box approach

17
 MULTIVIEW PROJECTION
There are three principal planes of projection-horizontal, vertical and
profile-as illustrated in Fig.4.4.

Fig.4.4. Three planes of projection

18
Fig.4.4. Three planes of projection
19
These planes intersect each other at right angles, forming the
first, second, third and fourth angles or quadrants.
Theoretically, an object can be projected in any one of the
four angles. An object projected in any angle or quadrant so
that its sides are parallel to the principal planes will show the
object in its true size and shape. Remember that, the observer
should view every object projected from a position in front of
the vertical plane and above the horizontal plane.

20
Technical people are concerned chiefly first angle and third angle projection.
Third angle projection is used in America, England and some other
countries. First angle projection is used in Turkey and in the other
countries those are using metric system.

21
Projection Systems

22
Projection Systems

23
Projection Systems

24
Projection Systems

25
Projection System symbols

26
Projection Systems

27
13.08.2022 CHAPTER 4 28
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Fig.4.5. First-angle projection

29
13.08.2022 30
Glass-box approach

31
 Multi-view

Rotate Back

Rotate 90 degrees “up” to get top view

Rotate 90 degrees clockwise to get right side

FRONT view is the most descriptive view of the object. The view that gives more
information about the object.
13.08.2022 CHAPTER 4 32
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Fig.4.6. Third-angle projection

33
 FIRST-ANGLE PROJECTION

If the object is situated so that its front and back faces are parallel to
the vertical plane of projection, and its top and bottom faces parallel
to the horizontal plane, the side face also be parallel to the profile
plane, and the faces will be shown in their true forms and sizes in
their respective projections. These projections are known respectively
in technical drawing as front, top and side views of the object Fig.4.7.

Having determined the three views of the object on the respective

planes situated at right angles to each other as shown in (Fig.4.7a),
the next step in the representation of the object is to revolve two of
the panes into the third plane, so that the three views of the object
may be shown on one plane as is necessary when the views are to be
drawn on a sheet of paper as shown in (Fig.4.7b). It should be noted
that the top view is directly below the front view and, the left side
view is to the right of the front view. This system allows three-
dimensional objects to be represented by means of related, two-
dimensional views in a manner, which is developed in this chapter.

34
Fig.4.7. First-angle projection and-revolved position of planes

35
THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION

If the object in third angle (Fig.4.8) with is faces parallel,

respectively, to the planes of projection, the front, top and side
faces of the object will be shown in their true forms and sizes
in the respective views. The horizontal and profile planes are in
the conventional direction as shown by arrows till coincide with
the vertical plane and the three views of the object will appear
as shown in Fig.4.9.

It should be noted that the top view, in this case, is directly

above the front view, and the right side view is directly to the
right of the front view.

36
 Fig.4.9. Revolved position-of planes
in third-angle projection

Fig.4.8.Third-angle projection

37
38
 THE SIX PRINCIPAL VIEWS

Some objects can not be fully represented through the three

views mentioned before, but require separate views
projected from each side. The system of orthographic
projection permits six principal views of a given object to be
drawn. (Fig.4.10) Suggests how an imaginary box formed by
the six principal planes is opened to form one common
plane- as shown in (Fig.4.11).

It should be observed that the top and bottom planes are

both horizontal planes, the front and rear views are both
frontal planes, the left and right side views are both profile
planes. In actual work, there is rarely an occasion when all
six principal views are needed on one drawing. But no
matter how many are required to give full shape description
of the object. Their positions relative to one another should
be as in (Fig.4.11). All these six views are principal views.
Each of the six views shows two of three dimensions of
Height, Width, and Depth

39
Fig.4.10.The six
projection planes
enclose the
object. This box
can be opened
into a single plane
to give six
principal views of
an object

40
Fig.4.11. The relative positions of the six views. Study this figure carefully
13.08.2022 CHAPTER 4 41
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
 Six principal views

 Generally do not need all six to

fully describe the object.

 A conventional Engineering
Drawing will normally have 2 to 3
views unless it required more views
to describe the geometry/ profile.

42
Conventional Orthographic Views

Height

43
Conventional Orthographic Views

13.08.2022 CHAPTER 4 44
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
 Transferring dimensions

Draw a miter line at 45 degrees

at a convenient distance to
produce the desired view.

45
 Transferring dimensions

Sketch light lines projecting depth

locations for points to miter line and then
up into side view as shown.

46
 COMBINATION OF VIEWS

The most usual combination selected from the six possible views
consists of the top, Front and left side views as shown in
fig.4.12. In each case the best shape description of the object is
necessary. For this reason sometimes we can select different
combination of views. They can be only two views such as front
and top or front and a side view, three views such as front, top
and left-side views (Fig.4.13).

47
48
Fig. 4. 12. Top, front and left side views. This is the most common combination. Note
that the top view is directly blow and in projection with the front view. The left-side
view is to the right of and in the projection with the front view. Observe also that two
(remember which to) space dimension are represented in each view
13.08.2022 CHAPTER 4 49
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
Fig. 4. 13 Front top and right-side views. The right side view is preferred only
because of the shape of the object, representation is clearer with the right-side
view than the left-side view.
50
If the object is a complicated one and for the one or more additional view or
views could be required at that time we could add those necessary views to
the principal views. Such as bottom, right side, rear or required one
(Fig.4.14).

Fig. 4. 14. Top, front, left-side and rear views. The rear view is added only when
same details on the rear of the object is important and the shape representation can
be improved by its use.
51
Marmara University Mechanical Engineering
2021-2022 Summer School
ME2031
Lab-3

Res. Asst. Dr. Serkan ÖĞÜT

1. Repair sketch(shows the remaining openings in the drawing)
2. Snapping
Tools> Sketch Settings > Enable Snapping
3. Covert entities
a. Transfer a sketch to another plane
b. Merge two drawings
c. Extracting 2D drawing from 3D Solid model surface
4. Slot command
5. Point command
• 6. Shaded sketch contours
Shades inside closed drawings
7. Instant 2D command
Changes the size of black (defined) lines
• 8. Revolved Boss/Base (Creating a solid by rotating)
• 8. Revolved Boss/Base (Creating a solid by rotating)
• 8. Revolved Boss/Base (Döndürerek katı oluşturma)
• 8. Revolved Boss/Base (Döndürerek katı oluşturma)
8. Revolved Boss/Base (Döndürerek katı
oluşturma)
Ödev: kesit görüntüleri verilen parçayı modelleyiniz.
9. Revolved Cut (Cut by revolving)
Marmara University Mechanical Engineering
2021-2022 Summer School
ME2031
Lab-3

Res. Asst. Dr. Serkan ÖĞÜT

1. Swept Boss command
2. Swept Cut command
3. Lofted Boss command
4. Lofted Cut command
5. Boundary Boss command
6. Boundary Cut command
1. Swept Boss command
1. Swept Boss command
1. Swept Boss command: Spring
1. Swept Boss command :
* Creating a circular profile (hollow or full) from the line
2. Swept Cut command
2. Swept Cut command: Selecting multiple paths :

Çoklu yol seçme:

1 sağ tık

2 group select
2. Swept Cut command
3. Lofted Boss command
Creating solids
between drawings
of different sizes
3. Lofted Boss command
Creating solids between different drawings
of different sizes (switching from rectangle
to circle then hexagon)
4. Lofted Cut command

Creating gaps by cutting between

different drawings of different sizes
(transition from circle to hexagon)
4. Lofted Cut command

Creating gaps by cutting between

different drawings of different sizes
(transition from hexagon
to rectangle then circle)
5. Boundary Boss command
Creating a solid between the boundaries
of different drawing surfaces of different
sizes (transition from a rectangular
drawing to the surface of an ellipse)

Unlike Loft, Normal to Profile

(with options such as perpendicular
to the surface or tangential)
6. Boundary Cut command

Creating gaps by cutting between

different drawings of different sizes
(transition from rectangle to circle)

Unlike Loft, Normal to Profile

(with options such as perpendicular
to the surface or tangential)
6. Boundary Cut command

Creating gaps by cutting between

different drawings of different
sizes(transition from rectangle to
circle)

Unlike Loft, Normal to Profile

(with options such as perpendicular
to the surface or tangential)
Exercise 1 (Swept Boss): Draw the figure below according to its
dimensions
Exercise 2 (Swept boss): Draw the figure below according to its
dimensions
Exercise 3 (Swept boss): Draw the figure below according to its
dimensions, then create a pipe using thin (thin feature).
Exercise 4 (Swept cut): Create the solid model below according
to its dimensions.
Exercise 5 (Loft boss): Construct the following solid with free
dimensioning.
Quiz (Cover for the previous
topics): Draw the figure on the
right with dimensioning.
ME2031 Mechanical Engineering Drawing
KEYS, PINS and RIVETS
 Keys
Keys are used to prevent movement between shafts and wheels, couplings,
cranks, and similar machine parts attached to or supported by shafts, as
shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1
 Keys
For heavy-duty functions, rectangular keys (flat or square) are used, and
sometimes two rectangular keys are necessary for one connection. For even
stronger connections, interlocking splines may be machined on the shaft and
in the hole. A square key is shown in Figure 1a.

Figure 1
 Keys
A flat key is shown in Figure 1b. The widths of keys are generally about one
fourth the shaft diameter. In either case, half the key is sunk into the shaft.
The depth of the keyway or the keyseat is measured on the side—not the
center—as shown in Figure 1a. Square and flat keys may have the top surface
tapered 1/8" per foot, in which case they become square taper or flat taper
keys.

Figure 1
 Keys
A gib head key (Figure 1c) is the same as a square taper or flat taper key
except that a gib head allows its easy removal. Square and flat keys are made
from cold-finished stock and are not machined.

Figure 1
 Keys
A Pratt & Whitney key (P&W key) is shown in Figure 1d. It is rectangular, with
semicylindrical ends. Two-thirds of its height is sunk into the shaft keyseat.

Figure 1
 Keys
Woodruff keys are semicircular, as shown in Figure 2. This key fits into a
semicircular key slot cut with a Woodruff cutter, as shown, and the top of the
key fits into a plain rectangular keyway.

Figure 2
 Keys
Sizes of keys for given shaft diameters are not standardized. For average
conditions, select a key whose diameter is approximately equal to the shaft
diameter. See manufacturers’ catalogs for specifications for metric
counterparts.
 Pins
Machine pins include taper pins, straight pins, dowel pins, clevis pins, and
cotter pins. For light work, taper pins can be used to fasten hubs or collars to
shafts. Figure 3 shows the use of a taper pin where the hole through the
collar and shaft is drilled and reamed when the parts are assembled. For
slightly heavier duty, a taper pin may be used parallel to the shaft, as for
square keys.

Figure 3
 Pins
Dowel pins are cylindrical or conical and usually used to keep two parts in a
fixed position or to preserve alignment.
They are usually used where accurate alignment is essential. Dowel pins are
generally made of steel and are hardened and ground in a centerless grinder.
Clevis pins are used in a clevis and held in place by cotter pins.
 Rivets
Rivets are regarded as permanent fastenings, unlike removable fastenings,
such as bolts and screws. Rivets are generally used to hold sheet metal or
rolled steel together and are made of wrought iron, carbon steel, copper, or
occasionally other metals.
To fasten two pieces of metal together, holes are punched, drilled, or
punched and then reamed, all slightly larger in diameter than the shank of
the rivet.

Riveted joint
Reaming process
 Rivets
Rivet diameters are made from d = 1.2 t to d = 1.4t, where d is the rivet
diameter and t is the metal thickness. The larger rivet diameter size is used
for steel and single-riveted joints, and the smaller may be used for multiple-
riveted joints. In structural work it is common to make the hole 1.6 mm
(1/16") larger than the rivet.
 Rivets
Large rivets or heavy hex structural bolts are often used in structural work of
bridges and buildings and in ship and boiler construction. They are shown in
their exact formula proportions in Figure 4.

Figure 4
 Rivets
Button heads (Figure 4a) and countersunk heads (Figure 4e) are the rivets
most commonly used in structural work. The button head and cone head are
commonly used in tank and boiler construction.

Figure 4
 Rivets
Riveted Joints
Typical riveted joints are shown in Figure 5. Note that the
rectangular view of each rivet shows the shank of the rivet with
both heads made with circular arcs, and the circular view of each
rivet is represented by only the outside circle of the head.

Figure 5
 Rivets
Because many engineering structures are too large to be built in the shop,
they are built in the largest units possible and then are transported to the
desired location. Trusses are common examples. The rivets driven in the shop
are called shop rivets, and those driven on the job are called field rivets.
However, heavy steel bolts are commonly used on the job for structural work.
Solid black circles are used to represent field rivets, and other standard
symbols are used to show other features, as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6
 Rivets
Small Rivets
Small rivets are used for light work. American National Standard small solid
rivets are illustrated with dimensions that show their standard proportions in
Figure 7, ANSI/ASME B18.1.1. Included in the same standard are tinners’,
coppers’, and belt rivets. Metric rivets are also available. Dimensions for large
rivets are in ANSI/ASME B18.1.2. See manufacturers’ catalogs for additional
details.

Figure 7
 Rivets
Blind Rivets
Blind rivets, commonly known as pop rivets (Figure 8), are often used for
fastening together thin sheet-metal assemblies. Blind rivets are hollow and
are installed with manual or power-operated rivet guns that grip a center pin
or mandrel, pulling the head into the body and expanding the rivet against
the sheet metal. They are available in aluminum, steel, stainless steel, and
plastic. As with any fastener, it is important to choose an appropriate material
to avoid corrosive action between dissimilar metals.

Figure 8
Marmara University Mechanical Engineering
2022-2023 Spring
ME2031
Lab-4

Res. Asst. Dr. Serkan ÖĞÜT

Reminder: Hole Wizard and Fillet-Chamfer
Reference Geometry:
a. Axis
b. Coordinate System
c. Plane
1. Offset
Pattern Commands:
2. Circular&Linear Pattern
3. Curve Driven Pattern
4. Sketch Driven Pattern
5. Table Driven Pattern
6. Fill Pattern
7. Variable Pattern
Reminder: Hole wizard and Fillet-Chamfer
Hole wizard: Bolt Nut Drawing
• Axis Command
• Coordinate System Command
1. Offset
2- Circular&Linear Pattern Command
3- Curve Driven Pattern
4 - Sketch Driven Pattern
5 - Table Driven Pattern
• 6- Fill Duplicate Command
6- Fill Pattern
7- Variable Pattern
 Helping Videos:
Dairesel&Doğrusal Çoğaltma Komutu
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uCZLPocDOU0&list=PL0GDdotzzEGh7AJ
• Eksen Komutu 0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=35
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yIxNxKhUjgI&list=PL
0GDdotzzEGh7AJ0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=47 Eğri İle Çoğaltma Komutu
• Koordinat Sistemi Komutu https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ixIAWLgq54&list=PL0GDdotzzEGh7AJ0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zYBT8zpJkCk&list=PL0G Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=36
DdotzzEGh7AJ0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=48
Hatırlatma: Delik sihirbazı ve Radyus-Pah kırma Çizim İle Çoğaltma Komutu
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KpZWRwBwx74&list=P https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jDX-
L0GDdotzzEGh7AJ0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=31
uxK9GaE&list=PL0GDdotzzEGh7AJ0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=37
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BrRVPaRIlXg&list=PL0G
DdotzzEGh7AJ0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=35
Tablo İle Çoğaltma Komutu
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wD0kCPzvrkM&list=PL0GDdotzzEGh7AJ
• Delik Sihirbazı Kullanarak Vida ve Somun Tasarımı 0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=39
(Thread)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q_1cXa-vmvY Doldurarak Çoğaltma Komutu
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nqT-
CLeRrD8&list=PL0GDdotzzEGh7AJ0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=40
• Yüzey Üzerinde Öteleme
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Yin5QcyX1k Değişken Çoğaltma Komutu
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwWOyBZnfBc&list=PL0GDdotzzEGh7AJ
0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=41
 KMÜ Makine Mühendisliği
2021-2022 Bahar Dönemi
Bilgisayar Destekli Tasarım Dersi
Ders-11
DERS BİTTİ

Arş. Gör. Dr. Mehmet ŞAHBAZ

 ME 114 – Engineering Drawing II
SECTIONING

Mechanical Engineering Dr. A. Tolga Bozdana

University of Gaziantep Assistant Professor
 Purpose of Sectioning

On many occasions, the interior of an

object is complicated or the component
parts of a machine are drawn assembled.

The interior features are represented by

hidden lines in usual orthographic views,
which results in confusion and difficulty in
understanding the drawing (Fig. 1a).

In order to show such features clearly,

one or more views are drawn as if a
portion had been cut away to reveal the
interior (Fig. 1b).

This procedure is called sectioning and

the view showing the cut away picture is
called section view.
Figure 1
1
 Definitions

A section is an imaginary cut taken through an object to reveal the shape or interior
construction. Fig. 2a shows the imaginary cutting plane in perspective view.

The imaginary cutting plane is projected on a standard view so that the sectional
view with orthographic representation is obtained as shown in Fig. 2c.

A sectional view must show which portions of the object are solid material and
which are spaces. This is done by section lining (cross-hatching) the solid parts
with uniformly spaced thin lines generally at 45º.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2 2
 Cutting Planes

Various cutting planes can be selected for obtaining clear sectional views.

The plane may cut straight across (Fig. 3a) or be offset (changing direction
forward and backward) to pass through features (Fig. 3b, 3c and 3d).

The plane may also be taken parallel to the frontal plane (Fig. 4a), parallel to the
profile and/or horizontal plane (Fig. 4b and 4c), or at an angle.

Figure 3

Figure 4
3
 Type of Sections

Depending on the number of cutting planes, sectional views can be simple with
one cutting plane (Fig. 5) or complex with two or more cutting planes (Fig. 6).

If the cutting plane-line cuts entirely across the object, it is called a full section.

If the cutting plane cuts halfway through the object, it is a half section.

In addition to these, there are broken-out sections, rotated sections, removed

sections, auxiliary sections, and assembly sections.

Figure 5 Figure 6
4
 Full Section

When cutting plane passes fully through an object, it is called full section (Fig. 7).

Figure 7

5
 Full Section with Offset Planes

The cutting plane may be offset in any portion in order to show some detail or to
miss some part, as seen in Fig. 8.

Note that the change in plane direction is not shown on the sectional view (i.e. no
edge is present on the object at this position since the cut is purely imaginary).

Figure 8

6
 Full Section with Offset Planes

Fig. 9 and 10 are examples of full sections with offset cutting planes.

Figure 9 Figure 10
7
 Half Section

A half section is made by cutting halfway through an object (Fig. 11).

Thus, one half is drawn in section and the other half is an outside view.

Usually, hidden lines are not used (inside details are visible on the section view).

Figure 11
8
 Half Section

In some cases, hidden detail on the unsectioned part may be shown for clarity
or for dimensioning purposes (Fig. 12).

Half sections can be used to have advantage with symmetrical parts (Fig. 13) as
well as with assemblies (Fig. 12).

Figure 12 Figure 13

9
 Broken-Out Section

This type of section shows only an

interior portion of the object in section.

Cutting plane passes partially through

the object. The area immediately in
Figure 14
front of the plane is broken and
removed, which reveals interior details
in this area.

At the point where the object is

considered broken, an irregular break
line is used to indicate the break.

Fig. 14 and 15 illustrate the advantage

of the broken-out section, which
eliminates the need for excessive
section lining.
Figure 15
10
 Rotated Section

Some parts of an object have to be rotated to show the section.

The cutting plane is passed perpendicular to the axis of the part to be cut.

The cut portion is revolved 90º and drawn in this position (i.e. turning the section
until it is parallel with the plane of projection).

The resulting view is a rotated section.

Figure 16 Figure 17
11
 Removed Section

This type of section is a revolved section drawn outside of the normal view.

They are used if there is restricted space for section or dimensioning prevents
the use of an ordinary rotated section.

Several sections may be required when shape of the part is not uniform.

These sections are represented by a series of cutting planes and identifying
letters (e.g. Section A-A, B-B, C-C and so on).

Figure 18 Figure 19
12
Removed Section

Figure 20

Figure 21
13
 Assembly Sections

Assembly sections consist of a combination of parts.

The purpose of an assembly section is to reveal the interior of a machine or
structure so that the separate parts can be clearly shown and identified. However,
the separate parts do not need to be completely described.

Small amount of clearances between mating or moving parts on assembly drawing

is not shown. Even the clearance between a bolt and its hole (which may be as
much as 1 mm) is rarely shown.

On assembly drawing, only such hidden details (as needed for part identification or
dimensioning) are drawn.

Figure 22
14
 Hidden Edges and Surfaces in Section

Sections are primarily used to replace hidden lines with visible lines. As a rule,
hidden lines and surfaces should be omitted in sectional views.

Sectional view in Fig. 23a is incorrect. Because, hidden lines do not clarify the
drawing. Thus, preferred sectional view should be as in Fig. 23b.

In some cases, hidden edges and surfaces can be shown for describing the object
or to omit a view. Fig. 24b must be used for complete representation of the object.

Figure 23 Figure 24
15
 Visible Edges in Section

A section-lined area is always completely bounded by a visible outline, never by
a hidden line or edge.

Therefore, all visible edges and contours behind the cutting plane must be shown in
sectional view (Fig. 25b).

Otherwise, a section will appear to be made up of disconnected and unrelated parts
(as in the case of Fig. 25a).

Figure 25
16
 Section Lining (Cross-Hatching)

Section lining of a cut surface is indicated by fine lines, which are drawn as
continuous lines usually at an angle of 45º with uniform distance (about 2 mm).
For smaller or larger areas, distance between lines can be from 1 mm to 4 mm.

Section lining or cross-hatching lines should not be parallel or perpendicular to any

main visible line bounding the sectioned area.

Figure 26

Figure 27
17
 Cross-Hatching of Adjacent Parts

Section lines on two adjacent pieces should slope at 45º in opposite directions. If
a third or fourth piece adjoins the other pieces (as in Fig. 28), they ordinarily are
cross-hatched at 30º and 60º.

An alternate use would be to vary the spacing without changing the angle.

Figure 28

18
 Cutting Plane Lines

The cutting plane line is an imaginary plane
passing through an object at the place where a
section is to be made.

This imaginary line is identified with reference

letters along with arrows to show the direction in
which the sectional view is taken.

The beginning and end styles of cutting plane lines

are made bold. This is also done at the portions
where the cutting plane is offset (Fig. 29).

Figure 29

19
 Thin Materials in Section

Very thin sections (such as sheet metal parts, gaskets or structural-steel shapes to
small scale) may be shown in solid black with white spaces between the parts.

Figure 30

20
 Ribs and Webs in Section

Ribs and webs are used to strengthen the parts. When the cutting plane passes
through the ribs lengthwise, cross-hatching would give the misleading impression
that the section was conical (Fig. 31b).

Therefore, cross-hatching is eliminated from the ribs and webs (as if the cutting
plane was just in front of them) when the cutting plane passes longitudinally
through them (Fig. 31a and 32).

Figure 31 Figure 32
21
 Ribs and Webs in Section

However, they are always cross-hatched if the cutting plane cuts them at right
angles to their length or axis direction to show their thickness (Fig. 33).

Figure 33

22
 Spokes and Arms in Section

When a cutting plane passes through

pulley spokes or arms, cross-hatching
is eliminated where the plane is thought
of as being just in front of the spokes.

Even though the cutting plane passes

through two of the spokes in Fig. 34, the
sectional view in Fig. 34a must be made
without cross-hatching the spokes in
order to avoid the appearance of a solid
web as in Fig. 34b.

Figure 34

23
 Lugs and Ears in Section

Small lugs or ears are treated like spokes and ribs.

Fig. 35a is an example in which the projecting lugs were not sectioned.

However, large lugs are considered as the solid base of the part, and hence they
are sectioned (Fig. 35b).

Figure 35
24
 Aligned Ribs, Spokes, Holes and Lugs

Ribs, spokes, holes and lugs are most common
parts that may occur in odd numbers.

These parts will give an unsymmetrical and

misleading section if the principles of true
projection are strictly obeyed.

A combination of holes and ribs shown in one

view is illustrated in Fig. 35.

The correct projection and section is shown at

Fig. 35c where rib and hole are drawn as if
they were aligned (in other words, rib and hole
are rotated to the path of vertical cutting plane
and then projected to the top view).

Note that neither rib or hole was cross-hatched.

Figure 36
25
 Aligned Ribs, Spokes, Holes and Lugs

When there are an odd number of spokes in a wheel (Fig. 37), they should be
shown aligned in the sectioned view so as to reveal their true location with
reference to the rim and the axis of the wheel.

Figure 37
26
 Aligned Ribs, Spokes, Holes and Lugs

Odd number of holes and lugs must also be treated likewise.

Fig. 38 and 39 show other examples of conventional representation. The sectional

views are drawn as if hole and lug had been swung until the portion of the cutting
plane passed through them and formed a continuous plane with the other portions.

Figure 38 Figure 39

27
 Aligned Elements in Full and Sectional Views

In full views, as well as in sectional views, certain violations of the rules of true
projection are accepted as a good practice because they add to the clearness of
the drawing. Fig. 40 may be shown straightened out or aligned in one view. This
is to avoid drawing in a foreshortened position.

When the space available is limited to allow a satisfactory scale to be used for the
representation of a symmetrical piece, it is a good practice to make one view a
half, as shown in Fig. 41.

Figure 40 Figure 41
28
 Conventional Breaks

In order to shorten certain views of
long parts, conventional breaks are
recommended.

Parts considered as broken must

have the same section throughout,
or if tapered they must have a
uniform taper.

The breaks used on cylindrical shafts

or tubes are often referred to as “S-
breaks” and are usually drawn
entirely or partly freehand.

Figure 42

29
Various Conventions in Sectioning

30
Marmara University Mechanical Engineering
2021-2022 Summer School
ME2031
Lab-8

Res. Asst. Dr. Serkan ÖĞÜT

1. Rib Command
2. Draft Command
3. Shell Command
4. Wrap Command
5. Intersection Command
6. Mirror Command
7. Dome Command
8. Combine Command
9. Split Command
10. Split Line Command
11. Helix Spiral Command
1. Rib Command
2. Draft Command
3. Shell Command
4. Wrap Command
6. Mirror Command
7. Dome Command
• Dome Command
8. Combine Command
9. Split Command
10. Split Line Command(Projection)
Split Line Command(intersection)
11. Helix Spiral Command
 Helping Videos: Dome Command
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4L-
• Rib Command
nOkblDTI&list=PL0GDdotzzEGh7AJ0Gxu0V8-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M5s5X5mjKBw&list=PL0GDdot
zzEGh7AJ0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N LHya8K_A_N&index=64
• Draft Command
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4v5ZAVIXwD0&list=PL0GDdotzz Combine Command
EGh7AJ0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=43 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N7K9yD-
Ksro&list=PL0GDdotzzEGh7AJ0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=62
• Shell Command
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TKAbD6KqMPc&list=PL0GDdotz Split Command
zEGh7AJ0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=43
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I4pLYHfl5XA&list=PL0GDdo
tzzEGh7AJ0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=58
Wrap Command
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XjycpYL2HRs&list=PL0GDdotzzE
Gh7AJ0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=45
Split Line Command
Intersect Command
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1wN5gwVEhjg&list=PL0GD
dotzzEGh7AJ0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=50
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sHCWqaX1OB4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RAF9vhAh91s
Mirror Command
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dYeObxYa640&list=PL0GDdotzz
EGh7AJ0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=45 Helix Spiral Komutu
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zh6GBBJxrdE&list=PL0GDd
otzzEGh7AJ0Gxu0V8-LHya8K_A_N&index=58
EXERCISE1
EXERCISE 2: Create 3D part according to its dimensions.
EXERCISE 3:
Create the 3D part
whose top and front
views are given.
EXERCISE 4:
Create 3D parts which
are shown as exploded
assembly in the figure.
Also save all the parts
separately.
GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND
TOLERANCING
 Modifiers and Symbols
-Sembols which define conditions for the tolerance zone of a geometric
tolerance.
- There are six modifiers.