Chapter 2

2.
WATER BALANCE AND CLOUD FORMATION

Previously the student was introduced to the field of hydrology, the hydrological cycle
and the position of hydrology in Civil Engineering. This chapter progresses and informs
the student how the hydrological cycle is presented by the water balance equation and
explain how clouds form.
Outcomes
At the end of this chapter the student will be acquainted with the water balance
calculations, cloud formation process and types of clouds that exist.
2.1 Water Balance
Hydrology is basically an interpretative science meaning that experimental work is
restricted by the scale of natural events. Take for instance the size of a tropical storm or
a flood. The fundamental requirements are observed, and data collected on all the aspects
of precipitation, runoff, percolation, river flow, evaporation and so on. With this knowledge
and a knowledge of all the bordering fields of study the best solutions to many engineering
problems can be found.
The concept of the water cycle (hydrological cycle) can be presented in the form of an
equation. In its simplest form the equation is as follows:
Input = Output ± Storage
For a specific area, input consists of precipitation and inflow from neighbouring areas.
Similarly output includes evaporation, outflow like in rivers or groundwater flow and
withdrawal by man. Water may be stored in lakes or as soil moisture or as
groundwater. From the above equation it is thus clear that if the output is greater than
the input, the existing storage would be reduced.
Example 1
At a certain reservoir site, the total amount of evaporation recorded over a period of
nine days was 30mm. During that period two rainstorms occurred with the measured
precipitation being 24mm and 2mm respectively. The average inflow to the reservoir
is 30m3/s. If the average area of the water surface in the reservoir was 15km2 for the
nine-day period, calculate the change in storage (S) over the nine days. Assume the
outflow to be zero.
Solution
From the equation Input = Output ± Storage, the change in storage becomes
± S = Input - Output
±S=I-O
The input is the water that entered the reservoir. In this case, the input was made up
of precipitation and inflow as follows:
I = Inflow + Precipitation
= 30 m3/s over nine days + (24 mm + 2 mm) over the total surface area of the water
To add together, change the units to be the same.
Therefore
I = 30 (3600) (24)(9) + 26/100 (15 x 106)
= 23,328  106 + 0,390  106
= 23,718  106m3 over nine days
The output in this case only existed out of losses by evaporation and is 30 mm for the
nine-day period:
O=
30
1000
(
15  10 6 )
= 0,450  106 m3
The change in storage then becomes
±S = 23,718  106 - 0,45  106
= 23,268  106 m3
Because the inflow is larger than the outflow, the change in storage is positive,
meaning the water level of the reservoir would rise.
Let try the self-evaluation exercise on the next page.

SELF EVALUATION
1. A reservoir has an inflow of 15 m3/s, and experiences seepage losses of 120
m3/minute. The Precipitation and Evaporation averages are 15 mm and 2,8 mm
respectively in 24 hours for that specific period. If 6 m3/s is pumped out for
irrigation purposes and another 14  106  /hour for domestic usage, what
would be the outflow? Take an average water surface area of 10 km2 and
provide the answer in m3/s.
2. The annual rainfall on a certain catchment (Area = 600 km2) is 825 mm. The
surface runoff is 330 mm/year and it is calculated that 210  105 m3 of water
evaporates in a year. At present 600  106 litres of water are abstracted daily
from wells. Calculate the amount of groundwater (mm/year) still available.
3. At a certain reservoir site, the total amount of evaporation recorded over a

period of nine days was 30mm. During that period two rainstorms occurred
with the measured precipitation being 24mm and 2mm respectively. The
average inflow to the reservoir is 30m3/s. If the average area of the water
surface in the reservoir was 15km2 for the nine-day period, calculate the change
in storage (S) over the nine days. Assume the outflow to be zero. (This question
is the same as the example done previously, however in this case you are
require to provide your answer in m3/s.
2.2 CLOUD FORMATION
Evaporation from open water surfaces in South Africa is great and ranges from an
average of about 2000 mm/annum at Cape Town, to 2300 mm/annum at
Johannesburg to as much as 4000 mm/annum at Keetmanshoop. This is, of course,
much higher than the average precipitation values per annum - roughly about 2,5 to
four times higher. However, the most important sources of water vapour are the
oceans and this brings us to the fact that everywhere in the lower atmosphere there is
always water vapour present, although it does vary from a lesser or greater extent,
and might in many cases be invisible to the human eye.
Condensation of water vapour into cloud droplets occurs as a result of cooling of the
air to a temperature below the saturation point for water vapour. This is the point at
which air contains the maximum amount of water vapour applicable to its particular
temperature. Evaporation from an evaporation surface ceases when the air above
that surface becomes saturated. When air is saturated and is then cooled, there will
be more water vapour than is required for saturation at the lower temperature, and the
excess water can now change to visible water particles. This process is known as
condensation. Further cooling may result in the water droplets eventually freezing in
the form of ice crystals. Cooling of the air is in fact, by far the most important cause
of cloud formation.
Apparently therefore the only requirement for the formation of cloud or mist, is that the
air should become saturated with subsequent condensation. Condensation can be
caused by:
• dynamic cooling
• mixing of air masses having different temperatures
• cooling by radiation
Dynamic cooling is by far the most important producer of appreciable precipitation. It
is, namely, upward movement of air - thus rising of air. As the air rises the atmospheric
pressure on it decreases, resulting in expansion and consequent cooling. Upward
movement of the air is caused by:
a) Convection - heating of air in contact with the surface of the earth, which in turn is
heated by the sun.
b) If air is forced up or over higher ground such as mountains.
c) When warmer air flows over colder, heavier air.
d) When there is convergence of air in the lower regions of the atmosphere.
These conditions generate vertical air movement, created the forms in which
precipitation is normally classified, namely:
• Convective precipitation, due to convection as in (a) above

• Orographic precipitation, due to mechanical lifting of moist air over
mountain ranges, as in (b) above
• Frontal precipitation, as in (c) above
• Cyclonic precipitation, associated with the movement of large air mass
systems, as in (d) above
Condensation nuclei must be present for the formation of cloud droplets. In the
atmosphere large numbers of such microscopically - small particles are present.
There may even be a million or more in a cubic centimetre. The nuclei originate from
sources such as ocean salt (from sea spray and foam), dust from volcanic eruptions,
dust from clay soils like the dust storms in the Free State, from the combustion in
industrial processes and from veld and bush fires. It is now generally accepted that
particles which are hygroscopic (nuclei with an affinity for water) play the greatest role,
those nuclei from sea spray and foam bubbles from the sea.
2.2.1. Cloud types
The requirement to classify clouds corresponds with a similar need which mankind
experienced in relation to animals, plants, etc. It was also desirable because of the
requirements of meteorology, but the same need arose for instance in aviation. The
recognition of a cloud as being in a certain class and the name of the cloud is a useful
indication of the cloud’s nature and the atmospheric movements and processes which
are present. The advantage of the naming of clouds and classification thereof
internationally is that a South African weather observer and another observer from the
other side of the globe can communicate fluently in meteorological terms and
immediately deduce what atmospherically processes were taking place when knowing
the type of cloud or clouds.
i. High Clouds (5 - 13 km)

ii. Middle Clouds (2 - 7 km)
iii. Low Clouds (0 -2 km)
iv. Clouds with vertical development
Precipitation does not occur from the high cloud family. In every family there are
further subdivisions with a name for each type (in Latin) explaining the origin of such
a cloud.
2.2.2. Cloud dispersal

Cloud dispersal refers to the ceasing of the ways in which clouds are formed and the
cloud development begins to weaken to eventually form invisible water vapour. Some
factors leading to cloud dispersal, are:
• When any of the processes leading to its formation cease to operate

• Warming of air when the cloud absorbs solar radiation - this influence is relatively
small
• Adiabatic warming of the air. As the air temperature rises, its relative humidity
becomes lower and the air may no longer be saturated
Mixing of the cloud with surrounding air that is often unsaturated
SELF EVALUATION
1. Define the following words/terms generally used in the field of Hydrology:
(a) Latent heat of condensation
(b) Cloud dispersal
(c) Condensation nuclei
(d) Dynamic cooling of air

References
Ojha, C.S.P. Berndtsson, R. Bhunya, P. 2008. Engineering Hydrology - 1.2 Hydrological
Cycle. Oxford University Press.
https://app.knovel.com/hotlink/pdf/id:kt00TV9OI3/engineering-hydrology/hydrological-cycle

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2.

WATER BALANCE AND CLOUD FORMATION

Input = Output ± Storage

To add together, change the units to be the same.

I = 30 (3600) (24)(9) + 26/100 (15 x 106)

= 23,328  106 + 0,390  106

= 23,718  106m3 over nine days

The change in storage then becomes

±S = 23,718  106 - 0,45  106

Let try the self-evaluation exercise on the next page.

3. At a certain reservoir site, the total amount of evaporation recorded over a

• Convective precipitation, due to convection as in (a) above

i. High Clouds (5 - 13 km)

2.2.2. Cloud dispersal

• When any of the processes leading to its formation cease to operate

(b) Cloud dispersal

(c) Condensation nuclei

(d) Dynamic cooling of air

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