7.

Canals
In this chapter, the basic concepts are introduced, and a variety of common
engineering applications are discussed.

Outcomes

At the end of this chapter the following will be covered

• Introduction
• Basic definitions
• Flow classification
• Uniform flow
• Rapid varied flow energy principles
• Hydraulic jump

7.1 Introduction
Open channel flow can be best described by a river flowing from point A upstream to
point B downstream. Open channel flow differ from pipe flow, because the pressure
on the surface of the water is ambient (atmospheric pressure). Therefore the pressure
head on the energy equation can be eliminated. Figure 1 and Figure 2 details the
difference between pipe flow and open channel flow.

Figure 1

1
 Figure 2
Where: EGL is Energy Grade Line, HGL is Hydraulic Grade Level, WSL is Water
Surface Level, V²/2g is Velocity Head, 𝑃1 /𝛾 is pressure head, ℎ𝐿 is head-loss, ℎ1 is
elevation head, and 𝑌1 is depth of water level.

2
Typical open channel structures
Section type Area (A) Wetted perimeter Hydraulic radius Top width Hydraulic depth
(P) (R) (T) (D)
Rectangular

𝑏𝑦
𝑏𝑦 𝑏 + 2𝑦 𝑏 𝑦
𝑏 + 2𝑦

Trapezoidal

(𝑏 + 𝑚𝑦)𝑦 (𝑏 + 𝑚𝑦)𝑦
(𝑏 + 𝑚𝑦)𝑦 𝑏 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑚² 𝑏 + 2𝑚𝑦
𝑏 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑚² 𝑏 + 2𝑚𝑦

Circular 1 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 1 2𝜃 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝜃

(2𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃)𝑑02 𝜃𝑑0 (1 − ) 𝑑0 (𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃) 𝑑0 ( ) 𝑑0
8 4 2𝜃 8 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃

3
4
 7.2 Basic definitions and equations
Open channel flow equations are similar to pipe flow equations. The basic equations
are detailed in Table 2.1.

Table Error! No text of specified style in document.-1

Parameter Symbol Definition

Discharge Q (m³/s) Volume of water passing through a flow section per unit time
Flow area A (m²) Cross-sectional area of flow
Average velocity V (m/s) Discharge divided by flow area
Flow depth Y (m) Vertical elevation from channel bottom to the water surface level
Top width T (m) Width of the channel section at the water surface level
Wetted perimeter P (m) Total length of the channel section that is in contact with the water
Hydraulic depth D (m) Flow area divided by the top width
Hydraulic radius R (m) Flow area divided by the wetted perimeter
Bottom slope Sb (m/m) Longitudinal slope of the channel bottom
Side slope Ss (m/m) Slope of the channel sides
Bottom width B (m) Width of the channel section at the bottom

7.3 Flow classification

Open channel flow may be classified by space and time criteria. Based on space, open
channel flow can be classified as Uniform flow and Varied flow.

• Uniform flow is when the water depth remains the same throughout the length of
the channel at a given time.
• Varied flow is when the water depth or discharge change along the length of the
channel. Varied flow can be further divided into gradually varied flow and rapidly
varied flow.
• Gradually varied flow is when the depth or discharge change gradually along the
length of the channel.
• Rapidly varied flow is when the depth or discharge change abruptly along the
length of the channel.
Base on time, open channel flow can be classified as steady flow or unsteady flow.

5
• Steady flow is when the discharge and water depth at any section do not change
with time.
• Unsteady flow is when the discharge and water depth at any section change with
time.

7.4 Uniform flow

Uniform flow in open channel are mostly steady. Flow in an open channel can reach
uniform flow only if no acceleration or deceleration takes place between two sections.
There are two types of commonly occurring problems to solve. The first is to determine
the discharge given the depth, and the second is to determine the depth given the
discharge. The following conditions need to be satisfied when working with uniform
flow.

• Water depth, flow area, average velocity, and discharge must remain unchanged
along the total length of the channel.
• The EGL, WSL, and the channel bottom must be parallel to each other.

7.5.1 Discharge
The discharge in an open channel flow can be determined using Equation 𝑸 = 𝑨𝑽
1.

𝑸 = 𝑨𝑽 1

Where: 𝑄 is the discharge flow rate (m³/s)

: 𝐴 is the flow area (m²)

: 𝑉 is the velocity (m/s)

7.5.2 Velocity
There are two equations that are mostly used for determining velocity in an open
channel flow: (1) Chezy’s equation, and (2) Manning’s equation. The Chezy’s
equation, and Manning’s equation are detailed by Equations 𝑽 = 𝑪√𝑹𝑺
𝟏
2 and 𝑽 = 𝑹𝟐/𝟑 𝑺𝟏/𝟐
𝒏

3 respectively.

𝑽 = 𝑪√𝑹𝑺 2
𝟏
𝑽 = 𝑹𝟐/𝟑 𝑺𝟏/𝟐 3
𝒏

6
Where: V is the average velocity (m/s)

: C is the Chezy’s roughness coefficient

: R is the hydraulic radius (m)

: n is the Manning’s roughness coefficient

: S is the bottom slope of the channel (m/m)

It is important to note that the velocity in open channel flow is dependent on the
hydraulic radius and bottom slope of the channel. The Manning’s equation is the most
widely used for determining the velocity in open channel flow computation. The
Manning’s roughness coefficient depends on the channel’s surface finish. The
Manning’s roughness coefficients range between 0.010 - 0.070. The typical Manning’s
coefficient values are shown on Table 2. The derivation of the velocity equation is
based on the assumption that the EGL and bottom slope are equal. Example 1,
Example 2, and Example 3 will demonstrate how to determine flow area, wetted
perimeter, hydraulic radius, flow velocity, and discharge in an open channel flow.

Table 2

Surface material Manning’s n values

Glass 0.010
Steel - smooth 0.012
Concrete - rough 0.014
Mansory 0.015
Corrugated sheets 0.022
Clean earth canals 0.022
Stone paved canals 0.025

7
Example 2.1

A 3 m wide rectangular irrigation channel shown on Figure 3 carries water at a flow

depth of 1.2 m. Manning’s roughness coefficient and bottom slope are 0.022 and 0.041
respectively. Determine the following:

a. Flow velocity, and

b. Discharge

Figure 3
Step 1: determine the flow area (A)

𝐴 =𝑏×𝑑

𝐴 = 3 × 1.2 = 3.6 𝑚²

Step 2: determine the wetted perimeter

𝑃 = 3 + 1.2 + 1.2 = 5.4 𝑚

Step 3: determine the hydraulic radius

𝐴
𝑅=
𝑃

3.6
𝑅= = 0.667 𝑚
5.4

Step 4: determine the velocity

1
𝑉 = 𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑛

1
𝑉= × 0.6672/3 × 0.0411/2 = 7.026 𝑚/𝑠
0.022

8
Step 5: determine the discharge

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉

𝑄 = 3.6 × 7.026 = 25.3 𝑚3 /𝑠

Example 2.2

A 3 m wide trapezoidal irrigation channel shown in Figure 4 with side slopes (1:2)
carries water at a flow depth of 1.2 m. Manning’s roughness coefficient and bottom
slope are 0.023 and 0.033 respectively. Determine the following:

a. Flow velocity, and Discharge

Figure 4
Step 1: Determine the top width

Using the side slopes (1:2) (Vertical to horizontal), the total top width is 7.8 m.

Step 2: Determine the flow area

𝑇+𝐵
𝐴=( )×𝑦
2

7.8+3
𝐴=( ) × 1.2 = 6.48 𝑚²
2

Step 3: Determine the length of the side slopes

Using the Pythagoras theorem, the length of the side slope is 𝑟 = √1.22 + 2.42 =
2.683 m.

Step 4: Determine the wetted perimeter

𝑃 = 2.683 + 3 + 2.683 = 8.366 𝑚

Step 3: Determine the hydraulic radius

𝐴
𝑅=
𝑃

9
 6.48
𝑅= = 0.775 𝑚
8.366

Step 4: Determine the velocity

1
𝑉 = 𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑛

1
𝑉= × 0.7752/3 × 0.0331/2 = 6.664 𝑚/𝑠
0.023

Step 5: Determine the discharge

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉

𝑄 = 6.48 × 6.664 = 43.183 𝑚3 /𝑠

Example 2.3

A circular channel shown on Figure 5 with diameter of 1.2 m and a flow depth of 0.8
m. Determine the hydraulic radius:

Figure 5
𝑍 𝜋
= sin 𝜃 , 1 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 =
𝑟 180

0.2
= sin 𝜃
0.6

𝜃 = 0.340

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜃 = 0.340 + 1.571 = 1.911

1
𝐴 = (2𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃)𝑑02
8

𝐴 = 0.801 𝑚²

𝑃 = 𝜃𝑑0

𝑃 = 2.293 𝑚

10
 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
𝑅 = (1 − ) 𝑑0
4 2𝜃

𝑅 = 0.349 𝑚

7.6 Rapidly varied flow

Rapid varied flow takes place when there is a sudden change in the geometry of the
channel or flow regime. Examples of structures that can result in a sudden change in
flow are sharp crested weir, broad crested weirs, and venture flumes. The sudden
change in the geometry of a structure can result in a hydraulic jump. Hydraulic jump
occurs naturally in open channels but are more common in constructed structures
such as energy dissipation basins. Practically, a hydraulic jump occurs at the toe of
spillways and below sluice gate. Hydraulic jump concept changes high velocity and
small depth to low velocity and high depth. This concept could also be explain as
converting high velocity supercritical flow upstream into a low velocity subcritical flow
downstream. Hydraulic jump is best explained by the energy principle and Froude
number.

7.7 Energy Principles in open channel flow

The energy contained in a unit weight of water flowing in an open channel flow may
be measured in three basic forms: Kinetic energy, Pressure energy, and Potential
energy. The sum of the three basic forms of energy is referred to as TOTAL ENERGY
HEAD. Due to the fact that open channel flow is subjected to atmospheric pressure,
pressure energy can be neglected. The water depth at a given cross section is
commonly used to represent the pressure head. Specific energy in a channel section
is defined as the energy head measured with respect to the channel bottom at the
section. Specific energy at any section in an open channel is equal to the sum of the
velocity head (kinetic energy) and the water depth (potential energy) at the section.
Given the water area (A) and the discharge (Q) at a particular section, may be rewritten
𝑽𝟐
as shown by Equation 𝑬 = +𝒚
𝟐𝒈

𝑸𝟐
4 and Equation 𝑬 = +𝒚
𝟐𝒈𝑨𝟐

5.

𝑽𝟐
𝑬= +𝒚 4
𝟐𝒈

11
 𝑸𝟐
𝑬= +𝒚 5
𝟐𝒈𝑨𝟐

Where: E is the specific energy

: V is the velocity (m/s)

: Q is the discharge (m³/s)

: A is the flow area (m²)

: g is the gravitational acceleration (m/s²)

: y is the flow depth (m)

Energy is can be lost during water flow from point 1 to point 2. For example, when
𝑽𝟐𝟏
water flows from 1 to 2, the total energy must include head-loss. Equation + 𝒚𝟏 =
𝟐𝒈

𝑽𝟐𝟐
+ 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒉𝒍 6 shows the total
𝟐𝒈

energy plus head-loss.

𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟐
+ 𝒚𝟏 = + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒉𝒍 6
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈

𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟐
Equation + 𝒚𝟏 = + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒉𝒍
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈

(𝒚𝟐 −𝒚𝟏 )𝟑
6 can be simplified to Equation ∆𝑬 =
𝟒 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐

7.

(𝒚𝟐 −𝒚𝟏 )𝟑
∆𝑬 = 7
𝟒 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐

𝒚𝟐 𝟏
The alternate depth of flow can be determined using Equation = (√𝟏 + 𝟖𝑵𝟐𝑭𝟏 −
𝒚𝟏 𝟐

𝟏) 8

𝒚𝟐 𝟏
= (√𝟏 + 𝟖𝑵𝟐𝑭𝟏 − 𝟏) 8
𝒚𝟏 𝟐

12
The specific energy curve shows the relationship between depth of flow and specific
energy at any section in the flow channel. Figure 6 shows the specific energy curve.

Figure 6
For higher discharge, the curve moves to the right A'C'B'. For lower discharge, the
curve moves to the left A"C’’B". The vertex C on a specific energy curve represents
the depth (𝑌_𝑐) at which the discharge Q may be delivered through the section at
minimum energy (𝐸_𝑐). This depth is commonly known as the critical depth for the
discharge Q at the given section. The corresponding flow in the section is known as
the critical flow. The state of rapid and shallow flow through a section is known as
supercritical flow or rapid flow. At a larger depth, the same discharge may be delivered
through the section with a smaller velocity and a higher specific energy than at critical

13
depth. This tranquil, high-stage flow is known as subcritical flow. For a given value of
specific energy, say E1 the discharge may pass through the channel section at either
depth 𝑌1 (supercritical flow) or 𝑌2 (subcritical flow). These two depths, 𝑌1 and 𝑌2, are
commonly known as alternate depths. At the critical state the specific energy of the
flow takes a minimum value. Figure 7 further shows specific energy curve and
different depths of flow in an open channel.

Figure 7

7.8 Froude Number

Froude number is a dimensionless number. Derived as the ratio of the inertial force in
𝑽
the flow to the gravity force in the flow. Froude number is given by the Equations =
√𝒈𝑫

𝟏 9 and
𝑽
𝑵𝑭 = 10
√𝒈𝑫

𝑽
=𝟏 9
√𝒈𝑫

𝑽
𝑵𝑭 = 10
√𝒈𝑫

Where: 𝑁𝐹 is the Froude Number

: V is the flow velocity (m/s)

: g is the gravitational acceleration (m/s²)

: D is the hydraulic depth (m)

The depth of flow can be classified based on the following conditions:

14
• When the Froude number is equal to unity, i.e V = √𝑔𝐷, the speed of the surface
(disturbance) wave and that of the flow is the same. The flow is in the critical state.
• When the Froude number is less than unity, i.e V < √𝑔𝐷, the flow velocity is smaller
than the speed of a disturbance wave traveling on the water surface. The flow is
classified as subcritical.
• When the Froude number is greater than unity, i.e V > √𝑔𝐷, the flow is classified
as supercritical.
𝟑 𝑸𝟐 𝟑 𝒒𝟐
The critical depth of flow can be defined by Equation 𝒚𝒄 = √ =√
𝒈𝒃𝟐 𝒈

11

𝟑 𝑸𝟐 𝟑 𝒒𝟐
𝒚𝒄 = √ =√ 11
𝒈𝒃𝟐 𝒈

Examples 2.4, 2.5, and 2.6 will demonstrate how to determine rapid varied flow,
specific energy flow, and Froude Number.

Example 2.4

A long, rectangular open channel 3 m wide carries a discharge of 15 𝑚3 /𝑠. The

channel slope is 0.004 and manning’s coefficient is 0.01. At a certain point in the
channel, flow reaches normal depth.

a) Determine the flow classification

b) If a hydraulic jump takes place at this depth, what is the sequent depth
c) Estimate the energy head loss through the jump
To answer (a).

Step 1: determine the flow area (A)

𝐴 =3×𝑦

𝐴 = 3𝑦 = 3𝑦

Step 2: determine the wetted perimeter

𝑃 = 3 + 𝑦 + 𝑦 = 3 + 2𝑦

Step 3: determine the hydraulic radius

𝐴
𝑅=
𝑃

15
 3𝑦
𝑅=
3+2𝑦

Step 4: determine the velocity

1
𝑉 = 𝑅2/3 𝑆 1/2
𝑛

1 3𝑦 2⁄
𝑉= ×( ) 3 × 0.0041/2
0.01 3+2𝑦

Step 5: determine the discharge

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉

1 3𝑦 2⁄
15 = 3𝑦 × ×( ) 3 × 0.0041/2
0.01 3+2𝑦

By trial and error method (Left hand side should equal right hand side), Y = 1.08 m.

Depth (y) Area (m²) Perimeter Hydraulic Velocity Discharge

(m) radius (R) (m/s) (m³/s)
1.08 3.24 5.16 0.628 4.638 15

Step 6: determine Froude number

𝑉
𝑁𝐹 =
√𝑔𝐷

4.63
𝑁𝐹 = = 1.422 NF > 1, therefore y < yc, Y1 = 1.08 m.
√9.81×1.08

To answer b.

Step 1: determine the sequent depth.

𝑦2 1 2
= (√1 + 8𝑁𝐹1 − 1)
𝑦1 2

Y2 = 1.70 m.

To answer c.

Step 1: determine the head-loss

(𝑦2 −𝑦1 )3
∆𝐸 = = 0.032 𝑚
4 𝑦1 𝑦2

16
7.9 Compound Open Channel Flow Section
Compound open channel flow sections are an extension of simple open channel flow
section. Compound channels apply the same principles as simple channels except
that the areas, wetted perimeter, hydraulic radius, average velocities, and the flow
discharge are determined separately per section. An example of a compound open
channel flow section is shown on example 2.5.

Example 2.5

A compound open channel flow is shown on Figure 8. You are required to determine
the total flow discharge (Q) in the channel. The bottom slopes in region 1 and 2 are
0.002 and 0.011 respectively. All dimensions are in meters (m).

Figure 8
Step 1: Determine the areas

6+2
𝐴1 = (6 × 2) + ( × 1.5) = 18 𝑚²
2

𝐴2 = (10 × 2)

Step 2: Determine the wetted perimeters

𝑃1 = 2 + 4.272 + 2 + 4.272 = 12.544 𝑚

17
 𝑃2 = 10 + 2 = 12 𝑚

Step 3: Determine the hydraulic radius

18
𝑅1 = = 1.435 𝑚
12.544

20
𝑅2 = = 1.667 𝑚
12

Step 4: Determine the velocities

1
𝑉1 = × 1.4352/3 × 0.0021/2 = 4.064 𝑚/𝑠
0.014

1
𝑉2 = × 1.6672/3 × 0.0111/2 = 2.949 𝑚/𝑠
0.050

Step 5: Determine the flow discharge

𝑚3
𝑄1 = 18 × 4.064 = 73.152
𝑠

𝑄2 = 20 × 2.949 = 58.98 𝑚3 /𝑠

Total flow discharge Q =132.132 m³/s

Self Evaluation
a. A rectangular channel lined with concrete (n = 0.015) is used to transport water at
a flow rate of 110 m³/s. Determine the slope of the channel if the channel has a
flow depth of 2 m and a top width of 4 m.
b. Water flows in a rectangular canal that has a manning’s coefficient of 0.02, a flow
depth of 500 mm, a width of 8 m, and a slope of 0.03. Determine the following:
I. Will it be possible for a hydraulic jump to occur?
II. What will the depth after the jump be?
III. What will the velocity be just after the jump?
c. An open trapezoidal channel with side slopes sloping at an angle of 45˚ flows at a
depth of 800 mm. The bottom width of the channel is 1.5 m. The channel has a
bottom slope of 0.01. The channel has a roughness of coefficient of (n) 0.03.
Determine the energy head loss if a hydraulic jump will take place.
18
d. A trapezoidal channel with equal side slopes is lined with asphalt (n = 0.016) and
is used to transport water at a flow rate of 120 m³/s. Determine the slope of the
channel if the channel has a flow depth of 2.2 m, a top width of 12 m, and a bottom
width of 6 m.
e. Water flows in a 2 m diameter circular open channel flow as shown on Figure 9.
The flow depth Y is 1.8 m. The roughness finish of the channel is n = 0.016 and
the bottom slope is s = 0.002.

Figure 9

f. An open channel is shown in Figure 3.1 below. You are required to determine the
(a) discharge (Q m³/s) and (b) specific energy in the channel, if the manning’s
coefficient is 0.035. Region 2 and 3 have a bottom slope of 0.015 and region 1 has
a bottom slope of 0.013. All dimensions are in meters (m).

Figure 10

19
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