Chapter 1: roadmap

▪ What is the Internet?

▪ What is a protocol?
▪ Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
▪ Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
▪ Performance: loss, delay, throughput
▪ Security
▪ Protocol layers, service models
▪ History
Introduction: 1-1
The network core
▪ mesh of interconnected routers mobile network
national or global ISP
▪ packet-switching: hosts break
application-layer messages into
packets
• network forwards packets from one local or
regional ISP
router to the next, across links on
path from source to destination home network content
provider
network datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-2
 Two key network-core functions

routing algorithm Routing:

Forwarding: local
local forwarding
forwarding table
table
▪ global action:
header value output link determine source-
▪ aka “switching” 0100 3
destination paths
▪ local action:
0101 2

move arriving
0111
1001
2
1 taken by packets
packets from ▪ routing algorithms
router’s input link 1
to appropriate
router output link 3 2

destination address in arriving

packet’s header
Introduction: 1-3
routing

Introduction: 1-4
 forwarding
forwarding

Introduction: 1-5
 Packet-switching: store-and-forward

L bits
per packet
3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

▪ packet transmission delay: takes L/R seconds to One-hop numerical example:

transmit (push out) L-bit packet into link at R bps ▪ L = 10 Kbits
▪ store and forward: entire packet must arrive at ▪ R = 100 Mbps
router before it can be transmitted on next link ▪ one-hop transmission delay
= 0.1 msec

Introduction: 1-6
Packet-switching: queueing
R = 100 Mb/s
A C

D
B R = 1.5 Mb/s
E
queue of packets
waiting for transmission
over output link

Queueing occurs when work arrives faster than it can be serviced:

Introduction: 1-7
Packet-switching: queueing
R = 100 Mb/s
A C

D
B R = 1.5 Mb/s
E
queue of packets
waiting for transmission
over output link

Packet queuing and loss: if arrival rate (in bps) to link exceeds
transmission rate (bps) of link for some period of time:
▪ packets will queue, waiting to be transmitted on output link
▪ packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) in router fills up
Introduction: 1-8
Alternative to packet switching: circuit switching
end-end resources allocated to,
reserved for “call” between source
and destination
▪ in diagram, each link has four circuits.
• call gets 2nd circuit in top link and 1st
circuit in right link.
▪ dedicated resources: no sharing
• circuit-like (guaranteed) performance
▪ circuit segment idle if not used by call (no
sharing)
▪ commonly used in traditional telephone networks

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples: http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive
Introduction: 1-9
Circuit switching: FDM and TDM
Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM) 4 users

frequency
▪ optical, electromagnetic frequencies
divided into (narrow) frequency
bands
▪ each call allocated its own band, can
transmit at max rate of that narrow time
band

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

frequency
▪ time divided into slots
▪ each call allocated periodic slot(s), can
transmit at maximum rate of (wider) time
frequency band (only) during its time
slot(s) Introduction: 1-10
Packet switching versus circuit switching
Is packet switching a “slam dunk winner”?
▪ great for “bursty” data – sometimes has data to send, but at other times not
• resource sharing
• simpler, no call setup
▪ excessive congestion possible: packet delay and loss due to buffer overflow
• protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion control
▪ Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior with packet-switching?
• “It’s complicated.” We’ll study various techniques that try to make packet
switching as “circuit-like” as possible.

Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit switching) versus

on-demand allocation (packet switching)?
Introduction: 1-11
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
mobile network
▪ hosts connect to Internet via access national or global ISP
Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
▪ access ISPs in turn must be
interconnected
• so that any two hosts (anywhere!) local or
regional ISP
can send packets to each other
▪ resulting network of networks is home network content
provider
very complex network datacenter
network

• evolution driven by economics, enterprise

national policies network

Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current Internet structure

Internet structure: a “network of networks”
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them together?
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-13
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them together?
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP to

each other directly doesn’t scale:
access
access
net O(N2) connections. net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-14
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
Option: connect each access ISP to one global transit ISP?
Customer and provider ISPs have economic agreement.
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

global
access
net
ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-15
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors ….

access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net ISP A

access
net ISP B access
net

access ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-16
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors …. who will
want to be connected
Internet exchange point
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
IXP access
access net
net ISP A

access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
peering link
access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-17
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
… and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to ISPs

access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
IXP access
access net
net ISP A

access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
regional ISP access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-18
Internet structure: a “network of networks”
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft, Akamai) may
run their own network, to bring services, content close to end users
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
IXP access
access net
net ISP A

Content provider network

access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
regional ISP access
net
access access
net access net
net

Introduction: 1-19
 Internet structure: a “network of networks”
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google
IXP IXP IXP
Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

At “center”: small # of well-connected large networks

▪ “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT), national & international coverage
▪ content provider networks (e.g., Google, Facebook): private network that connects its
data centers to Internet, often bypassing tier-1, regional ISPs
Introduction: 1-20
Chapter 1: roadmap
▪ What is the Internet?
▪ What is a protocol?
▪ Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
▪ Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
▪ Performance: loss, delay, throughput
▪ Security
▪ Protocol layers, service models
▪ History
Introduction: 1-21
How do packet delay and loss occur?
▪ packets queue in router buffers, waiting for turn for transmission
▪ queue length grows when arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds output link
capacity
▪ packet loss occurs when memory to hold queued packets fills up
packet being transmitted (transmission delay)

B
packets in buffers (queueing delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction: 1-22
Packet delay: four sources
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dproc: nodal processing dqueue: queueing delay

▪ check bit errors ▪ time waiting at output link for
▪ determine output link transmission
▪ typically < microsecs ▪ depends on congestion level of
router
Introduction: 1-23
Packet delay: four sources
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dtrans: transmission delay: dprop: propagation delay:
▪ L: packet length (bits) ▪ d: length of physical link
▪ R: link transmission rate (bps) ▪ s: propagation speed (~2x108 m/sec)
▪ dtrans = L/R ▪ dprop = d/s
dtrans and dprop
very different
Introduction: 1-24
 Packet Delay
▪ Packet delay or latency can be defined as the time taken by the
entire packet to reach its destination after the initial bit is sent out
from the source.
▪ The delay of a packet is calculated by adding the following four
components:
1. queuing delay,
2. processing delay.
3. transmission delay, and
4. propagation delay,

Introduction: 1-25
 Queueing Delay
▪ If a packet is received by the destination, the packet will not be
processed by the destination immediately. It has to wait in a queue
in something called a buffer.
▪ So the amount of time it waits in the queue before being processed
is called queueing delay.

Introduction: 1-26
 Processing Delay
▪ The time taken to process the data packet by the processor is called
processing delay.
▪ This time is the time required by the router to decide where to
forward the packet, update TTL, and perform header checksum
calculations.

Introduction: 1-27
 Transmission Delay
▪ It is the time needed to push all the packet bits on the transmission link.
▪ The time taken to transmit a packet from the host to the transmission medium is
called Transmission delay.

▪ It mainly depends upon the size of the data and channel bandwidth.
▪ transmission delay t = L/R where L is the length of the packet and R
is the transmission rate.
▪ For example, the transmission of 1500 byte (12000 bits) using a
transmission rate of 100 Mbps, will take:
: Introduction- part2-28
 Propagation Delay
▪ After the packet is transmitted to the transmission medium, it has to go
through the medium to reach the destination.
▪ Hence the time taken by the last bit of the packet to reach the destination
is called propagation delay.
▪ Factors affecting propagation delay:
1. Distance – It takes more time to reach the destination if the distance is longer.
2. Velocity – If the velocity(speed) of the signal is higher, the packet will be received
faster.
3. Following is the formula for propagation delay: Delay = D/S where D is the
distance between sender and receiver over a link, and S is the transmission speed.
▪ For example, if the distance between the two points is 48,000 km and the
propagation speed is 2.4*108 m/s in a cable. then the propagation delay
will be:
Introduction: 1-29
 Practice Problem
▪ A wants to send a 5 MB file to C in chunks of 500-byte packets. how long will it
take A to send the file to C. (Given that propagation speed for all channels is
3*108 m/s)

Introduction: 1-30
 “Real” Internet Delays and Routes
▪ what do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?
▪ traceroute program: provides delay measurement from
source to router along end-end Internet path towards
destination. For all i:
• sends three packets that will reach router i on path towards
destination (with time-to-live field value of i)
• router i will return packets to sender
• sender measures time interval between transmission and reply

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

Introduction: 1-31
 Ping and tracert commands
▪ tracert is computer network
diagnostic command for displaying
possible routes (paths) and
measuring transit delays
of packets across an Internet.

▪ Ping 84.235.127.17

▪ Tracert 84.235.127.17

Introduction: 1-32
 Throughput
▪ Network throughput (or just throughput) refers to the rate of message delivery over
a communication channel in a network.
▪ Throughput is usually measured in bits per second (bit/s or bps), and sometimes in data
packets per second (p/s or pps).
▪ throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits are being sent from sender to receiver
• instantaneous: rate at given point in time
• average: rate over longer period of time
• bottleneck link: link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

link capacity
pipe that can carry linkthat
pipe capacity
can carry
Rsfluid
bits/sec
at rate Rfluid
c bits/sec
at rate
serverserver,
sends with
bits
(fluid) into pipe (Rs bits/sec) (Rc bits/sec)
file of F bits
to send to client
Throughput
Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput
Introduction: 1-34
Chapter 1: roadmap
▪ What is the Internet?
▪ What is a protocol?
▪ Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
▪ Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
▪ Performance: loss, delay, throughput
▪ Security
▪ Protocol layers, service models
▪ History
Introduction: 1-35
Protocol “layers” and reference models
Networks are complex, Question: is there any
with many “pieces”: hope of organizing
▪ hosts structure of network?
▪ routers ▪and/or our discussion
▪ links of various media of networks?
▪ applications
▪ protocols
▪ hardware, software

Introduction: 1-36
Why layering?
Approach to designing/discussing complex systems:
▪ explicit structure allows identification, relationship of
system’s pieces
• layered reference model for discussion
▪ modularization eases maintenance, updating of system
• change in layer's service implementation: transparent to rest
of system
• e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect rest of system

Introduction: 1-37
Layered Internet protocol stack
▪ application: supporting network applications
• HTTP, IMAP, SMTP, DNS
application
application
▪ transport: process-process data transfer
• TCP, UDP transport
transport
▪ network: routing of datagrams from source to
destination network
• IP, routing protocols
link
▪ link: data transfer between neighboring
network elements physical
• Ethernet, 802.11 (WiFi), PPP
▪ physical: bits “on the wire”
Introduction: 1-38
 Services, Layering and Encapsulation
M
application Application exchanges messages to implement some application
application service using services of transport layer
Ht M
transport Transport-layer protocol transfers M (e.g., reliably) from transport
one process to another, using services of network layer

network ▪ transport-layer protocol encapsulates network

application-layer message, M, with
link transport layer-layer header Ht to create a link
transport-layer segment
• Ht used by transport layer protocol to
physical implement its service physical

source destination

Introduction: 1-39
 Services, Layering and Encapsulation
M
application application
Ht M
transport Transport-layer protocol transfers M (e.g., reliably) from transport
one process to another, using services of network layer

network Hn Ht M network
Network-layer protocol transfers transport-layer segment
[Ht | M] from one host to another, using link layer services
link link
▪ network-layer protocol encapsulates
transport-layer segment [Ht | M] with
physical network layer-layer header Hn to create a physical
network-layer datagram
source • Hn used by network layer protocol to destination
implement its service
Introduction: 1-40
 Services, Layering and Encapsulation
M
application application
Ht M
transport transport

network Hn Ht M network
Network-layer protocol transfers transport-layer segment
[Ht | M] from one host to another, using link layer services
link Hl Hn Ht M link
Link-layer protocol transfers datagram [Hn| [Ht |M] from
host to neighboring host, using network-layer services
physical physical
▪ link-layer protocol encapsulates network
datagram [Hn| [Ht |M], with link-layer header
source Hl to create a link-layer frame destination

Introduction: 1-41
 Services, Layering and Encapsulation
M
application M application
message
Ht M
transport Ht M transport
segment
network Hn Ht M Hn Ht M network
datagram

link Hl Hn Ht M Hl Hn Ht M link
frame

physical physical

source destination

Introduction: 1-42
 message M
source
application
Encapsulation: an
segment
datagram Hn Ht
Ht M
M
transport
network
end-end view
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical
Introduction: 1-43
Chapter 1: roadmap
▪ What is the Internet?
▪ What is a protocol?
▪ Network edge: hosts, access network,
physical media
▪ Network core: packet/circuit
switching, internet structure
▪ Performance: loss, delay, throughput
▪ Security
▪ Protocol layers, service models
▪ History
Introduction: 1-44
Internet history
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
▪ 1961: Kleinrock - queueing ▪ 1972:
theory shows effectiveness of • ARPAnet public demo
packet-switching • NCP (Network Control Protocol)
▪ 1964: Baran - packet-switching first host-host protocol
in military nets • first e-mail program
▪ 1967: ARPAnet conceived by • ARPAnet has 15 nodes
Advanced Research Projects
Agency
▪ 1969: first ARPAnet node
operational
Internet history
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary networks
▪ 1970: ALOHAnet satellite
Cerf and Kahn’s internetworking
network in Hawaii principles:
▪ 1974: Cerf and Kahn - ▪ minimalism, autonomy - no
architecture for interconnecting internal changes required to
networks interconnect networks
▪ best-effort service model
▪ 1976: Ethernet at Xerox PARC ▪ stateless routing
▪ late70’s: proprietary ▪ decentralized control
architectures: DECnet, SNA, XNA define today’s Internet architecture
▪ 1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes
Introduction: 1-46
Internet history
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks
▪ 1983: deployment of TCP/IP ▪ new national networks: CSnet,
▪ 1982: smtp e-mail protocol BITnet, NSFnet, Minitel
defined ▪ 100,000 hosts connected to
▪ 1983: DNS defined for name- confederation of networks
to-IP-address translation
▪ 1985: ftp protocol defined
▪ 1988: TCP congestion control

Introduction: 1-47
Internet history
1990, 2000s: commercialization, the Web, new applications
▪ early 1990s: ARPAnet late 1990s – 2000s:
decommissioned ▪ more killer apps: instant
▪ 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on messaging, P2P file sharing
commercial use of NSFnet ▪ network security to forefront
(decommissioned, 1995)
▪ est. 50 million host, 100 million+
▪ early 1990s: Web users
• hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson 1960’s]
• HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee ▪ backbone links running at Gbps
• 1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
• late 1990s: commercialization of the
Web
Introduction: 1-48
Internet history
2005-present: scale, SDN, mobility, cloud
▪ aggressive deployment of broadband home access (10-100’s Mbps)
▪ 2008: software-defined networking (SDN)
▪ increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless access: 4G/5G, WiFi
▪ service providers (Google, FB, Microsoft) create their own networks
• bypass commercial Internet to connect “close” to end user, providing
“instantaneous” access to social media, search, video content, …
▪ enterprises run their services in “cloud” (e.g., Amazon Web Services,
Microsoft Azure)
▪ rise of smartphones: more mobile than fixed devices on Internet (2017)
▪ ~18B devices attached to Internet (2017)
Introduction: 1-49