EEE105

CIRCUIT THEORY I
CHAPTER 10: SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS
COURSE OUTLINE

 Nodal Analysis
 Mesh analysis
 Superposition
 Source Transformation
 Thevenin and Norton Equivalency
WHAT NOW??

 More ADVANCED circuit analysis

 Analysis for AC circuits
 Nodal Analysis
 Extension of KCL concepts
 Mesh Analysis
 Extension of KVL concepts
 Superposition Theorem
 Source Transformation
 Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits
 Ways to make complex circuits simple
Steps to Analyze an AC Circuits

 Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency

domain
 Solve the problem using circuit techniques
 Transform back to time domain.

Time to Freq Solve Freq to Time

variables in Freq
Nodal Analysis

Nodal Analysis is a systematic method for performing circuit

analysis. The procedure for nodal analysis can be divided into three
basic steps:
1. Label the node voltage with respect to a ground node
2. Apply KCL to each of the nodes in terms of the node voltages
3. Determine the unknown node voltages by solving the
simultaneous equation from Step 2.
 Nodal Analysis

 Impedances will be
expresses as complex
numbers
 Sources will have amplitude
and phase noted.
 At this point, KCL analysis
can proceed as normal.

Only major different is that now

sources are expressed in phasors
and converted to real/complex
components, R’s, L’s C’s all
expressed as Z and treated like
resistor.
REVISION
 A phasor is a complex number
that represents the amplitude
and phase of a sinusoid.

 It can be represented in one of

the following three forms:

a. Rectangular z  x  jy  r (cos   j sin  )

b. Polar z  r 
j
c. Exponential z  re r  x2  y2
where y
  tan 1
x
NODAL ANALYSIS: EXAMPLE 1

Find ix in the following circuit.

What you need
to do 1st?
 NODAL ANALYSIS: EXAMPLE 1

Solution:
1. Convert the circuit to the frequency domain:
20 cos 4𝑡 ≫ 20∠0° 𝜔 = 4 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
1 𝐻 ≫ 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑗4
0.5 𝐻 ≫ 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑗2
1
0.1 𝐹 ≫ = −𝑗2.5
𝑗𝜔𝐶
Frequency
Domain
 NODAL ANALYSIS: EXAMPLE 1

2. Applying KCL at node 1 and 2

KCL at node 2

𝐼𝑥 = 𝑉1 /−𝑗2.5 KCL at node 1

 NODAL ANALYSIS: EXAMPLE 1

 The two nodal equations can be expressed in matrix form:

Obtain the determinant as:
 NODAL ANALYSIS: EXAMPLE 2

Q: Compute V1 and V2 of the circuit below:

REVISION: SUPERNODES

 If voltage source (dependent or independent) is

connected between two essential nodes, the two
essential nodes form a supernodes

Essential Essential
node, not a node, not a
reference reference
node node

Supernode
 NODAL ANALYSIS: EXAMPLE 2

𝑽 𝑽𝟐 𝑽
𝟏
𝟑 = −𝒋𝟑 + + 𝟏𝟐𝟐 (1)
𝒋𝟔
i1 i4
𝑗𝑉1 (−𝑗)𝑉2 𝑉
3= + + 122
3 6
i2 i3
36 = 𝑗4𝑉1 − 𝑗2𝑉2 + 𝑉2
𝟑𝟔 = 𝒋𝟒𝑽𝟏 + (𝟏 − 𝒋𝟐)𝑽𝟐 (2)

Applying KCL at the supernode:

i1= i2+i3+i4
 NODAL ANALYSIS: EXAMPLE 2

 But voltage source is connected between node 1 & 2,

so that:

𝑽𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎∠𝟒𝟓° + 𝑽𝟐 (3)
Substituting V1 in eq 2:
36 = 𝑗4 𝑉2 + 10∠45° + 𝑉2 − 𝑗2𝑉2
36 = 𝑗4𝑉2 + 𝑗4 10∠45° + 𝑉2 − 𝑗2𝑉2
36 = 𝑉2 + 𝑗2𝑉2 + 40∠135°
36 − 40∠135° = 1 + 𝑗2 𝑉2
36 −40∠135°
Then 𝑉2 =
1+𝑗2
36 − −28.28 + 𝑗28.28 64.28 − 𝑗28.28
𝑉2 = =
1 + 𝑗2 1 + 𝑗2
70.23∠24.75°
𝑉2 = = 31.49∠ − 87.18° 𝑉
2.23∠63.43°
NODAL ANALYSIS: EXAMPLE 2

 Substituting V2 in eq 3:
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 + 10∠45°
𝑉1 = 31.49∠ − 87.18° + 10∠45°
𝑉1 = 1.55 − 𝑗31.45 + 7.07 + 𝑗7.07
𝑉1 = 8.62 − 𝑗24.38
𝑉1 = 25.86∠ − 70.53° 𝑉
MESH ANALYSIS

 Steps in determining mesh current for circuit contain with only

independent voltage source:
1. Assign mesh currents i1,i2,…in to the n meshes

Assign mesh current in the clockwise direction around each non

redundant closed loop

2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s Law to express

the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneously equations to get the mesh
currents by using substitution or determinants.
 MESH ANALYSIS

 Just as in KCL, the KVL analysis also applies to phasor

and frequency domain circuits.
 The same rules apply: Convert to frequency domain
first, then apply KVL as usual.
 In KVL, supermesh analysis is also valid.

19
 MESH ANALYSIS: EXAMPLE 3

 Determine 𝐼0 using Mesh Analysis.

Loop 3:

KVL in loop 1: (1)

KVL in loop 2: (2)

MESH ANALYSIS: EXAMPLE 3

 Substituting I3 into eq 1 & eq 2;

(3)

(4)

 Eq 3 & eq 4 can be put into matrix form as:

MESH ANALYSIS: EXAMPLE 3

 Obtain the determinant as:

MESH ANALYSIS: EXAMPLE 4

 Solve for Vo in the circuit below using mesh analysis

REVISION: SUPERMESH

 A supermesh results when two meshes have a

(dependent or independent) current source in
common.
 MESH ANALYSIS: EXAMPLE 4

 Mesh 3 & 4 form a supermesh due to

the current source between the
meshes.
 KVL for mesh 1:
−10 + 8 𝐼1 − 𝐼3 + −𝑗2 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 0
−10 + 8 − 𝑗2 𝐼1 + 𝑗2𝐼2 − 8𝐼3 = 0
(𝟖 − 𝒋𝟐)𝑰𝟏 + 𝒋𝟐𝑰𝟐 − 𝟖𝑰𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎 (1)
 For mesh 2:
𝑰𝟐 = −𝟑 (2)
 For the supermesh:
𝟖 − 𝒋𝟒 𝑰𝟑 − 𝟖𝑰𝟏 + 𝟔 + 𝒋𝟓 𝑰𝟒 − 𝒋𝟓𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎 (3)
Due to the current source between
meshes 3&4, at node A, 𝑰𝟒 = 𝑰𝟑 + 𝟒 (4)
MESH ANALYSIS: EXAMPLE 4

(𝟖 − 𝒋𝟐)𝑰𝟏 + 𝒋𝟐𝑰𝟐 − 𝟖𝑰𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎

𝑰𝟐 = −𝟑
𝟖 − 𝒋𝟒 𝑰𝟑 − 𝟖𝑰𝟏 + 𝟔 + 𝒋𝟓 𝑰𝟒 − 𝒋𝟓𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎
𝑰𝟒 = 𝑰𝟑 + 𝟒

 Instead of solving four equation, we reduce them to two by

elimination.
 Substitute eq 2 into eq 1;
8 − 𝑗2 𝐼1 − 8𝐼3 = 10 + 𝑗6 (5)
 Substitute eq 2 & eq 4 into eq 3;
8 − 𝑗4 𝐼3 − 8𝐼1 + 6 + 𝑗5 𝐼3 + 4 − 𝑗5 −3 = 0
−8𝐼1 + 8 − 𝑗4 + 6 + 𝑗5 𝐼3 + 6 + 𝑗5 4 + 𝑗15 = 0
−8𝐼1 + 14 + 𝑗 𝐼3 = −24 − 𝑗35 (6)
 MESH ANALYSIS: EXAMPLE 4

8 − 𝑗2 𝐼1 − 8𝐼3 = 10 + 𝑗6
−8𝐼1 + 14 + 𝑗 𝐼3 = −24 − 𝑗35

8 − 𝑗2 −8 𝐼1 10 + 𝑗6
=
−8 14 + 𝑗 𝐼3 −24 − 𝑗35
We obtain the following determinants

8 − 𝑗2 −8
∆= = 112 + 𝑗8 − 𝑗28 + 2 − 64 = 50 − 𝑗20
−8 14 + 𝑗
10 + 𝑗6 −8
∆1 = = 140 + 𝑗10 + 𝑗84 − 6 − 192 − 𝑗280 = −58 − 𝑗186
−24 − 𝑗35 14 + 𝑗
MESH ANALYSIS: EXAMPLE 4

 Current I1 is obtained as;

∆1 −58 − 𝑗186 194.8∠ − 107.32°
𝐼1 = = = = 3.617∠274.5°𝐴
∆ 50 − 𝑗20 53.85∠ − 21.80°

The required voltage Vo is:

𝑉𝑜 = −𝑗2 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = −𝑗2 3.617∠274.5° + 3
= −7.213 − 𝑗6.57 = 9.76∠222.32° 𝑉
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

 Since AC circuits are linear, it is also possible to

apply the principle of superposition.
 This becomes particularly important is the circuit
has sources operating at different frequencies.
 The complication is that each source must have
its own frequency domain equivalent circuit.
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

 The reason for this is that each element has a

different impedance at different frequencies.
 Also, the resulting voltages and current must be
converted back to time domain before being
added.
 This is because there is an exponential factor
ejωt implicit in sinusoidal analysis.
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

When a circuit has sources operating at

different frequencies,
• The separate phasor circuit for each
frequency must be solved
independently, and
• The total response is the sum of time-
domain responses of all the individual
phasor circuits.
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

 The superposition theorem eliminates the need for solving

simultaneous linear equations by considering the effect
on each source independently.
 To consider the effects of each source we remove the
remaining sources; by setting the voltage sources to zero
(short-circuit representation) and current sources to zero
(open-circuit representation).
 The current through, or voltage across, a portion of the
network produced by each source is then added
algebraically to find the total solution for current or
voltage.
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
EXAMPLE 5

Find vo of the circuit below using the superposition theorem

 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
EXAMPLE 5
 Since we have three different  2nd possibility: All sources set to
sources, so we need to breaks the zero except the ac voltage source
problem into single frequency
problems
 1st possibility: All sources except
DC 5 V set to zero

 3rd possibility: All sources set to

zero except the ac current source

𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
EXAMPLE 5
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3

Where:
𝑣1 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 5 𝑉 𝑑𝑐
𝑣2 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 10 cos 2𝑡
𝑣3 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 2 sin 5𝑡

To find v1, all sources except DC 5 V set to zero

VR1
- + - +

1
𝑣1 = −𝑉𝑅1 = − 5 = −1𝑉 (1)
1+4
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
EXAMPLE 5
To find v2:
1. all sources is set to zero except
ac voltage source (10 cos (2t))
2. Transform the circuit to the
frequency domain. ω= 2 rad/s

10 cos 2𝑡 ≫ 10∠0°
2𝐻 ≫ 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑗4 Ω
1
0.1𝐹 ≫ = −𝑗5 Ω Z
𝑗𝜔𝐶

−𝑗5 × 4 −𝑗5 × 4
𝑍 = −𝑗5ԡ4 = = = 3.125∠ − 38.66° = 2.439 − 𝑗1.951Ω
4 − 𝑗5 6.4∠ − 51.34°
By voltage division, In the time domain,
1 1
𝑉2 = 10∠0° = 10∠0°
1 + 𝑗4 + 𝑍 1 + 𝑗4 + 2.439 − 𝑗1.951 𝑣2 = 2.498 cos 2𝑡 − 30.78° 𝑉
10
= = 2.498∠ − 30.79° 𝑉
3.439 + 𝑗2.049
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
EXAMPLE 5
To find v3:
1. all sources is set to zero except
ac current source (2 sin (5t))
2. Transform the circuit to the
frequency domain. ω= 5 rad/s

2 cos 5𝑡 − 90° ≫ 2∠ − 90°

2𝐻 ≫ 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑗10 Ω
1
0.1𝐹 ≫ = −𝑗2 Ω Z
𝑗𝜔𝐶

−𝑗2 × 4 −𝑗2 × 4
𝑍 = −𝑗2ԡ4 = = = 1.789∠ − 63.43° = 0.8 − 𝑗1. 6Ω
4 − 𝑗2 4.472∠ − 26.57°
In the time domain,
By current division, 𝑣3 = 2.328 cos 5𝑡 − 77.91° 𝑉 = 2.328 sin 5𝑡 + 12.09° 𝑉
𝑗10
𝐼1 = 2∠ − 90° 𝐴
𝑗10 + 1 + 𝑍
𝑗10 20
𝑉3 = 𝐼1 × 1Ω = −𝑗2 1 = = 2.328∠ − 77.91° 𝑉
1.8 + 𝑗8.4 8.591∠77.91°
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
EXAMPLE 5

The final value vo is obtained by combining of all three equation

𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3
𝑣1 = −1𝑉
𝑣2 = 2.498 cos 2𝑡 − 30.78° 𝑉
𝑣3 = 2.328 cos 5𝑡 − 77.91° 𝑉 = 2.328 sin 5𝑡 + 12.09° 𝑉

𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = −1 + 2.498 cos 2𝑡 − 30.78° + 2.328 sin 5𝑡 + 12.09° 𝑉
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
EXAMPLE 6
Find Io using superposition.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
EXAMPLE 6
 Solution:
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
EXAMPLE 6

Z2
Z1
 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

 Transform a voltage source in series with an impedance to a

current source in parallel with an impedance for simplification or
vice versa.
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION:
EXAMPLE 7
 Calculate the current Io
 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION:
EXAMPLE 7

 If we transform the current source to a voltage source, we obtain the circuit

shown in Fig. (a).
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION:
EXAMPLE 7
THEVENIN EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

 Thévenin’s theorem, as stated for sinusoidal AC circuits, is changed

only to include the term impedance instead of resistance.
 Any two-terminal linear ac network can be replaced with an
equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source and an impedance in
series.
 VTh is the Open circuit voltage between the terminals a-b.
 ZTh is the impedance seen from the terminals when the independent
sources are set to zero.
 NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

 The linear circuit is replaced by a current source in parallel with an

impedance.
 IN is the Short circuit current flowing between the terminals a-b
when the terminals are short circuited.

 Thevenin and Norton equivalents are related by:

VTh  Z N I N ZTh  Z N

 THEVENIN EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:
EXAMPLE 8

Find the Thevenin Equivalent at terminals a-b of the circuit below:

 THEVENIN EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:
EXAMPLE 8

To find Zth:
 THEVENIN EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:
EXAMPLE 8

To find Vth:
No current flow
By using voltage division,
to this resistor
−𝑗4
𝑉𝑡ℎ = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 75∠20°
6 + 𝑗2 − 𝑗4
(−𝑗4) 75∠20°
=
6 − 𝑗2
4∠ − 90° 75∠20°
=
6.324∠ − 18.43°
300∠ − 70°
= = 47.44∠ − 51.57°𝑉
6.324∠ − 18.43°
NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:
EXAMPLE 9

 Determine the Norton equivalent of the circuit below as seen

from terminal a-b. Use the equivalent to find Io.
NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:
EXAMPLE 9
1. Remove the load from terminal a-b
 NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:
EXAMPLE 9
2. Find ZN Z1

Z2

𝑍𝑁 = 4 + 𝑗2 ԡ 9 − 𝑗3
(4 + 𝑗2)(9 − 𝑗3) 36 − 𝑗12 + 𝑗18 + 6
= =
4 + 𝑗2 + 9 − 𝑗3 13 − 𝑗
42 + 𝑗6 42.43∠8.13°
= =
13 − 𝑗 13.04∠ − 4.4°
= 3.254∠12.53°Ω
= 3.173 + 𝑗0.705Ω
 NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:
EXAMPLE 9
3. Find IN

i3 i3

i1
i1 i2
i2

At Supermesh:
Supermesh
For Supermesh (mesh 1 & mesh 2):
𝑖2 = 𝑖1 + 4∠ − 90° = 𝑖1 − 𝑗4
𝑖1 = 𝑖2 + 𝑗4 (2)
−20 + 8 𝑖1 − 𝑖3 + 1 − 𝑗3 𝑖2 − 𝑖3 = 0
−20 + 8𝑖1 − 8𝑖3 + 𝑖2 − 𝑗3𝑖2 − 𝑖3 + 𝑗3𝑖3 = 0
8𝑖1 + 𝑖2 − 𝑗3𝑖2 − 9𝑖3 + 𝑗3𝑖3 = 20 (1)
 NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:
EXAMPLE 9
 Substituting eq 2 into eq 1:
8(𝑖2 +𝑗4) + 𝑖2 − 𝑗3𝑖2 − 9𝑖3 + 𝑗3𝑖3 = 20
8𝑖2 + 𝑗32 + 𝑖2 − 𝑗3𝑖2 − 9𝑖3 + 𝑗3𝑖3 = 20 i3
(9 − 𝑗3)𝑖2 − (9−𝑗3)𝑖3 = 20 − 𝑗32 (3)
i1
 For mesh 3: i2
4 + 𝑗2 𝑖3 + 1 − 𝑗3 𝑖3 − 𝑖2 + 8 𝑖3 − 𝑖1 = 0
4 + 𝑗2 𝑖3 + 1 − 𝑗3 𝑖3 − 1 − 𝑗3 𝑖2 + 8 𝑖3 − 8 𝑖1 = 0
4 + 𝑗2 + 1 − 𝑗3 + 8 𝑖3 − 1 − 𝑗3 𝑖2 − 8𝑖1 = 0 (4)
 Substituting eq 2 into eq 4:
13 − 𝑗 𝑖3 − 1 − 𝑗3 𝑖2 − 8(𝑖2 +𝑗4) = 0
− 9 − 𝑗3 𝑖2 + 13 − 𝑗 𝑖3 = j32 (5)
 NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:
EXAMPLE 9
 So, the 2 final eq are:
(9 − 𝑗3)𝑖2 − (9−𝑗3)𝑖3 = 20 − 𝑗32 (3)
− 9 − 𝑗3 𝑖2 + 13 − 𝑗 𝑖3 = j32 (5)
 In matrix form: (20 − 𝑗32) −(9 − 𝑗3)
∆1 =
(9 − 𝑗3) −(9 − 𝑗3) 𝑖2 20 − 𝑗32 𝑗32 (13 − 𝑗)
= = 20 − 𝑗32 13 − 𝑗 + 9 − 𝑗3 𝑗32
−(9 − 𝑗3) (13 − 𝑗) 𝑖3 𝑗32
= 260 − 𝑗20 − 𝑗416 − 32 + 𝑗288 + 96
We obtain the following determinants
= 324 − 𝑗148 = 356.2∠ − 24.55°
(9 − 𝑗3) −(9 − 𝑗3)
∆=
−(9 − 𝑗3) (13 − 𝑗) ∆1 356.2∠ − 24.55°
= 9 − 𝑗3 13 − 𝑗 − 9 − 𝑗3 9 − 𝑗3 ∴ 𝑖2 = 𝑖𝑁 = =
∆ 42.43∠8.13°
= 117 − 𝑗48 − 3 − 81 − 𝑗54 − 9 = 8.395∠ − 32.68°𝐴
= 42 + 𝑗6 = 42.43∠8.13°
 NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:
EXAMPLE 9
 So, the Norton equivalent circuit will be:  Now, connecting back the load, we get:

8.395∠ − 32.68°𝐴 8.395∠ − 32.68°𝐴

3.173 + 𝑗0.705Ω

3.173 + 𝑗0.705Ω

 By using current division rules:

3.173 + 𝑗0.705
𝐼𝑜 = 8.395∠ − 32.68°
3.173 + 𝑗0.705 + 10 − 𝑗5
(3.254∠12.53°)(8.395∠ − 32.68°)
=
13.86∠ − 18.06°
= 1.971∠ − 2.09°𝐴