Chapter 3

AC Machinery Fundamental

Electric Machinery 1
 Chapter 3 AC Machinery Fundamental

• Introduction of AC machines
• A Simple loop in a uniform magnetic field
• Rotating magnetic field
• Magnetomotive force and flux distribution on AC machines
• Induced voltage on AC machines
• Induced torque on AC machines
• Winding insulation on AC machines
• AC machines power flows and losses
• Voltage regulation and speed regulation

Electric Machinery 2
 Introduction of AC Machines
• AC machines are motors and generators for energy
conversion from electrical into mechanical energy or
vice versa
• Types of AC machine:
• Synchronous machine
• Induction machines
• Main parts of machine
Rotor
Stator
• Synchronous machine( field current is provided by separate DC supply)
• Induction Machine( field current is induction)
• Field circuit of SM and IM are located on rotor while on DC motor it is on stator
Electric Machinery 3
 Chapter 3 AC Machinery Fundamental

• Introduction of AC machines
• A Simple loop in a uniform magnetic field (continue)
• Rotating magnetic field
• Magnetomotive force and flux distribution on AC machines
• Induced voltage on AC machines
• Induced torque on AC machines
• Winding insulation on AC machines
• AC machines power flows and losses
• Voltage regulation and speed regulation

Electric Machinery 4
 3.1 A Simple Loop in a Uniform Magnetic
Field

• This loop will help us to

develop the concept more easily
that that can be applied in real
machines
• The factors the control voltage
and torque in this simple loop
are same as in real machines
• Fig. shows stationary magnet
and rotating loop.
• Rotating part is rotor and
stationary part is stator

Electric Machinery 5
 Voltage Induced in a Simple Rotating Loop

• Lets assume that side ab

and cd are perpendicular to
the plane of page, while
side bc and da are parallel
to the plane of page.
• Lets examine the induce
voltage
• eind = (vxB) . l

Electric Machinery 6
 Voltage Induced in a Simple Rotating
Loop
• Segment ab: vxB is into the • Segment cd: vxB is out of
page, vector l is also in the the page, vector l is also in
same direction the same direction
• eba=vBlsinθab • edc=vBlsinθcd

• Segment bc: half of this • Segment da: half of this

segment vxB is into the page, segment vxB is into the page,
and in other half point out of and in other half point out of
the page, vector l is the page, vector l is
perpendicular to the vxB perpendicular to the vxB
therefore, therefore,
• ecb=o • eda=o

Electric Machinery 7
 Voltage Induced in a Simple Rotating
Loop

• Total induce voltage: • By Using :

etot= eba+ ecb+ edc+ ead • θ= ω t
• v=rω
• etot=vBlsinθab + vBlsinθcd
• ein =etot=2rωBlsinωt
• θab =180o - θcd

• ein=ABωsinωt

• Φ max=AB

• Using identity sin θ= sin(180o - θ): • ein= Φ max ωsinωt

• ein =etot=2vBlsinθ
Electric Machinery 8
 Voltage Induced in a Simple Rotating
Loop

• Total induce voltage: ein= Φ max ωsinωt

• Factor on which induce voltage depends:

• Flux in the machine

• Speed of rotation

• Machine constant

Electric Machinery 9
 Voltage Induced in a Simple Rotating
Loop

•ein =etot=2vBlsinθ
•Θ= ω t
•v=rω
•ein =etot=2rωBlsinωt

Electric Machinery 10
Electric Machinery 11
 Summary

• Generator
• Motor
• Types of AC machine
• Synchronous machine
• Induction Machine
• Voltage is induced in a simple Loop rotating in a
uniform magnetic field

Electric Machinery 12
 Chapter 3 AC Machinery Fundamental

• Introduction of AC machines
• A Simple loop in a uniform magnetic field (continue)
• Rotating magnetic field
• Magnetomotive force and flux distribution on AC machines
• Induced voltage on AC machines
• Induced torque on AC machines
• Winding insulation on AC machines
• AC machines power flows and losses
• Voltage regulation and speed regulation

Electric Machinery 13
 Torque Induced in a Simple Rotating Loop

• Let’s assume that side ab

and cd are perpendicular to
the plane of page, with side
bc and da are parallel to the
plane of page and current is
flowing into the coil as
shown, a force will induce
• F=i(lxB)

• τ= rxF=rFsinθ
• r is a vector pointing from the axis of
rotation to the point of application of
force Let’s
Electric Machinery 14
 Torque Induced in a Simple Rotating Loop

• Segment ab: • Segment cd:

• F=i(lxB) downward • F=i(lxB) upward

• τ= rxF=rFsinθab • τ= rxF=rFsinθcd
• τab= rilBsinθab Clockwise • τcd= rilBsinθcd Clockwise
• Segment da:
• Segment bc:

• F=i(lxB) out the page

• F=i(lxB) into the page • τ= rxF=rFsinθda
• τ= rxF=rFsinθbc • τda= o since F and r are out
of page
• τbc= o since F and r are into page
Electric Machinery 15
 Torque Induced in a Simple Rotating
Loop
• Total induce Torque: • By Using :
τtot= τab + τbc + τcd + τda
τtot = τind = rilBsinθab + rilBsinθcd

• θab =θcd =θ

• τind = rilBsinθ

Electric Machinery 16
 Torque Induced in a Simple Rotating
Loop

Assume current=

Electric Machinery 17
 Summary

• Torque would be induced in a current carrying Loop

placed in uniform magnetic field

Electric Machinery 18
Electric Machinery 19
 Chapter 3 AC Machinery Fundamental

• Introduction of AC machines
• A Simple loop in a uniform magnetic field
• Rotating magnetic field
• Magnetomotive force and flux distribution on AC machines
• Induced voltage on AC machines
• Induced torque on AC machines
• Winding insulation on AC machines
• AC machines power flows and losses
• Voltage regulation and speed regulation

Electric Machinery 20
 The rotating magnetic field

• In Section 3.1, we showed that if two magnetic fields

are present in a machine, .then a torque will be
created which will tend to line up the two magnetic
fields.
• In machine it is required to generate two magnetic
fields: rotor magnetic field and stator magnetic field
and make the stator field rotating. In this situation, the
rotor will constantly rotate to align its magnetic field
with the stator field.
• The fundamental principle of AC machine operation is
to make a 3-phase set of currents, each of equal
magnitude and with a phase difference of 120o, to flow
in a 3-phase winding. In this situation, a constant
magnitude rotating field will be generated.
• The 3-phase winding consists of 3 separate windings
spaced 120o apart around the surface
21 of the machine.
 The rotating magnetic field
Ia Ib Ic
Consider a simple 3-phase stator containing
three coils, each 1200 apart.
Assume that the currents in three coils are:

i (t ) = I sin t Into the page

 aa ' M .

ibb ' (t ) = I M sin (t − 120 )
0
x x

icc ' (t ) = I M sin (t − 240 )
0

. .
x

This winding will produce one north and one south magnetic pole;
the current through the coil aa’ produces the magnetic field intensity
Direction is obtained by using RH curl rule, magn of H varies sinusoidaly
with time, direction of H is fixed
H aa
22 '
(t ) = H M sin t 0
 The rotating magnetic field
H aa ' (t ) = H M sin t 0
• where the magnitude of the magnetic field intensity is
changing over time, while 0 0 is the spatial angle of the
magnetic field intensity vector. The direction of the
field can be determined by the right-hand rule.
• Note, that while the magnitude of the magnetic field
intensity Haa’ varies sinusoidally over time, its
direction is always constant. Similarly, the magnetic
fields through two other coils are

H bb ' (t ) = H M sin (t − 120 ) 120

H cc ' (t ) = H M sin (t − 240 ) 240
• The magnetic flux densities resulting from these magnetic field intensities
can be found from

B =23 H
 The rotating magnetic field
Baa ' (t ) = Bm sin t 0 H aa ' (t ) = H M sin t 0
Bbb ' (t ) = Bm sin (t − 120 ) 120 Bm =  H M H bb ' (t ) = H M sin (t − 120 ) 120
Bcc ' (t ) = Bm sin (t − 240 ) 240 H cc ' (t ) = H M sin (t − 240 ) 240
At the time t = 0 ( t = 0) :
Baa ' (t ) = 0 B = H
Bbb ' (t ) = Bm sin ( −120 ) 120
Bcc ' (t ) = Bm sin ( −240 ) 240

The total magnetic field from all three coils added together will be

 3   3 
Bnet = Baa ' + Bbb ' + Bcc ' = 0 +  − Bm  120 +  Bm  240 = 1.5Bm  − 90
 2   2 

24
 The rotating magnetic field
At the time when  t = 900: Baa ' (t ) = Bm sin t 0
Baa ' (t ) = Bm 0 Bbb ' (t ) = Bm sin (t − 120 ) 120
Bbb ' (t ) = Bm sin ( −30 ) 120 = −0.5 Bm 120 Bcc ' (t ) = Bm sin (t − 240 ) 240
Bcc ' (t ) = Bm sin ( −150 ) 240 = −0.5 Bm 240
The total magnetic field from all three coils added together will be
Bnet = Baa ' + Bbb ' + Bcc ' = Bm 0 + ( −0.5Bm ) 120 + ( −0.5Bm ) 240
= 1.5Bm 0
• We note that the magnitude of
the magnetic field is constant
but its direction changes.
• Therefore, the constant
magnitude magnetic field is
rotating in a counterclockwise
direction.
25
 The rotating magnetic field: proof
The magnetic flux density in the stator at any .
arbitrary moment is given by

Bnet (t ) = Baa ' (t ) + Bbb ' (t ) + Bcc ' (t ) x x

= Bm sin t 0 + Bm sin (t − 120 ) 120

+ Bm sin (t − 240 ) 240
Each vector can be represented as a sum of x . .
and y components:

Bnet (t ) = Bm sin t xˆ x

3
−0.5Bm sin (t − 120 ) xˆ + Bm sin (t − 120 ) yˆ
2
3
−0.5Bm sin (t − 240 ) xˆ − Bm sin (t − 240 ) yˆ
2

26
 The rotating magnetic field: proof
Which can be rewritten in form
Bnet (t ) =  Bm sin t − 0.5 Bm sin (t − 120 ) − 0.5 Bm sin (t − 240 )  xˆ
 3 3 
+ Bm sin (t − 120 ) − Bm sin (t − 240 )  yˆ
 2 2 
 1 3 1 3 
=  Bm sin t + Bm sin t + Bm cos t + Bm sin t − Bm cos t  xˆ
 4 4 4 4 
 3 3 3 3 
+ − Bm sin t − Bm cos t + Bm sin t − Bm cos t  yˆ
 4 4 4 4 
Therefore: Bnet (t ) = 1.5BM sin t  xˆ − 1.5BM cos t  yˆ

Net magnetic field has a constant magnitude and rotates counterclockwise

at the angular velocity .

27
 Relationship between electrical frequency
and speed of field rotation

The stator rotating magnetic field can be

represented as a north pole and a south pole.
These magnetic poles complete one
mechanical rotation around the stator surface
for each electrical cycle of current. Therefore,
the mechanical speed of rotation of the
magnetic field equals to the electrical
frequency.
f e [ Hz ] = f m [rps ] 
 two poles
e [rad / s] = m [rad / s]
The magnetic field passes the windings of a two-pole stator in the following
counterclockwise sequence: a-c’-b-a’-c-b’. What if 3 additional windings will
be added? The new sequence will be: a-c’-b-a’-c-b’-a-c’-b-a’-c-b’ and, when 3-
phase current is applied to the stator, two north poles and two south poles
will be produced. In this winding, a pole moves only halfway around the
stator.
28
 Chapter 3 AC Machinery Fundamental

• Introduction of AC machines
• A Simple loop in a uniform magnetic field
• Rotating magnetic field
• Magnetomotive force and flux distribution on AC machines
• Induced voltage on AC machines
• Induced torque on AC machines
• Winding insulation on AC machines
• AC machines power flows and losses
• Voltage regulation and speed regulation

Electric Machinery 29
 Relationship between electrical frequency
and speed of field rotation

The stator rotating magnetic field can be

represented as a north pole and a south pole.
These magnetic poles complete one
mechanical rotation around the stator surface
for each electrical cycle of current. Therefore,
the mechanical speed of rotation of the
magnetic field equals to the electrical
frequency.
f e [ Hz ] = f m [rps ] 
 two poles
e [rad / s] = m [rad / s]
The magnetic field passes the windings of a two-pole stator in the following
counterclockwise sequence: a-c’-b-a’-c-b’. What if 3 additional windings will
be added? The new sequence will be: a-c’-b-a’-c-b’-a-c’-b-a’-c-b’ and, when 3-
phase current is applied to the stator, two north poles and two south poles
will be produced. In this winding, a pole moves only halfway around the
stator.
30
 Relationship between electrical frequency
and speed of field rotation
The relationship
between the electrical
angle  e (current’s
phase change) and the
mechanical angle  m
(at which the magnetic
field rotates) in this
situation is:

 e = 2 m
Therefore, for a four-pole stator:

f e [ Hz ] =  f m [rps ] 
 four poles
e [rad / s] = m [rad / s]
31
 Relationship between electrical frequency
and speed of field rotation
For an AC machine with P poles in its stator:

P
e = m
2
P
fe = fm
2
P
e = m
2
Relating the electrical frequency to the motors speed in rpm:

P
fe = nm
120

32
 Reversing the direction of field rotation
Bnet (t ) = Baa ' (t ) + Bbb ' (t ) + Bcc ' (t )
= BM sin t 0 + BM sin (t − 120 ) 120 + BM sin (t − 240 ) 240

If the current in any two of the three coils is swapped, the direction
of magnetic field rotation will be reversed. Therefore, to change the
direction of rotation of an AC motor, we need to switch the
connections of any two of the three coils. In this situation, the net
(6.13.1)
magnetic flux density in the stator is

Bnet (t ) = Baa ' (t ) + Bbb ' (t ) + Bcc ' (t )

= BM sin t 0 + BM sin (t − 240 ) 120 + BM sin (t − 120 ) 240
 3 
Bnet (t ) = BM sin t xˆ − 0.5BM sin (t − 240 )  xˆ +  BM sin (t − 240 )  yˆ (6.13.2)

 2 
 3 
− 0.5BM sin (t − 120 )  x + 
ˆ BM sin (t − 120 )  yˆ
 332 
 Reversing the direction of field rotation

Bnet (t ) =  BM sin t − 0.5BM sin (t − 240 ) − 0.5 BM sin (t − 120 )  xˆ
 3 3 
+ BM sin (t − 240 ) + BM sin (t − 120 )  yˆ
 2 2 
 1 3 1 3 
Bnet (t ) =  BM sin t + BM sin t − BM cos t + BM sin t − BM cos t  xˆ
 4 4 4 4 
Therefore:  3 3 3 3 
+ − BM sin t + BM cos t + BM sin t + BM cos t  yˆ
 4 4 4 4 

Finally: Bnet (t ) = 1.5BM sin t  xˆ + 1.5BM cos t  yˆ

The net magnetic field has a constant magnitude and rotates clockwise. Thus
switching the currents in two stator phases reverses the direction of rotation
in an AC machine. 34
Magnetomotive force and flux
distribution on an AC machine

35
 Magnetomotive force and flux
distribution on an AC machine
In the previous discussion, we assumed that the flux produced by a stator of an
AC machine was treated the same way as if it were in a free space. However, in
real machines, there is a ferromagnetic rotor in the center with a small gap
between a rotor and a stator. Flux density vector jumps perpendicularly from rotor
and stator
.
A rotor can be cylindrical
(such machines are said to x x
have non-salient poles), or
it may have pole faces
projecting out from it . .
(salient poles). We will x
restrict our discussion to
non-salient pole machines
only (cylindrical rotors).

36
 Magnetomotive force (mmf) and flux
distribution on an AC machine

To produce a sinusoidal voltage any machine, the magnitude of the

flux density vector B must vary sinusoidally along the surface of the
air gap. Flux density will vary sinulsoidally when the magnetic field
intensity (and the mmf) will vary sinusoidally along the air gap surface.

37
 Magnetomotive force and flux
distribution on an AC machine
One obvious way to achieve a sinusoidal variation
of mmf along the air gap surface would be to
distribute the turns of the winding that produces
the mmf in closely spaced slots along the air gap
surface and vary the number of conductors in
each slot sinusoidally, according to:
nc = N c cos  (6.17.1)

where Nc is the number of conductors at the angle

of 00 and  is the angle along the surface. n0

Ideal mmf
However, in practice, only a finite number of slots
and integer numbers of conductors are possible.
As a result, real mmf will approximate the ideal
mmf if this approach is taken.

mmf resulting
from the winding

38
 Chapter 3 AC Machinery Fundamental

• Introduction of AC machines
• A Simple loop in a uniform magnetic field
• Rotating magnetic field
• Magnetomotive force and flux distribution on AC machines
• Induced voltage on AC machines
• Induced torque on AC machines
• Winding insulation on AC machines
• AC machines power flows and losses
• Voltage regulation and speed regulation

Electric Machinery 39
 Induced voltage in AC machines

Just as a 3-phase set of currents in a stator can produce a rotating magnetic

field, a rotating magnetic field can produce a 3-phase set of voltages in the coils
of a stator.

40
 Induced voltage in AC machines

Just as a 3-phase set of currents in a stator can produce a rotating magnetic

field, a rotating magnetic field can produce a 3-phase set of voltages in the coils
of a stator.

41
 The induced voltage in a single coil on a
two-pole stator

Assume that a rotor with a sinusoidally distributed magnetic field rotates in

the center of a stationary coil.
We further assume that the magnitude of the flux density B in the air gap between
the rotor and the stator varies sinusoidally with mechanical angle, while its direction
is always radially outward.

The magnitude of the flux

density vector at a point
around the rotor is

B = BM cos 

42
 The induced voltage in a single coil on a
two-pole stator

Assume that a rotor with a sinusoidally distributed magnetic field rotates in

the center of a stationary coil.
We further assume that the magnitude of the flux density B in the air gap between
the rotor and the stator varies sinusoidally with mechanical angle, while its direction
is always radially outward.

The magnitude of the flux

density vector at a point
around the rotor is

B = BM cos 

43
 The induced voltage in a single coil on a
two-pole stator

Since the rotor is rotating within the stator at an angular velocity m , the
magnitude of the flux density vector at any angle  around the stator is

B = BM cos (t −  )
The voltage induced in a wire is
eind = ( v  B )  l
However, this equation was derived for a moving wire in a stationary magnetic
field. In our situation, the wire is stationary and the magnetic field rotates.
Therefore, the equation needs to be modified: we need to change reference such
way that the field appears as stationary.

44
 The induced voltage in a single coil on a
two-pole stator

1. Segment ab:  = 1800; assuming that B is radially outward from the rotor, the
angle between v and B is 900, so

eba = ( v  B )  I = −vBM l cos (mt − 180 )

2. Segment bc:

ecb = ( v  B )  I = 0

3. Segment cd:  = 00; assuming that B is radially outward from the rotor, the
angle between v and B is 900, so
edc = ( v  B )  I = vBM l cos (mt )
4. Segment da: the voltage will be zero since the vectors (v x B) and l are
ead = ( v  B )  I = 0
perpendicular.
45
 The induced voltage in a single coil on a
two-pole stator
Therefore, the total voltage on the coil is:

eind = eba + edc = −vBM l cos(mt − 180) + vBM l cos mt

= 2vBM l cos mt
Since the velocity of the end conductor is v = rm
Then: eind = 2rlBM m cos mt
The flux passing through a coil is  = 2rlBM
Therefore: eind = m cos mt
Finally, if the stator coil has NC turns of wire, the total induced voltage in the coil:

eind = N Cm cos mt

46
 The induced voltage in a 3-phase set of
coils
In three coils, each of NC turns, placed around the rotor magnetic field, the
induced in each coil will have the same magnitude and phases differing by 120 0:

eaa ' (t ) = N Cm cos mt

ebb ' (t ) = N Cm cos (mt − 120 ) (6.23.1)

ecc ' (t ) = N Cm cos (mt − 240 )

A 3-phase set of currents can generate

a uniform rotating magnetic field in a
machine stator, and a uniform rotating
magnetic field can generate a 3-phase
set of voltages in such stator.

47
 The rms voltage in a 3-phase stator
The peak voltage in any phase of a 3-phase stator is:

Emax = N Cm
For a 2-pole stator: m = e =  = 2 f

Thus: Emax = 2 N C f
The rms voltage in any phase of a 2-pole 3-phase stator is:

2
EA = N C f = 2 N C f
2
The rms voltage at the terminals will depend on the type of stator connection: if
the stator is Y-connected, the terminal voltage will be 3E A . For the delta
connection, it will be just EA.
48
 The rms voltage in a 3-phase stator
The peak voltage in any phase of a 3-phase stator is:

Emax = N Cm
For a 2-pole stator: m = e =  = 2 f

Thus: Emax = 2 N C f
The rms voltage in any phase of a 2-pole 3-phase stator is:

2
EA = N C f = 2 N C f
2
The rms voltage at the terminals will depend on the type of stator connection: if
the stator is Y-connected, the terminal voltage will be 3E A . For the delta
connection, it will be just EA.
49
 Induced voltage: Example
The peak flux density of the rotor magnetic field in a simple 2-pole 3-phase
generator is 0.2 T; the mechanical speed of rotation is 3600 rpm; the stator
diameter is 0.5 m; the length of its coil is 0.3 m and each coil consists of 15 turns
of wire. The machine is Y-connected.
a) What are the 3-phase voltages of the generator as a function of time?
b) What is the rms phase voltage of the generator?
c) What is the rms terminal voltage of the generator?

The flux in this machine is given by

 = 2rlB = dlB = 0.5  0.3  0.2 = 0.03 Wb
The rotor speed is
3600  2 rad
= = 377
60 s

50
 Induced voltage: Example
a) The magnitude of the peak phase voltage is
Emax = N C = 15  0.03  377 = 169.7 V
and the three phase voltages are:
eaa ' (t ) = 169.7 sin ( 377t )
ebb ' (t ) = 169.7 sin ( 377t − 120 )
ecc ' (t ) = 169.7 sin ( 377t − 240 )
b) The rms voltage of the generator is
Emax 169.7
EA = = = 120 V
2 2
c) For a Y-connected generator, its terminal voltage is

VT = 3 120 = 208 V

51
 Induced torque in an AC machine
In an AC machine under normal operating conditions two magnetic fields are
present: a field from the rotor and a field from the stator circuits. The interaction of
these magnetic fields produces the torque in the machine.
Assuming a sinusoidal stator flux distribution
peaking in the upward direction
BS ( ) = BS sin 
(where BS is the magnitude of the peak flux
density) and a single coil of wire mounted on
the rotor, the induced force on the first
conductor (on the right) is
F = i ( l × B ) = ilBS sin 
The torque on this conductor is (counter-
clockwise)
 ind ,1 = r × F = rilBS sin 
52
 Induced torque in an AC machine
In an AC machine under normal operating conditions two magnetic fields are
present: a field from the rotor and a field from the stator circuits. The interaction of
these magnetic fields produces the torque in the machine.
Assuming a sinusoidal stator flux distribution
peaking in the upward direction
BS ( ) = BS sin 
(where BS is the magnitude of the peak flux
density) and a single coil of wire mounted on
the rotor, the induced force on the first
conductor (on the right) is
F = i ( l × B ) = ilBS sin 
The torque on this conductor is (counter-
clockwise)
 ind ,1 = r × F = rilBS sin 
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 Induced torque in an AC machine
The induced force on the second conductor (on the left) is

F = i ( l × B ) = ilBS sin  (6.28.1)

The torque on this conductor is (counter-clockwise)

 ind ,2 = r × F = rilBS sin  (6.28.2)

Therefore, the torque on the rotor loop is

 ind = 2rilBS sin  (6.28.3)

We may notice the following:

1. The current i flowing in the rotor coil produces its own magnetic field HR, whose
magnitude is proportional to the current and direction can be found via the RHR.
2. The angle between the peak of the stator flux density BS and the peak of the
magnetic field intensity HR is .

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 Induced torque in an AC machine
Furthermore,
 = 180 − 
sin  = sin (180 −  ) = sin 
Therefore, the torque on the loop is
 ind = KH R BS sin 
Here K is a constant dependent on the
machine design. Therefore:

 ind = KH R  BS
Since BR =  H R

 ind = kBR  BS
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 Induced torque in an AC machine
As before, in (6.29.5) k = K/ is a constant dependent on the machine design.
The equation (6.29.5) can be applied to any AC machine, not just to simple one-
loop rotors. Since this equation is used for qualitative studies of torque, the
constant k is not important.
Assuming no saturation, the net magnetic field is a vector sum of rotor and stator
fields:
Bnet = BR + BS
Combining the last equation with (6.29.5), we arrive at

 ind = kBR  ( Bnet − BR ) = k ( BR  Bnet ) − k ( BR  BR )

Since the cross-product of any vector with itself is zero:

 ind = kBR  Bnet

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 Induced torque in an AC machine
Assuming that the angle between the rotor BR and stator BS magnetic fields is :

 ind = kBR Bnet sin 

Assume that the rotor of the AC machine is

rotating counter-clockwise and the
configuration of magnetic fields is shown.

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 Winding insulation in AC machines

Winding insulation is of critical importance. If insulation of a

motor or generator breaks down, the machine shorts out and
the repair is expensive and sometimes even impossible.
Most insulation failures are due to overheating.
To limit windings temperature, the maximum power that can
be supplied by the machine must be limited in addition to the
proper ventilation.
ROT: the life expectancy of a motor with a given type of
insulation is halved for each 100C rise above the rated
winding temperature.

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 AC machine power flows and losses
The efficiency of an AC machine is defined as
Pout
= 100% (6.33.1)
Pin

Since the difference between the input and output powers of a machine is due
to the losses occurring inside it, the efficiency is

Pin − Ploss
= 100% (6.33.2)

Pin

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 AC machine power losses
Losses occurring in an AC machine can be divided into four categories:

1. Electrical or Copper losses

These losses are resistive heating losses that occur in the stator (armature)
winding and in the rotor (field) winding of the machine. For a 3-phase machine, the
stator copper losses and synchronous rotor copper losses are:

PSCL = 3I A2 RA (6.34.1)

PRCL = 3I F2 RF (6.34.2)

Where IA and IF are currents flowing in each armature phase and in the field
winding respectively. RA and RF are resistances of each armature phase and of
the field winding respectively. These resistances are usually measured at normal
operating temperature.

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 AC machine power losses
2. Core losses
These losses are the hysteresis losses and eddy current losses. They vary as B2
(flux density) and as n1.5 (speed of rotation of the magnetic field).

3. Mechanical losses
There are two types of mechanical losses: friction (friction of the bearings) and
windage (friction between the moving parts of the machine and the air inside the
casing). These losses are often lumped together and called the no-load rotational
loss of the machine. They vary as the cube of rotation speed n3.

4. Stray (miscellaneous) losses

These are the losses that cannot be classified in any of the previous categories.
They are usually due to inaccuracies in modeling. For many machines, stray
losses are assumed as 1% of full load.

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 The power-flow diagram
On of the most convenient technique to account for power
losses in a machine is the power-flow diagram.
AC generator:

The mechanical power is input,

and then all losses but cupper
are subtracted. The remaining
power Pconv is ideally converted
to electricity:
Pconv =  ind m (6.36.1)

AC motor:
Power-flow diagram is simply
reversed.

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 Voltage regulation

Voltage regulation (VR) is a commonly used figure of merit for generators:

Vnl − V fl
VR = 100% (6.37.1)
V fl

Here Vnl and Vfl are the no-load full-load terminal voltages of the
generator. VR is a rough measure of the generator’s voltage-current
characteristic. A small VR (desirable) implies that the generator’s output
voltage is more constant for various loads.

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 Speed regulation
Speed regulation (SR) is a commonly used figure of merit for motors:

nnl − n fl
SR = 100% (6.38.1)
n fl
nl −  fl
SR = 100% (6.38.2)
 fl
Here nnl and nfl are the no-load full-load speeds of the motor. SR is a
rough measure of the motor’s torque-speed characteristic. A positive SR
implies that a motor’s speed drops with increasing load. The magnitude of
SR reflects a steepness of the motor’s speed-torque curve.

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