FME 9 – Fluid Mechanics

Laguna State Polytechnic University

Prepared by: Engr. Jane N. Anda

Title FLUID MECHANICS

Description This course deals with the nature and physical properties of fluids as well as the identification and measurement of
fluid properties. It emphasizes the application of conservation laws on mass, energy and momentum to fluid systems
either incompressible or compressible flow, inviscid or viscous flow as well as head loss calculations on pipes and
fitting.
Course Code FME 9
Credit Units/Hrs. per week 2 units/ 2 hrs lecture
Prerequisites/Co-requisites SCI 2 / Physics for Engineers

LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION, PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

FLUID MECHANICS is a branch of physical science which deals with the mechanics of liquids and gases and is based on the same fundamental principles that
are in the mechanics of solid.

BRANCHES OF FLUID MECHANICS

1. Fluid Statics is the study if mechanics of fluids at rest.

2. Fluid Kinematics deals with the velocities and streamlines without considering forces of energy.
3. Hydrodynamics is concerned with the relations between velocities and accelerations and the forces exerted or upon fluids in motion.

FLUIDS are the substances capable of flowing. They possess particles which easily move and change their relative position without separation of the mass, and
they offer practically no resistance to change in form.

Ideal or Perfect Fluid is one in which there is no friction nor viscosity.

CLASSIFICATION OF FLUIDS

1. Gases are fluids which have little resistance to change either in form or volume and occupies all the space in which it is contained.
2. Liquid are fluids which offer great resistance to change in volume and occupies a definite portion in which it is contained.

Kinds of Thermodynamic Systems

1. Closed System is a system in which working substance does not cross its boundaries but energy crosses its boundaries
2. Open System is a thermodynamics system in which both the working substance and energy are crossing its boundaries. An example of which is a pump or
compressor being cut from the suction point to the discharge side.
3. Isolated system is a thermodynamic system in which neither the mass (working substance) nor energy crosses its boundaries, and completely not affected by the
surrounding conditions.

BASIC LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. First Law of Thermodynamics deals with law of conservation of energy. The law of conservation of energy states that "Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed it just transforms into one form to another"
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics deals with the direction of flow of heat energy that is from the higher temperature body to lower temperature body, and the
property known as "Entropy".
3. Third Law of Thermodynamics deals with the restriction of all physical systems to the temperature regime that excludes absolute zero. The law states that, "At
absolute zero, the entropy of a pure substance (in equilibrium at OK or 0R) in some perfect crystalline form becomes zero".
4. Zeroth Law is law concerning thermal equilibrium and is the basis for temperature measurement
-The law states that "When two bodies, isolated from other environment, and are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, the two are in thermal equilibrium with
each other".

Thermodynamic Properties are descriptive characteristics of the system used to compute the changes of energy that have occurred in a system or working
substance. These are characteristics or attributes of matter which can be evaluated quantitatively.
Types of Thermodynamic Properties
1. Intensive Properties are thermodynamic properties that are independent of the mass of the substance in the system.
Example: temperature, pressure, density, and voltage.
2. Extensive Properties are thermodynamic properties that are dependent upon the mass of the substance in the system. These properties are total values. Example:
total volume, total internal energy or total enthalpy
3. Specific Properties are properties that are considered for a unit mass, and are intensive by definition Example: specific volume, specific internal energy, or
specific enthalpy.

Dimensions, Units, and Conversion Factors

There is a difference between dimensions and units. A dimension is a measure of a physical variable (without numerical values), while a unit is a way to assign a
number or measurement to that dimension.
For example, length is a dimension, but it is measured in units of feet (ft) or meters (m).
There are three primary unit systems in use today:
 the International System of Units (SI units, from Le Systeme International d’Unites, more commonly simply called metric units)
 the English Engineering System of Units (commonly called English units)
 the British Gravitational System of Units (BG)
 FME 9 – Fluid Mechanics
Laguna State Polytechnic University
Prepared by: Engr. Jane N. Anda

Length and Area Table 1-1

1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in)
1 ft = 0.3048 meter (m)
1 inch = 2.54 centimeters (cm)
1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft)
1 mile = 1760 yards
1 mile = 1.609 kilometers (km)
1 acre = 43560 ft 2
1 hectare = 2.47105 acre

Mass and Weight

1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces (oz)
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.205 pounds (lb)
1 tonne (metric ton or MT) = 1000 kg
1 ton UK (long ton) = 907 kg
Table 1-2 Standard prefixes in SI units
1 kg f = 9.8066 N
1 slug = 32.174 lb m = 143 N = 14.5939 kg

Capacity and Volume

1 tablespoon (tbsp.) = 3 teaspoon (tsp)
1 cup (c) = 16 tablespoon
1 gallon = 4 quarts = 3.785L
1 gallon = 128 fluid ounces
1 quart = 2 pints
1 pint = 2 cups
1 cup = 8 fluid ounces (oz)
1 m 3= 1000L

Time
60 seconds = 1 minute
60 minutes = 1 hour
24 hours = 1 day
7 days = 1 week Table 1-3 Greek Alphabets and its Pronunciation
12 months = 1 year
52 weeks = 1 year
365 days = 1 year (366 for leap years)
10 years = 1 decade
100 years = 1 century
1000 years = 1 millennium

Energy and Work

1 N•m = 1 Joule (J)
1 Newton (N) = 100000 dyne
1 cal = 4.187 J
1 BTU = 252 cal = 1055 J

Power
1 Watt (W) = 1 J/s
1 Hp = 0.746 kW = 42.4 Btu/min

Pressure
1 atmospheric pressure (atm) =101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa= 14.6959 psi
=1.0332 kg f /cm 2 =760 mmHg = 760 Torr = 29.9213 inHg = 34 ft H2O
1 bar = 100 kPa = 0.10 MPa

Temperature

Freezing Point Boiling Point Room Temperature

0⁰C 100⁰C 22⁰C
32⁰F 212⁰F 72⁰F
273.15K 373.15K 295.15K

Celsius to Kelvin: K = C + 273.15

Kelvin to Celcius: C = K - 273.15
Fahrenheit to Celcius: C = (F-32) (5/9)
Celsius to Fahrenheit: F = C(9/5) + 32
Fahrenheit to Kelvin: K = (F-32) (5/9) + 273.15
Kelvin to Fahrenheit: F = (K-273.15) (9/5) + 32
Fahrenheit to Rankine: F+ 460.67R
ΔC = K
ΔF = R
ΔF = (9/5) ΔC
 FME 9 – Fluid Mechanics
Laguna State Polytechnic University
Prepared by: Engr. Jane N. Anda

ΔC = (5/9) ΔF
 FME 2 - Thermodynamics 1
Laguna State Polytechnic University
Prepared by: Engr. Jane N. Anda

NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

The second law of motion of Newton states that. "The acceleration of a particular body is directly proportional to the resultant force acting on it and inversely
proportional to this mass". Acceleration is also the derivative of velocity of a body with respect to time.

F F ma
a∝ , or a=k , or F= k
m m k
Where,

F = force acting on the body, N, kg f , l bm

m = mass of the body, kg, lb
a = acceleration, m/s 2, fps 2
k = proportionality constant, depending on the unit of F

Definitions and Units of Force

1. Newton Force: A Newton force is a force required to accelerate 1 kg-mass at 1 m/ s 2. Thus, 1 N= 1 kg−m/ s2.

2. Kg Force: A kg force is a force required to accelerate 1 kg-mass at 9.8066 m/s. Thus, 1 kg f = 9.8066 kg−m/ s2.

3. Dyne force: A dyne force is a force required to accelerate 1-gram-mass at 1 cm/ s2. Thus, 1 Dyne = 1 g−cm/s
2
.

4. Gram force: A gram force is a force required to accelerate 1 gram-mass at 980.66 c m/s 2. Thus, 1 gf =980.66 g−cm/s 2.

5. Pound Force: A pound force is a force required to accelerate 1 slug mass at 1 fps 2. Thus 1 lb f =1 slug−fps
2
.

6. Pound Force: A pound force is a force required to accelerate 1 lb-mass at 32.174 fps 2. Thus, 1 lb f = 32.174 lb−fps2.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

MASS (m) AND WEIGHT ( F g ¿

Mass is the absolute quantity of matter in substance or body. It is a quantity that does not change with the change of gravity.

Weight is the force of gravity on the body and could be determined by a spring scale. This quantity changes with the change of gravity

-At the surface of the earth near sea level, mass and weight are numerically equal.

mg
F g= Where, Fg = the force of gravity on the body or the weight of the body, kgf, lbf
k
m = mass of the substance, kg, lb
k = proportionality constant

DENSITY is an intensive thermodynamic property that is usually used to determine the mass of the substance or system. It is the mass per unit volume of a
substance.

m
ρ= Where, ρ = density of the substance, kg/m3, lb/ft3
V
m = mass of the substance, kg, lb
V = Volume of the substance, m3, ft3

SPECIFIC VOLUME is the volume of a unit mass substance; it is also defined as the reciprocal of density.

V 1
v= = Where, v = specific volume, m /kg, ft /lb
3 3

m ρ
SPECIFIC WEIGHT is the force of gravity per unit volume of a substance.

F g m g ρg
γ= = = Where, γ = specific weight of the substance, N/m , kg /m , lb ft
3
f
3
f/
3

V kV k
Fg = the force of gravity on the body or the weight of the body, kgf, lbf
 FME 2 - Thermodynamics 1
Laguna State Polytechnic University
Prepared by: Engr. Jane N. Anda

SPECIFIC GRAVITY is the ratio of the specific weight of a certain substance to that of the specific weight of water at standard condition. It is also defined as the
ratio of the density of a certain substance to that of the density of water at standard condition.

γ ρ
SG= = Where, γ = specific weight of a certain substance
γ w ρw
γ w = specific weight of water at standard condition
γ w = 62.4 lb /ft = 1000 kg /m = 9.8066 kN/m = 1 kg /li
f
3
f
3 3
f

ρ = density of a certain substance

ρw = density of water at standard condition
ρw = 62.4 lb /ft = 1000 kg/m = 9.8066 kN/m = 1 kg /m
m
3 3 3
m
3

PRESSURE is an intensive thermodynamic property and basically defined as the force per unit area

F
P= Where, p = pressure, kN/m2, kPa, MPa, kgf/cm2, psi
A
F = normal force, kN, kgf, lbf
A = area, m2, cm2, in2
 Gauge Pressure is the pressure of a substance or system measured by a pressure gage or a pressure-measuring instrument.
 Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the column atmospheric air per unit area; or it is the pressure of the atmosphere at a certain location, say, at
the surface of the earth near sea level
 Standard atmospheric pressure at the surface of the earth, near sea level
 Fluid Gage Pressure, or Hydrostatic Pressure, or simple. Fluid Pressure, is the force exerted by a column of fluid per unit area.

( )
F g ρg
P= = h=γh Where, p = fluid pressure or hydrostatic pressure, kPag, psig
A k
A = cross sectional area of the column, m2, in2
m = mass of the column of fluid, kgm, lbm
Fg = force of gravity on the column or the weight of the column, N, kgf, lbf
k = proportionality constant
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8066 m/s2, 32.174 fps2
h = dept of fluid, m. ft

 Absolute pressure is the algebraic sum of the barometric pressure or atmospheric pressure and the gauge pressure.

Pab = Pbaro ± Pg = Patm ± Pg

Where, Pab = absolute pressure, kPaa, psia

Pbaro = Patm = barometric pressure / atmospheric pressure, kPa, psi

Pg = gauge pressure, kPag, psig

Note: kPaa means kPa absolute and psia means psi absolute; and kPag means kPa gauge and psiag means psi gauge.
*Positive sign (+) is used when the gauge pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure or surrounding pressure of the system.
*Negative sign (-) is used when the gauge pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure. Negative gauge pressure is also called as
Vacuum pressure.

Pressure Measuring Instruments

 Barometer is a pressure-measuring instrument, used to measure atmospheric pressure.

 Pressure Gauge is a pressure-measuring instrument, used to measure gauge pressure directly by its dial indicator. Bourdon gage is the most commonly
used pressure measuring instrument.
 Manometer is a pressure-measuring instrument, used to measure gauge pressure of the system using U-tube wherein water or mercury is the working
substance.

Types of Manometers

 Open-type Manometer - is a manometer with an atmospheric surface in one leg and capable of measuring gage pressures.

Piezometer-is the simplest form of manometer, which is a tube tapped into a wall of a container or conduit for the purpose of measuring the pressure.
 FME 2 - Thermodynamics 1
Laguna State Polytechnic University
Prepared by: Engr. Jane N. Anda

 Differential-type Manometer - is a manometer without an atmospheric surface and capable of measuring only differences of pressure.

TEMPERATURE

 The temperature of a body is its thermal state considered with reference to its ability to communicate heat to another bodies".
 Temperature is also defined as the measure of coldness and hotness of a body; it is an intensive thermodynamic property used to indicate the amount of
energy within the molecules of the substance.
 Fahrenheit scale is based on the freezing point of water as 0 °F and the boiling point of water as 212 °F at 1 standard atmospheric
 pressure. This scale is used for English system of measurement.
 Celsius scale is based on the freezing point of water as 0 °C and the boiling point of water as 100 °C at 1 standard atmospheric pressure. This scale is
used in the Metric and SI system of measurement.
 Absolute temperature is the temperature of a body or system in reference to absolute zero. Degrees Rankine is the unit used in the
 English system while Degree Kelvin is used in the Metric or SI system of units.
 Temperature Equations:

ENTHALPHY is a thermodynamic property with the following definitions:

 For a closed system, it means the sum of internal energy and the product of pressure and specific volume, and given by the relation:

h=u+ pv Where, h = total enthalpy kJ/kg, Btu/lb

p = pressure, kPaa, psia
v = specific volume, m3/kg, ft3/lb

 For an open system, enthalpy means the sum of internal energy and the flow energy or flow work, and given by the relation:

H=U + Ef Where, H = total enthalpy kJ, kW, Btu, Btu/min

U = total internal energy, kJ, kW, Btu, Btu/min
Ef = flow energy or work, kJ, kW, Btu, Btu/min

ENTROPY is a thermodynamic property first introduced by Clausius in 1865 and could be defined as follows:

 Entropy is the measure of the microscopic disorder of the molecules of a substance.

 It isa thermodynamic property that remains constant in an adiabatic reversible process.
 The change of entropy in an irreversible process is the measure of the unavailable energy.
 Entropy is also defined as the measure of the Irreversibility of the system or substance.
 The change of entropy for a reversible process is given by the following relation:

dQ
∆ s=s 2−s1=∫ ( ¿ ) rev ¿ Where, Ds = change of entropy, kJ/kg-ºK, Btu/lb-°R
T
S1 = initial entropy, kJ/kg-ºK, Btu/lb-°R
S2 = final entropy, kJ/kg-ºK, Btu/lb-°R
Q = heat transfer during the process, kJ, Btu
T = absolute temperature, ºK, ºR

SURFACE TENSION is the force of molecular attraction per unit length of free surface, it is a function of both the liquid and the surface in contact with the
liquid.

COMPRESSIBILITY is the resistance of fluid to change its volume in a confined space. Compressibility of water usually affects the solution of practical
problems in hydraulics only by changing its unit weight.

 Modulus of Elasticity or Bulk Modulus of the fluid- is the ratio of the stress (change of pressure) to the strain (change in volume divided by the original
volume).

∆P
β=
∆V Where, β = bulk modulus or modulus of elasticity of fluid
( )
V
β = 300 000 psi (for water)
V = original volume
∆ V = change in volume
∆ P = change in pressure
The negative sign (-) accounts for the fact as the pressure increases, the volume decreases.
 FME 2 - Thermodynamics 1
Laguna State Polytechnic University
Prepared by: Engr. Jane N. Anda

VISCOSITY is a measure of the resistance to flow of a fluid; or it may be defined as the ratio of the shearing stress or force between adjacent layers of fluid to the
rate of change of velocity perpendicular to the direction of motion; or it may be defined also as that property of a fluid that determines the amount of its resistance
to a shearing stress.

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY is defined as the absolute viscosity divided by density; it is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of a fluid to its mass density.

CYCLE AND PROCESS

 Process is the manner of changing the condition or state of the substance or system.
 Cycle is the series of two or more processes in which the final condition after the execution of the processes is the same as the initial condition.

CONSERVATION OF MASS

 The law of conservation of mass states that "Mass can neither be created nor destroyed, it just transforms into components".

CONTINUITY EQUATION

 Continuity Equation is the conservation of mass expression for steady flow open system.
 Continuity equation is in the form of mass flow rate and volume flow rate of the fluid into or from the system.

Mass Flow Rate Equation: m= ρ AV Where, m = mass flow rate kg/s

A = cross sectional area, m2
V̇ = volume flow rate, m3/s
v = velocity of fluid
Volume Flow Rate Equation: V̇ = A V
COMPRESSIBLE AND INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

If the density of a fluid varies significantly due to moderate changes in pressure or temperature, then the fluid is called compressible fluid.

If the change in density of a fluid is small due to changes in temperature and or pressure, then the fluid is called incompressible fluid.

Viscosity is that property of a real fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to shear force.

SAMPLE AND PRACTICE PROBLEMS

Force, Acceleration, Mass, and Weight

1. What is the weight of a 66-kg m man at standard condition? Express your answer in kg f and in Newton.

2. The weight of an object is 50lb. What is its mass at standard condition? Express your answer in lb m and slugs.

3. Five masses in a region where the acceleration due to gravity is 30.5 ft /s 2 are as follows: m 1 is 500gm of mass; m2 weighs 800 gm f ; m3 weighs 15
poundals; m 4 weighs 3 lb f ; and m 5 is 0.10 slug of mass. What is the total mass expressed (a) in grams, (b) in pounds, (c) in slugs.

Density, Specific Volume, Specific Weight, Volume, and Specific Gravity

4. Two liquids of different densities, 1500 kg/m³ and 500 kg/m³, are poured together into a 100-liter tank filling it. If the resulting density of the

mixture is 800 kg/m³, find the respective quantities of liquids and also find the weight of mixture with local gravity of 9.765 m/s².

5. In problem # 3 above, what is the weight of the mixture?

6. One kilogram of liquid having a density of 1200 kg/m³ is mixed with a 2 kg of another liquid having a density of 2000 kg/m³. If the volume of the

mixture is the sum of the initial volumes, determine the density of the mixture.

7. A spherical tank 600 mm in diameter is filled with a fluid whose density is 640 kg/m³. Find the total volume of fluid in m²

8. A spherical tank 600 mm in diameter is filled with fluid whose density is 640 kg/m³, what is the total mass of the fluid?

9. A spherical tank 600 mm in diameter is filled with fluid whose density is 650 kg/m³, determine the specific volume of the fluid.

10. A spherical tank 600 mm in diameter is filled with fluid whose density is 640 kg/m³, what is the specific weight if g = 9.765 m/ s 2 ?

11. If the density of a gas is 0.003 slugs per cubic foot, what is the specific weight of the gas in N/ m³?
 FME 2 - Thermodynamics 1
Laguna State Polytechnic University
Prepared by: Engr. Jane N. Anda

12. Determine is the specific weight of water at standard condition, in kg f /m³

13. A cylinder 6 inches in diameter and 10 inches high contains all that has density of 850 kg/m³. Determine the weight of the oil, in lb f .

14. The fuel tank of a car holds 60 liters of gasoline. Assuming that the gasoline has a specific gravity of 0.74, determine the weight of the gasoline

in the tank, in kg f .

. Calculate the volume needed to have a weight of 390 lb f .

3
15. A liquid has a specific weight of 200 lb f ¿ ft
16. It is proposed by a gasoline dealer to sell gasoline by the liter. If gasoline has a density of 1.3 slugs per cubic feet, what is the weight of 60

liters of gasoline?

17. 100 g of water are mixed with 150 g alcohol (density = 790kg/m³). What the specific volume the resulting mixtures, assuming that the fluids

mixed completely?

Pressure

18. A 30-m vertical column of fluid, density= 1878 kg/m³, is located where g = 9.65 m/s². Find the pressure at the base of the column, in kPag.

19. A vertical column of water will be supported to what height by standard atmospheric pressure in ft?

20. The door of a jet liner has the dimensions of 2.3 m x 1.2 m. If the inside pressure of the cabin is 98 kPaa, what force is exerted on the door when the plane flies
at an altitude where the outside pressure is 15 kPaa?

21. A boiler installed where the atmospheric is 752 mmHg has a pressure of 12 kg / cm 2. Find the absolute pressure in MPa.

22. The pressure of a boller is 9.5 kg/cm². The barometric pressure of the atmosphere is 768 mm Hg. Find the absolute pressure in the boiler, in

psia.

23. A vacuum gage mounted on a condenser reads 660 mm Hg. What is the absolute pressure in kPaa when the atmospheric pressure is 101.3

kPa.

24. The piston of a pump is 7.5 cm in diameter. If a force of 2000 N is applied to the piston, what is the pressure that is being developed at the face.

of the piston?

25. Steam exhausts to a condenser pressure of 620 mm Hg vacuum. Determine the absolute pressure in kg/cm² if the barometric reading is 750

26. A tank is filled with fresh water until there us a depth of 35 ft of water. Determine the pressure psig, at the bottom of the tank.

27. A vacuum gage reads 10” Hg when the atmospheric pressure is 30" Hg. Assuming the density of mercury to be 13595 kg/m³, determine the

absolute pressure in kPaa.

28. A pressure gage indicates 25 psi when the barometer is at a pressure equivalent to 14.5 psi. Compute the absolute pressure in psia and ft of

mercury if the specific gravity of mercury is 13.0.

29. During take off in space, an 80-kg astronaut is subjected to acceleration equal to 5 times the pull of the earth's standard gravity. If the take off is

vertical, what force does he exert on the seat?

30. A hiker is carrying a barometer that measures 101.3 kPa at the base of the mountain. The barometer reads 85 kPa at the top of the mountain.

The average air density is 1.21 kg/m³. Determine the height of the mountain.

31. An oil storage tank contains oil with a specific gravity of 0.88 and a depth of 20 m, what is the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the tank, in

kg/cm².

32. What minimum pressure is required to force blood from the heart to the top of the body if the vertical distance is 7 cm. Assume blood density as

1.04 g/cm³ and neglect friction. Express answer in mm Hg column.

 FME 2 - Thermodynamics 1
Laguna State Polytechnic University
Prepared by: Engr. Jane N. Anda

References:
Thermodynamics 2nd Edition by Hipolito B. Sta Maria and Dante V. Gedaria
Lecture Book in Thermodynamics 1 by Jose R. Francisco
Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications 2nd Ed. by John M. Cimbala and Yunus A Çengel
Fluid Mechanics and Machinery 2nd Edition, 2007 by Kothandaraman and Rudramoorthy
Power Plant Engineering by R.S. Capote and J.A. Mandawe
https://www.me.psu.edu/cimbala/Learning/General/units.htm
https://www.cuemath.com/temperature-conversion-formulas/
https://s3.wp.wsu.edu/uploads/sites/298/2014/10/Greek-Alphabet-and-its-Pronunciation.pdf