endorsed for edexcel REVISE EDEXCEL AS/A LEVEL Physics REVISION GUIDE Series Consultant: Harry Smith Authors: Steve Woolley and Steve Adams A note from the publisher In order to ensure that this resource olfers high-quality support for the associated Pearson qualification it has been through a review process by the awarding body. This process confirms that this resource fully covers the teacking and learning cortent of the specification part of a specification at which itis aimed, tt also. conlirms that it demonstrates an appropriate balance between the development of subject sklls, knowledge and understanding, in addition to preparation for assessment. Endorsement does not cover any quidance on assessment activities or processes (e.g, practice ‘questions or advice on how to answer assessment ‘auestions) inchided in the reseurce ror does it prescribe any particular approach to the teaching or delivery of a related course. 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For the full range of Pearson revision titles across KS2, | ‘KS3, GCSE, AS/A Level and BTEC visit: ARENT PEARSON43 #Alevel Toric! 1 Stunts 2 Practical sits 3 Cotimation Toric 2 SUVAT equations Displacement-time, velecity-time and acceleration-time graph 6 Seales and vectors 7 Resolution of vectors 2 Adcing vectors 2 0 oe Prejectiles Free body diagrams Newton's frst and second laws of 12 Measuring the accelerstion of fee fall 13 Newton's thie law of motion 14 Momentum IS Moment of a force 16 eam skis | 7 Wonk 1B Kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy 19 Conservation of eneray 20 Work and power 21 Citeeney 22 Exam shils 2 Toric 3 23. Basic electrical quantities 24 Ohms law 25. Consecvation laws in electrical cereus 26 Resistors 27 Resistivity 2B. Resistivity measurement 29° Current equation 20 Emf and interna resistance 21 Potentis divider crcuts 32 Ciam stile 3 Toric 4 33 Density and flotation 34 Viscous drag 35. Hooke's law 26 Young modulus 37 Exam stil 4 Toric 5 28 Waves 29° Longitudinal and transverse waves AO Standing waves 4 Phase and phase dliterence 42 Superposition anal interterence 43 Velocity of transverse waves on strings 44 The Behaviour of waves at an interface AS Refraction of ight and intensity of ‘aiation AG Tota internal rellection AT Evan Skils 5 Contents TorIc 6 48 Lenses and ray diagrams 49° Lens formulae 530 Plane polarization 5) Difkaction ana Huygens construction 52 Using aaifraction grating to ‘measure the wavelength of ight 43 Electron diffraction 54 Waves and particles 59 The photoelectric elect 56 Line spectra and the eV 57 Exam Skils 6 Alevel TORIC 7 58 Impulse and change ot momentum 59 Conservation of momentum in two dimensions GO. Elastic and ineastic collisions 6) Investigating momentum change 62 Exam Skils 7 Toc 8 63. Describing rotstional motion G4 _Uritorm cieular motion G5. Centripeta force and acceleration 66 Electr field strength G7 Electric field and electric potential 8 forces between charges 9. Feld and potential for 2 point charge 70 Capacitance 71 Energy stored by a capacitor 72 Charging and discharging capacitors 73 The time constant 74 txponential decay of change 75. Bram skils 6 Torco 76 Describing magnetic fields 77 Forces on moving cnarges in a magnetic fee 78 Clectromagnetic induction — relative ‘motion 79 Changing fx tnkage 80 Faraday’s and Lenz's laws Bi Akemating currents 82 Cram akile TOPIC 10 3. The Rutherford scattering experiment Nuclear notation Electron guns and linear accelerators 86 Cyciotrons 87 Particle detectors BB Matter and antimatter 89 The structure of nucleons 90 Nuclear eneray units 9) The standard mode! 92 Fartice interactions: 93. Exam sis 10 oF TOPIC I! 24 Specific heat capacity 25 Latent heats 96 Pressure and volume of an ideal gas 87 Absolite zero 28 Kinetic theory 99 Particles and energy 100 Bizet body radiation 101 Standard candles 102 Tigorometric paralae 103 The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram 104 Stelar Ife cycies 105 The Doppler effect 106 Cosmology 107 Exam sl I ToPIC 12 108 Mans and energy 109 Nuclear birding enenay NO Nuclear fission il Nuclear fusion 2 Background radiation 3 pha, beta and gamma radiation 14 Investigating the abserption of ‘gamma radiation by lead HIS Nuclear transformation equations NG Rachoactive decay and hal-le 7 Exponential decay NS Radioactive decay calovations id Gravitational feds 120. Gravitational potential and gravitational potential energy 121 Newton's law of gravitation 122 Gravitational fed oF 3 point mass 123 Gravitational potential in 2 radisl field 124 Energy changes in a gravitational field 125 Comparing electsc and gravitational feds 126 Orbits 127 Exam shls 2 TOPIC 13, 128. Simple harmonic motion 129 Analysing simple harmonic motion 130 Graphs of simple harmosic motion 13) The mass-apring oscilator ara the simple pendulum 132 Energy anal damping in simple harmonic oscillators 133. forced oscilations and resenance 134 Driven oscilators| 135 Exam sks 3 136 Answers A smal bit of small print Edexcel publishes Sanple Rosenoment Material and the Speciation ons website Thi the olfidial content an this book shoud be used i conjunction witht The questions in Now Ey tis have been written to help you practise every topic inthe back. Remember: the real exam questions may nt \00k Ike tis,Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| 5.1. units The 9.1. (Systdme Intemational d’Unités) is a globally agreed system of urits, with seven base quant Base units = kq_ | These are the base quantities of 5.1. with their ita, You do not need to learn above lminove intensity. length m Tine > This set of base units is sufficient for all measurements that we need to make in science. current A With the exception of the kilogram, base units are Tapani precisely defined in a way that can be replicated in any suitably equipped physics laboratory. Ab the moment amount of substance | mol the Klogram is specified by an object, the international i standard kilogram, kept in Paris, All other masses are ontrows tatenstty i ultimately compared with this, Derived units for mechanics Derived units for electricity and All quantities that we will meet in mecharics can thermodynamics be expressed in terms of mass, length and time. All other quantities are measured in terms of the base units; tor example, speed is measured in ms". Some of these derived units have their own names; for example force is measured in kgms~?, called newtons (N), and energy in kgm?s~2, called joules W). Electricity requires a base electrical unit, the ampere (A). The units of other electrical quantities are derived from the base units of mass, length, time-and current, For example, potential difference is measured in volts, o kgm®sS A". Thermodynamics requires two further base units, the kelvin (K) for temperature and the mole (mol) for amount of substance. & tool for checking equations Cautions nose veconsere ntems ones, Laan This means that the units on both sides of the equation must be the same. If this is not the case —_—-_-Express the unit of power, the watt (W), ‘then the equation cannot be correct. This fact base units, (4 marks) gives you a useful tool for checking your work When you rearrange or derive equations. on we tet W _ Fe _ mas m omstxs ms? x However, consistent units do not mean an equation is correct: artes x This has consistent units throughout (m@s"), but the equation is incorrect. 1 The work done by applying a force F through a distance s is given by W= Fx s. Expres the Suni of work, the oul in ferms oF hese unis 2 Show that kinetic energy (given by £, =m) and potential energy (given by £,= mph) 1 3 Show that the SUVAT equation sHad a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! (_] Practical skills CREED rricets est yrotnones ty experiment, A good experient has clear objectives and is designed to give reliable measurements, Example: What factors affect the period of a simple pendulum? The period of a simple pendulum is the time it takes for one complete oscillation. You might think that this time may depend on any or all of the following factors: Silt * the length of the string 2 metal bo * the mass of the bal tached # the angle of the swing + where the experiment is pertormed. eer Fach oe will a te be measured and varied and fe effect on . 1 period examined. In any experiment itis important to vary just = here aa ck oa actor ab a tine and keep ll thers exactly the same. — ~ rigid support Taking measurements ‘A metre rule is suitable for the length of the pendulum string, but the length of the pendulum fs measured from the support to the centre of the ball. Measuring the diameter of the ball should be done with digital calipers or a micrometer (omall lengths need to be measured with an instrument that has a small resolution). Mase is measured on an electronic bslance; in this case, to the nearest gram is enough. Check that the balance is correctly zeroed first. If itis not, you will introduce eystematle error. This is an error that introduces the same error to all measurements. A protractor will give a reasonable measurement of the angle, within | or 2 degrees. The small errors in protractor readings are tandem errors. Readings might be too large or too small, by different amounts. If greater precision is required, you might measure the horizontal displacement and use trigonometry to calculate the angle. Measuring time using a hand-held stopwatch introduces reaction-time errors. To minimise these, when measuring the period of a pendulum measure a converient multiple and divide by the number of oscilations to obtsin a more accurate value. Alternatively use an electronic timing system triggered by light gates. Wherever possible, repeat measurements and take an average value to identify and reduce errors. Discard obvious outliers. Perhaps you timed rine oscillations instead of ten. Use graphs Remember that errors accumulate when you use several measured values in a calculation. In the pendulum experiment you are making measurements to discover which factor(s) affect the period. Presenting your results in the form of a graph will show a correlation more clearly and also help you to spot measurement error eta . Cn " 1 (a) Name one cause of error when using a ‘The time constant, + (in s), for charging a capacitor bandopeated stopwatch (Lak) of apucance cura toh areata ae Pa TER Toe (0) Describe how the ezets ofthis ype of range of possible values for rif R= 100 kO + 5% Error eat Perea marks) capita ree (o Compa te esto hs niger Ray range trom 0.95 X 10" to Semen mest a 1105 % 1020, Cmy range fom 0.9% 10-2 to Ll x 10-5 F Thus 7 will range from 2. Explain how graphs help to identify Gero een een intone rs ema 0.0855 tol.05 ¥ 10! 2) x (x 1O"SF) ——_ 3 Suede sale mening rumen forthe 95 tallowing menue The error os £15%. (eytedmcnige of acasroom (Lar (oye hoof tech above the oor (snark (¢) the thickness of a human hair. (mark)Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! Estimation With practice, you can estimate the size of the answer before you carry out a calculation in physics. Estimation and orders of magnitude If you bought a bottle of juice and a packet of criepa and were charged £350, you would know someone had made a mistake, You can develop 2 similar feel’ for the likely sizes of answers to Physics questions, and should be able to make reasonable estimates of the physics quantities you will encounter in this course. Fermi questions ‘A good way to develop your skills in estimation is to practise Fermi questions. These are very rough "back of the envelope’ calculations in which you have to estimate the starting information. Famously, the nuclear physicist Enrico Fermi asked his students ‘How many piano tuners are there in Chicago?, giving them only the population of Chicago. 26-2 starting point. GE 1. Identity the relevant physical quantities, 2, Estimate the value of each quantity using your knowledge (not a quess)). Combine the quantities Worked example Estimate to one significant figure: + the mass of an adult man and adult woman + the volume of a classroom + the mass of a plank of wood 2m long. (3 marks) _ Mass of a human: use your own mass as a starting point ~ answers of ~BO0kg and GOkg Volume of 2 classroom: estimate length, breadth and height — answer around 10 x 10 x 3 = 300m? Mass of a plank: think how easy itis to lift a plank ~ answer ~Skg. —— 1 Estimate the order of magnitude of: the mass of a car, a 2. Estimate to one significant figure the pressure (p = FIA) of a passenger aircraft PP cunver of store ‘One way to check your answers is to do a rough calculation of the order of magnitude of the answer before you do the full calculation. Quantity, Order of magnitude nuclear radius 1o-Fm ‘atomic radius 10m human height 1m Earth radius orm Earth oni 1m re ect ad Estimate the number of atoms in a house brick. marks) Estimate brick volume: 30cm x I5em x IOem = 4500cm? This ip an estimate only 50 round to 5000cm? = 5 x 10"? m*, Estimate atom volume: (I0-!°m)* = 10-2? m wollmelohbricks ‘volume of atom _ 53x 10°8 N = 5 x 10% atoms Comparisons You can sense-check some answers by comparison with things you already know. How much force is ION? You know that weight W = mg and g (the acceleration of free fall) is 9.81ms~®, or roughly 1Oms~*. So you exert about ION to lift up a Ika, pack of sugar or flour. atom, an Earth-sized planet, exerted by an clephant’s feet and by the wheels (A marks) G marks)Had a look oO Nearly there C) SUVAT equations ‘The SUVAT equations describe the motion of bodies moving with constant (uniform) acceleration They are sometimes called the kinematic equations of motion. Variables in the SUVAT equations Distance travelled in a epecific direction from a starting point. Ifthe distance is in 2 je displacement - the opposite direction the displacement will be negative, vis Initial velocity ———— Starting and finishing speeds in the speciied direction. Objects traveling in the vis faa! veloaity —_e%Per direction have negative values of velocity. i Positive values of » mean the velocity is increasing in the specified direction, slieocomtecctio?, Negative values of 2 mean that the velocity ie decreasing in that direction — the tis time —____ object is decelerating, or slowing down, rom the start to the end of the mation Four equations to learn You should lear these four SUVAT equations: =F +25 e-- 9 i weve Qt Q-" Ore ts [A stone is release from rest atthe top of a well, It hits the surface of the water after exactly. 3,0 seconds. Calculate the distance between the top of the well and the surface of the water (@=98ims>) Gamarks) 5 ?m,u=Oms",4=9.8lms%, t= 3s. sa utt ba =0x3+4x 9.81 x (3)? The value of gis given to = 44.2m(3 54) se] B 3 sigrificent figures, 80 you should round your answer to the same degree of accuracy: > 1 A.car travelling at 20m s* accelerates at a constant rate for 10s reaching BESS speed of 30ms~ (a) Calculate how far the car travels during the period of acceleration GB marks) (b) Calculate the rate of acceleration of the ear. (G marks) 2 A catapult fires a pellet vertically upward with an initial velocity of 80m () Calculate how high the pellet travels before starting to fall back to the ground, GB marks) (b) Calculate how long the pellet will take to fall back to the ground, G marks)Had a look CL) Nearly there Displacement-time, nal Nailed it! velocity-time and acceleration-time graphs Velocity is the rate of change of displacement over time, and accelerat the rate of change of velocity over time. These quantities can be related in the form of graphs. Displacement-time (s-t) graphs ‘A negative slope would mean that the dieplacement is getting omaller, 20 the body ie 4 : caters 2 The velocity to ing back i rection. % ‘moving back in the opposite direction. a Peete A hhorizontal line on an 3-€ graph would mean the : eon oe oplabemen ack change 201 the base Bo eradient = 2 stationary, v= 0. ‘ig Hence v= Bme7 Bs Velocity-time (v-t) graphs Be He Inva plot of velocity against time, the gradient ° is the rate of change of velocity with time — the Oo See = eeceleration. eee eee eee ee ee eee eee ‘This part matches the 2-t ‘graph above: velocity is ‘constant at 2a"! The ‘gradient is O - there is no “acceleration. i ‘The area under a v-t graph | the displacemert. ee Now the velocity $25 i decreasing 5 2.0 = the person is His slowing down and 3 eventually stops go The acceleration 05 (gradient) is © oTes45678 1 Tre, #5 =0.95 ms Acceleration-time (a-t) graphs We can also plot acceleration against time. In ‘most cases you will meet, acceleration is constant (etraight line, gradient = 0). You may see a graph for non-uniform acceleration, o: os 1 15 225 Tine, ts ‘Worked example ~ (a) Describe the motion of the object in the : (marks) velocity-time graph shown below. Velocity/ms"! o2 46 8 ob Times In the first 4 the object accelerates to 7.2ms™ with acceleration ~ from the gradient: |.8m3"* For the next 45 the object moves at a constant velocity of 7.2ms!. In the last 6 the object decelerates; a= -1.2mo-2, (b) How far does the object travel? 4 marks) Total displacement = area under graph = 14.4 + 28.6 + 21.6 = 64.8m 1. State what the following represent. (a) The slope of a s-t graph, (b) the area beneath a »-f graph, (c) the slope of @ ¥-f graph G marks) 2A falling object has a constant acceleration if we assume air resistance can be ignored. In practice falling objects reach a terminal velocity. Sketch the ¥-r graph for the latter ease. G marks)Hada look [_| Nearly there [|_| Nailed it! (_] Scalars and vectors Some quantities in physics have both magnitude (size) and direction. These are called vector quantities. Sealar or vector? Sealar quantities do not require a direction: if asked how tall you are you would not say |.6m up! If asked how much petro! you wanted in your car a number of litres is all you need to answer. However, it you were giving instructions on a map, distances withovt direction would not be helpful. Vector quantities must include @ direction as well as.a number Examples from mechanics &Y Seater quantities: length, area, volume, mass, time, distance, speed, dersity, work, energy. GY vector quantities: displacement, Velocity, weight, acceleration, force, ‘momentum. ‘Worked example Two forves are applied to an object: Fy = 100.N in an casterly direction and Fy = 40 N acting south. Represent them ona vector diagram, (2 marks) Pi ‘ te le nee 1 State whether air pressure isa vector or sealar quanti Sealars and vectors on a running track Most athletics tracks are ovals with a distance of 400m per lap. The straights are the same length as the curves (100m). A child runs one lap in 80. Consider the distances and displacements of the child a5 he runs from A to B, C and D. startfeish From A] Distance | Displacement = See how. Bo] 100m | G4 mnorth (07) tang the | 200m_|- i20m34* | drecton DB] 300m [100m west_| osecom A 400%" ange Give a reason for your answer, (2 marks) 2. The diagram shows a runner on a 400m track. She completes one lap in $5.9 seconds. (a) What is her average speed for one lap? (b) What is her average velocity for one lap? (mark) (mark)Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Resolution of vectors You need to be able to resolve vectors into two perpendicular components by maths or scale drawing. Two methods for resolving vectors You can use trigonometry or scale drawing to resolve vectors, like velocity or force, into two perpendicular components. For example, the weight of a book on a slope resolves into two components, one holding the book flat on the surface and one pulling it downwards parallel to the slope. ‘mg sin 0 — Tris ie the component of the weight that acto The vector you are [3k parallel fo the slope. Always vse sin for the resolving is always Component opposite the ang. Se tyrotenme omen tenga Frngcoo Tas Genens This is the component of the weight that acts 20 the angle of perpendicular to the slope. Aways use e08 the slope to the for the component adjacent to the angle. horizontal Worked example ‘The diagram shows a cannonball leaving a cannon at | " emo | Se a speed of S8ms~!. The angle of launch is 25°, a a ce GEE oor Foti or com Follow these steps: t we 1. Draw an angle of 25° at A | SB A EMeseive Soon sone resi andeatt Be 2, 3, Measure an angle of 90 ~ 25 = 65* at B 4 Find by scale drawing: Draw the line BC at this angle down to the ii te mtenitncel tie forennralcomponene ct horizontal to complete the right angled triangle | the cannonball’s velocity. (mark) a Bek | lem = 10ms* 5. Measure AC to the nearest mm. 5 6. Use your scale to write the components. | AC = 5.3m Horizontal component = 53ms~! (2 s.t) i) the magnitude of the vertical component of the cannonballs velocity. @ marks) BC = 2.5em Vertical component = 25ms~ (2 s.f.) ‘This diagram shows a painting hanging on a wall from two wires. a Wire A has tension Ty ~ 87.5N andi at 32" to the horizontal, and wire B eal hasa tension Ty ~ 625. and is at 31° tothe horizontal (a) Resolve both vectors into components acting horizontally and vertically. marks) (b) Comment on the horizontal components of T and Ty @ marks)Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! (_] Adding vectors ‘You can find the resultant of two vector quantities acting along the same line simply by adding them. For other cases, you must use must use scale drawing or calculation. Forces with the same line of action Resultant by drawing Coplanar vectors can be combined using scale drawings (Note that two vectors are always coplanar). You will need this method whenever 3 vector triangle Is not right-angled. boat N 2 bette scale: lem \ = 2kmn! Jes), tow ‘ 15 kmn! To distinguish the direction of the forces we choose a direction 29 positive, say to the right ‘The resultant or net force is then given by (Fa = Fi). Ifthe resultant is positive, the team on the right are puling harder and the rope starts ‘to move to the right If the answer is negative, SPL ELT TASH aT the team onthe tare ming the rope sat to coe velo. fhe magia fund om fhe eye fests tte length, 29.6kmh~, and the bearing from north by measuring 0 (N 52°) See UllttC Vv 10Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Newton's first and second laws of motion Newton described the effect that forces have on the state of motion of objects. Newton's first law of motion Newton's second law of motion Objecto remain at rest or continue to move ina SF = ma straight line at constant speed unless they are —SFis the vector sum of the forces acting on a acted on by a resultant force. body (S, the Greek capital letter sigma, means The first part of Newton's first law is easy to ‘um of; mis maze, aie acceleration understand, but your common sense may tell Yoo f the resultant force on an object ls zero that moving objects tend to slow down and stop. _(SF'= 0), then, as Newton's first law says, the Infact, this i because there are forces acting on object does nok accelerates a = 0. ther, the friction and alr resietance. This equation is easy to use as long 29 mis constant. How force and mass affect acceleration Consider two jet cars. Imagine negligible friction between the road surface and the wheels. The resultant force on the jet cars wil therefore be the thrust, T;, of the jet motor. =", ‘ee a i jo cm se i ay, Te. eg cg, Te or on the right means that it accelerates more slonly, Acceleration > acceleration ar T; = —>7 — —- ‘The thrust on both jet care is increased to Te, This increases the rate of acceleration of both cars, 20 8 > a;and.a, > 3) Terminal velocity In the examples above you ignored forces opposing, (acting to the left of) the thrust of the motors. In 2 real situation friction in the wheel bearings and air resistance will oppose the motor thrust, The faster the jet car travels, the more air it has to displace per second, 20 the greater the opposing force of air resistance gets. Eventualy the forces opposing the thrust will be as large a8 the thrust of the motor ‘nd the resultant foree on the cars will be zero. From SF = ma, it SF= O then a mist be zero too. The ‘car wll Keep moving at constant velocity; it has reached its maximum or terminal velocity. enn 1. An object with a mass of 600g accelerates in a straight line at $.0ms-*, What resultant force must act con it to cause this acceleration? (2 marks) 2. A water skier with a mass of S0 kg experiences a resultant foree of 125N. Calculate her acceleration, (2 marks) 3. Anaircraft has engines that can provide a maximum thrust of 180000 N. It has a maximum acceleration of L8ms? t (a) Calculate the maximum, fully loaded, mass of the aireralt. (2 marks) (b) Explain why the aircraft will rach a maximum speed. (GB marks) (©) Describe the effect on the maximum acceleration of having only half the maximum number of passengers on board mark) uHad a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! (_] Measuring the acceleration of free fall Free fall means an object falling without experiencing air resistance: Weight and free fall ‘he rate of acceleration ofa faling cbject will depend on the local strength of the gravitational field. Gradtational field strength le defied ae the force per llogram that acte-on an object 7 £ On the Earth's surlace gis 9.81Ng"! (though tis varies a lite from place to place) This meane that the walght of any object ie given by w= mg Since the accelerstion, 0, of any objects given by &. and f= Wal clojecte al vith same acceleration, g, 2.81m0-2, which ie what ie messured withthe apparatus shown here, Mestre » wth steer " and set square. The experiment = The electronic timer measures short time intervals with adequate accuracy. The steel ball completes the circuit at tha top. When it is released the timer starts. The timer stops when the trapdoor at the bottom is knocked open, breaking a second circuit. The bal io cropped through a range of distances up to a metre, and the time for each distance recorded. Measure € with an electronically operated millisecond timer. The graph of s against f* 7 y oo b+ dat, where v= Oand a= g. Thus 8 = Hat’, 80 plotting § 10 2 against should produce a straight line graph with gradient = 2. oe ae ie ‘The graph shown here has just a few points plotted and the line of sei best fit drawn. You should have at least 6 plotted points to produce ~ a good straight-line graph. = Zs 3 To find a valve for the acceleration of free fall from this graph, find 27 the gradient by drawing a large triangle, ABC, and measuring AB’ and e802 BC against the axis scales: AB = 0.97 m and BC = 0.25". Tie gente arent 9S = OF = 4.0500" i .. Therefore this experiment yields a value for g of 9.7 ms Distance fall 1 In mechanical bathroom scales, weight presses down on some stiff springs, and a pointer moves in proportion to how much the spring has compressed to give a reading calibrated in kilograms. (a) If the reading is 5Skg what is the actual weight? (2 marks) (b) If-you took the sume seales to the Moon, the scales would read 9.1 kg for the same mass, Explain with the aid of a calculation why this is so, (B marks) 2 You have carried out the experiment described above. Explain how you would ensure the accuracy of the ‘measurement of: (a) the distances fallen; (b) the time taken for each fall; () the value obtained for g. (6 marks) 12Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Newton's third law of motion Newton's third law: for every interaction between two objects there is an equal and opposite reaction. Action and reaction forces Action and reaction * Each force acts on a different body. As a simple demonstration of the & * Each force is of the same type. ied tos, salen bo peor on if 1 '* The magnitude of each force is the same. gage ar a eg tach tn i Bob and, as expected, Bob slides =, J * The forces are collinear — acting in the same line. tt to the right. However, Ami * The forces are opposite in direction. ‘also moves, in the oppose x S direction. He has experienced @ reaction force in the opposite direction to the action, the force #— he applied to Bob. If the two have the same mass, they move with the same initial speed showing that each force has the same magnitude. Pere ected ‘Worked example Ignoring air resistance and upthrust, describe the A book is resting on a level table. Describe the ~action-feaction pair fora ball in free-fall, (2 marks) ——_action-reaction pair (4 marks) — normal contact force 1, of table on book pull of the Earth and the Earth pull of book acting on Earth experiences an upward pull due to the ball. The forces act on different bodies and are both gravitational pull of Earth acting forces. ‘on book (weight) 2 The ball experiences the gravitational normal contact force 1N, of book on table There are two action-reaction pairs: weight and contact force. Weight: Gravity pulls down on the book, The reaction to this is the upward pull of the book on the Earth Contact force: The table pushes upwards on the book. The reaction to this is the downward contact force of the book on the table. In this case the book is in equilibrium and at rest. 1 Two balloons have been electrically charged by rubbing witha dry cloth. They are both suspended by light nylon string from the same point and are shown at rest i the diagram to the right. (a) Describe each force that acts on the left-hand balloon. marks) (b) For each force explain the nature and location of the reaction force. Gmarks) ~ 2 A parachutist jumps out of a plane and accelerates until reaching terminal velocity. When she opens her i parachute there will bea period of deceleration before she reaches a new, slower terminal velocity Describe the action-reaction pairs on the parachutist during her descent. marks) BHada look [_| Nearly there [|_| Nailed it! (_] Momentum Momentum is a vector property of moving objects. Mass and velocity Momentum, p, is the product of the mass, m, of an object and ite velocity, vz p = my Newton's second law can be stated in terms of momentum: The rate of increase of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force that acts on the body and takes place in the direction of the resultant force. If you use S.I, units, the constant of proportionality is Look back to page Il to read about Newton's second law expressed in the form F = ma. Derivation of F= ma A body of mass m travelling with a velocity u has a resultant force F acting on it for t seconds. After this period of acceleration the body travels at velocity v. if mass m is constant, the increase in momentum of the body ist my = mu = mv = 1) , ~ 50 the rate of increase of momentum is ™“— 4 myo so r= Me ma because is acceleration Newton's law of motion Expressed in terms of momentum: Newton's first law: the momentum of a body remains constant unless a net force acts on the body Newton's second law: @ change of momentum is proportional to the applied force and takes place in the same direction Newton's third law: colliding bodies ‘exert equal and opposite forces on each ‘other, 50 total momentum is unchanged. Conservation of momentum = SD — as SES QOS Consider we chet ring owmds one Sabet ob snsoegh count by SUide ccaacr tree cron insta fay Sein sono Thets tro tees we or ocho wadin Pos equa rage ad epost Sroctov nd cing on ret oon ‘he amaton P= hace resranges to Pe= mic tiher wc to thongs mentum Sis iyi tiomned ey iee set Ino colin, Forte a beds he a space ievoppocas wren cess iin on acy moet tess tetlags naosenar ids Poser Solr nmomorna of 8 = te doses momentum of A. This is the law of conservation of onatan ay cls he ectnonoen te clog bods tora cert, proce ro eee totes ening nae Worked example Abblock of ice of mass 1.0 kg slides across a frozen pond at 6.0 ms~! and collides with a stationary block ‘of ice of mass 2.0kg. After the collision the 20k, block moves off with a velocity of 4.0ms"in the same direetion, Assuming that fiction is negligible, calculate the velocity of the Oke block after the collision. (marks) Total momentum betore collision = total momentum after collision (10 x 6.0) + (2.0 x 0) =(LO xy + 20x 4.0) v= (6 = 8) = -2.0ms* ~ The minus sign shows that the 1kg block rebounds, moving in the opposite direction to its initial motion. 1 Ina game, a block of ice, A, with a mass of 4.0 kgs sliding at 1.0ms“ over the surface of an ive rink, Another block, B, of mass 2.0-kg, is kicked in the same direction at 3.0m $, in order to hit block A. After the collision A is travelling in the same direction at 2.0m", What is the velocity of B after the collision? (4-marks) 2 A railway wagon of mass 200g is shunted along a track at 6.5ms" I meets a second, stationary, wagon and couples up with it. The ‘coupled wagons move together at 2.6ms~ in the same direction ‘What is the mass of the second wagon? (4 marks) 4Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Moment of a force The moment of 2 force is a measure of its tuning effect. The principle of moments eye A see-saw will be balanced, or in equilibrium, if F, = Fr and the distances x and y are equal. If either the weight [, or the distance y is decreased (or both) the see-saw will rotate anticlockwise about the pivot. The turing effect or moment of force = Fx where xis the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force. ‘The principle of moments states that a body will be in rotational equilibrium if the sum of clockwise moments acting on it is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments, provided that moments are taken about the same point. ‘Worked example ‘The system shown here is balanced. Find the size of the force labelled F: (G marks) | rn a L 1.5m_B_1. 160 F For equilibrium, clockwise moment anticlockwise moment (about any point), Taking moments about B: FX 1.2m = IGON X 1.5m - 160 x 1.5 fe 1 = 200N ‘Hidden’ forces ‘The principle of moments works no matter what point you choose to take moments about. In the ‘worked example, taking moments about C: moment = 160 x (1.5 + 1.2), 90 how is edullibrium possible? The answer is that there is ‘an upward reaction force R on the see-saw at B providing a (_¥ moment, so Rx 1.2 160 x (1.5 + 1.2) = 360N. Note that 3GON equals the sum of the two downward forces on the see-saw ~ equilibrium also requires that there is no resultant force acting. We have assumed here that the see-saw itself is weightless. Generally this will not be oo! Centre of gravity With care it ie possible to balance a metre vule by supporting it at the middle. In equilibrium there must be no net force on the rule in any direction ‘and no net turning moment, Therefore, the weight ‘must act downwards through a point in the middle of the nile. st This point is called the eantre of gravity of the body, the point through which all of the weight of a body appears to act. For bodies with regular shape made of uniform material the centre of gravity is at the geometric centre, A diving board has a weight of 200 and is 2.0m long. It is supported by two steel supports placed at _ the end A and at B, 0.80m from A. Itis tested with a _ 500 N weight at the other end, a0, S00N (a) Draw a free body diagram for this system, e (b) Take moments about B to determine the ‘magnitude and direetion of the foree due to the support at A. (marks) (©) Take moments about A to determine the magnitude and direetion of the foree due to the support at B. (4 marks) ks) 616 Hada look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! Exam skills 1 This exam-style question uses knowledge and skills you have already revised. Have a look at pages 7, 8, 18 and IS for a reminder about vectors, forces, moments and equilibrium. Worked example ‘The diagram below shows a picture hanging by two strings from a hook on a wall, The tension in each string is 7: ‘The mass of the picture is 920.2. (a) Explain why the tension in both strings must be equal. (2 marks) The picture must be in equilibrium, so the horizontal forces exerted on the picture by each string must be equal and opposite, The horizontal component of tension trom one string is Tos GO". They are both at the same angle 50 must have the same tension. (b) Calculate the tension in one of the strings. The picture upward force (2T, twice the tension in each in equilibrium so the total 2sin6O"~ 2 sino” (6) State and explain what would happen to the tension in the strings if they were connected to the comers A and B of the picture rather than the positions shown. ng 9) The tension would increase. T= 57, ane ~ where @is the angle to the horizontal. When the strings are moved to the comers of the Picture, # gets smaller so T must increase. (GB marks) e string) must balance the weight of the picture: 2Tsin 60° = mg pa —__ 0.920% 9.81 _ 5 ay Command words: ‘state and explain’ Read the question carefully - when you are asked to state and explain, there will usvally be marks for bath parts of your answer. ETE Mate sure you show each part of BIES your working when carrying out a cateltion Usual thi means you must: G sete the equation GY Rearrange the enistion GY Substtste vebes trom the question Y Caletate an srowex Ep IF you introduce a new variable, such aE 29 0 it is important to state what it represents. Here, itis the angle of the string to the horizontal (4) Explain why the contre of mass of the picture must lie vertically below the supporting nail. (3 marks) When the centre of mass is directly below the nail the line of action of the weight acts through the nail. The lines of action of the forces in both strings also act through the nail, If all three forces acting on the picture pass through the same point, then there is no resultant moment, no turning effect, so the moments are in equilibrium.Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Work In physics, ‘work’ has a very specific meaning, The definition of work AW = Fhs ‘AW (delta W") means the Increase in work done by a force F when it is applied through a distance As in the direction of the applied force. Work is a scalar quantity and is measured in joules , equivalent to Nm). Resolving forces Sometimes the force applied to move an object is not acting along the line of motion (the direction of movement) of the object to which the force is applied. See page 7 to review how to resolve vectors into two perpendicular components. Here the pulling force F has a horizontal component acting along the line of motion of the sledge and a vertical component acting in the direction in which there is no movement. ‘The component of the force acting in the line of movement is Feos #, 50 the work done by the force in moving a horizontal distance As is: AW= Feos# x As ‘Worked example — A boy pulls a sledge along with a rope. The force of tension in the rope is 80 N acting at 45° to the horizontal ‘The boy pulls the sledge for 0.50km. Calculate the work he has done, G marks) Horizontal component of F = 60cos 45° = 57N Distance moved horizontally = 500m +. AW = 57 x 500 = 26500/ Worked example 6.0m —> F=350N Calculate how much work is done when a force of 350N is applied to move a crate 6.0.m across a rough horizontal surface. marks) © AW= FAs AW= 350 x 6.0 = 2100) Worked example ‘A gardener pushes a garden roller with a force of 150 N at 60° to the horizontal. How much work is done if the roller is pushed 110m along the lawn? (marks) Horizontal component of F = 150cos60" = 75N Distance moved horizontally = Om ». AW = 75 x IlO = 8250J 1 Allift with gross load of 6000N travels 200m to the top of an office block at constant speed Calculate the work done on the lift. 2 ‘A passenger aircralt eruses ata velocity of 800 kmh in love fight for 3.0 hours. Its engines provide a thrust of 700000 N. How much work is done by the plane dung this fi A block of wood weighing S.0N slides 150cm down rough plane inclined at 20° ata constant speed. Calculate the work done by the block. (marks) ae ks) BYHad a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! (_] Kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy Gravitational potential energy (E,,..) is the energy an object has by virlve ofits position in a gravitational field. Kinetic energy (E,) is the energy an object has by virtue of its movement. Kinetic energy If a body of mass mis accelerated from rest (= 0) by a force F then ts acceleration This is Newton's second law. From v? = u? + 2as we see that v? = 2as, so = 2f5 which, when rearranged, gives Fs = imv2, Fs (= AW) is the increase in the energy of the body due to the work done on it, hence r c= bv? Fi tke work, i a scalar quantity measure in joules. Worked example A bullet with @ mass of 20 is fired from a rifle with, a barrel 8Dem long with a velocity of 500ms"!, the kinetic energy of the bullet? (2 marks) £, = £ x 0.020 x (500)? = 25004 (b) What is the average force on the bullet whilst it is accelerating along the barrel? (2 marks) 25001 = AW, the work done on the bullet by the average force in the barrel ‘Aw _ 2500 _ average trce F= Ait _ 2509 _ sion Gravitational potential energy An object of mass im has a weight mg. At the Earth’s surface g=9.6INkg |” Lifting this object through a distance h t requires work to be done on the object. AW = Fs, 80 here AW = (mg) x h ‘The work done on the mass has increased its gravitational potential energy. AE yaw = mah This energy is stored or potential energy that can be transferred by releasing the mass tna? ‘Worked example A student of mass 50 kg climbs 25 steps up a tall ladder, The rungs on the ladder are 30cm apart, What isthe increase in the students gravitational potential energy when at the op of the ladder? marks) Total height climbed = 0.30 x 25 = 7.5m DE gy = Gh DE ya, = 50 X 9.81" X 7.5 = 37005 18 Practical applications of energy transfer Hydroelectric power stations make use of gravitational potential energy stored in the large mags of water collected in high reservoirs in LON mountainous regions. The water can be allowed to fall, under gravity, 0 gathering speed and thus kinetic eneray as it falls. This kinetic energy ip then transferred by turbine generators into electrical energy. Longcase ‘grandfather’ clocks are powered by the transfer of gravitational potential energy stored in heavy weights that have been raised to the top of the case. As they fall, controlled by the clock mechanism, the weights transfer the stored energy into the movement of the clock by turning a wheel. xD 1 A block of wood of mass L2kg slides 150em down a smooth plane inclined ‘at 37° at a constant speed, (a) Calculate how much gravitational potential ‘energy has been transferred when the black reaches the bottom of the slope. (b) Assuming all the gravitational potential ‘energy has been converted to kinetic energy when the block reaches the bottom of the slope, calculate how fast the block is moving. (4 marks) 2 Calculate the kinetic energy of a ear with a mass of 1200kg travelling at 1O8kmh. (marks) 3A firework is launched vertically with a velocity of 40ms™. Calculate how high it will travel, stating the assumptions you have made. (3 marks)Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! i) Conservation of energy ‘The energy of a closed system remains constant. The principle of conservation of energy Iva closed system this is one which nothing can center or leave the total energy remains constant, although it can be transferred within the system. ‘A motor and pulley system lifting a load is an ‘example of an energy conversion process: + electrical energy is converted to kinetic eneray by a motor * the energy is transferred to the load, increasing its kinetic and gravitational potential energy. Eneray is converted from one-form to another, but the total amount of energy supplied in electrical form is fully accounted for; none is ‘lost’, though some may be converted to forms that you don't want, such a8 heat and noise, This is the principle ef conservation of energy. Be ct aed An object of mass 2.0 is raised to a height of 30m above the ground and then dropped. (a) Describe the energy changes that take place from the moment the objet is released until after it hhas come to rest on the ground. (4 marks) The object has gained gravitational potential eneray (GPE) Egy = mah (= 2.0 x 9.81 % 304) from being raised. As it fall, its GPE decreases (h decreases) and it gains kinetic energy (KE) as it accelerates. At any given moment throughout the fall, by the principle of conservation of energy, loss of GPE = gain in KE. "On impact all the GPE the object gained when it was raised has been transferred into KE. It is assumed there is no air resistance. During the impact the energy is converted into sound, heat and deformation of the ground. (b) Use the principle of conservation of energy to calculate the speed with which it hits the ground. (G marks) ~ GPE lost = KE gained r mgAh = my? —> v= /2ghh (ZX B.BIX 30) = 24.3ms" Worked example ‘The diagram shows a railway truck hitting a buffer. ‘The buffer spring is compressed by 12.5em when the ‘truck is brought to rest. ms"! 7 2.5m 3 (a) What is the kinetic energy of the moving truck? (G marks) 6 = bm? =} x 2.5 x 10° x (0.50% = 312.5 = 310/to 2 3f. (b) What isthe average force Fexerted by the butler, assuming all the truck's kinetic energy is converted. to stored energy in the buffer spring? (marks) Work compressing the spring = F x distance F x 0.125 = 312.5 F = 2500N A stone of mass 50 is thrown with a velocity of 50ms~ at an angle of 53° to the horizontal. Assume air resistance is negligible and use g=9.81Nkge._ a) Caleulate how much work must be done on the stone (marks) (b) State the type(s) of energy the stone has at the top of its fight (@ marks) (6) Calculate how high the stone will travel, (3 marks) 19Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Work and power Like work, power has 2 strictly defined meaning in physics: the rate at which work is done. Work and energy Power In physics werk is defined a5: The man pushing the larger crate has done more work done = torce X dlatence moved work than the man pushing the small crate in the BWe.FAa, same time. He has a greater power output. ‘Two men push crates the same distance across Roker Gan Va ctatinedh in twat waye: ‘the floor at the same steady speed. The bigger, The rate of energy transfer: heavier crate neede more force, because of pat greater frictional resistance. The man pushing the . larger crate does more work. In other words, he ‘The rate of doing work: traholers! mone: oberg pow A B Power io measured in watts (W). IW= lis! 20 Worked example - 1A man pushes a box at a steady rate of 2.Sms-! for 12 seconds by applying a force of 80N. Caleulate the work he does and his power output. marks) The distance through which the push of BON is applied is 2.5ms-! x 125 = 30m 2 AW = 80 x 30 = 24004 eae eaOOrS p= Y= 2400 - 200w 2. A forklift truck lifts 3 250 kg pallet and load through 180cm in 1.2s. Calculate the work done and the power of the forkli. (marks) W= Fas = mgds 250 x 9.81 x 1.8 = 4414.5 oF 4400J to 2 sf. 44i4 w pa t= 441485» 3700W or 3.7kW 3 An electric motor raises 600 ke lit at 3.0ms~ Assuming no energy is wasted, calculate the power of the electric motor. (marks) | = Inone second the motor does work = mgAh = = = 600 x 9.81 x 3 = 17658. Motor power = I7.7kW. A student of mass 45 kg runs up a flight of 30 steps in 15s, Each step is 20em high. g = 9.81 N kg (a) What is the student’s increase in gravitational potential energy? marks) (b) What is the student’s power output in watts? (2 marks)Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! Efficiency ‘The efficiency of an energy transfer is the fraction of energy supplied that is transferred usefully. ‘Useful energy When you use an electric kettle to boil water, the useful energy is that which raises the temperature of the water; the wasted energy is that which escapes from the water, heating up the kettle, its element and the ‘surroundings of the kettle, and in the form of noise. Well-designed, efficient kettles reduce the amount of energy that is not doing what. ‘we want it to do — heating the water. Efficiency Useful energy output “Fotal energy input which is the same 23 Efficiency = woeful power output Multiply by 100 to get efficiency as a percentage. Clearly efficiency cannot exceed I (one), oF 100%. ‘Worked example efficiency = re Mo wasted Cy energy wasted “s uj A every NY electrical energy in Kettle uses 360.000 J of electrical energy to heat some water to boiling point The energy actually transferred into the water to bring it co the boil is 300000 J. ‘What is the efficiency of the kettle? (4 marks) useful energy output yer ace — Efficiency = 2000004 _ ; Efficiency = S25 560) = 0-83 (or 83%) Energy input = GO x (2 x 3600) > Lamp A isa tungsten filament lamp. These are only 5% cffcient. Lamp B isa compact fluorescent lamp. These are claimed {0 use 75% less energy than filament bulbs, Lamp A is rated at 60 W. A B Lamps A and B are both in use for 2.0 hours. (a) Find the total electrical energy input to lamp ‘Ain joules, Calculate the useful light output of lamp A in joules and say how the remaining ‘amount is ‘wasted’ (4 marks) E=Pxt = 4320004 Useful output 28 light = 432 000 x 0.05 216004 The remaining 4104004 are converted into heat energy. (b) Assuming that both lamps have the same useful Tight output and the maker’ claim for B is accurate, caleulate how much electrical energy lamp B uses in 2.0, and the efficiency of lamp B. (4 marks) If lamp B uses only 25% of the energy used by A Energy input = 432000 x 0.25 = 108000) useful energy output Pificiency = — opal eneray put i = 21600. _ : : Efficiency = 708000 0.20 (or 20%) 1 Anclectric motor in a hoist is rated at 3,0kW. It can lift a load of 1200N ata speed of 1S ms"! Calculate the efficiency of this motor. 2A caris driving at a 60mph (27m) along a straight clear road. The forces opposing the motion of the ear at this speed (air and rolling resistance) ate, in tota (6) What is happening to the wasted power? (GB marks) ~ -400.N. The ear engine is approximately 20% efficient. (a) Calculate the useful power output of the car at this speed. (b) Calculate the total power input to the car engine to maintain this speed. marks) @ marks) marks) 222 Hada look [_| Nearly there [|_| Nailed it! (_] Exam skills 2 This exam-style question uses knowledge and skills you have already revised. Have a look at pages 10-13, 18 and 19 for reminders about forces, energy and motion. Worked example ‘A student wants to investigate the transfer of gravitational potential eneray to kinetic energy asa toy cas moves down, 1 slope. She does this by releasing the ca from rest and measuring the speed » when it has moved a distance d along the slope as show in Fig, 1, She records the speed of the ear fora range of vulues of d and then plots a gruph of » against d. (@) Describe an experimental method to measure the speed of ‘the car when it has moved a distance d. marks) Attach a card of measured length (e.g. 5.0m) to the top of the car and place a light gate at distance When the card cuts the light beam a data logger can use the time and length of card to calculate and display the speed (b) Show that a graph of v against d should be a straight line ‘through the oviin, if work done against friction ean be neglected. (marks) Lose of GPE = gain of KE 3mv?, where h = the height of the ramp, a= the acceleration due to gravity, m= the mass of the car, and v = its measured velocity. Tey mgeisin® = bev? ee To answer part (b) you v2 = 2gsinod ESTED need to: All terms inside the bracket are constant, 50 vis Sat wit conservac of ener directly proportional to d. | IF the two variables plotted on the graph are directly proportional, ike v? and d, the graph will be a straight White down the equation and define the terms. fre trough the oxgin (eer en nae eine Q re ve canen aerate alt angle of slope to horizontal = 20° ‘Show that it leads to v?cc ot distance d= 45cm speed r= 165m! ‘Unethis dat to caleulat the average tional force F acting on the car (marks) The total input energy is trom GPE. Since energy ia conocrved) ty encngy th is oF treated £9 KE ttt be tele Eo heat by work dove agsinet friction. Work dose aginst ction = loss of GPE ~ gain in KE = mngdein 9 Sn = 0.4 x 9,81 x 0.45 x sin20° — 0.4 x (1,65)42 = 0.604 ~ 0.545 = 0.059) Work done agsinet hriction = Fd F = 0.059/0.45 = 0.I3NHad a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Basic electrical quantities Values of current and potential difference are important in determining the behaviour of an electric circuit. Current When electrically charged particles move through a conductive material we reter toa current: ln metals the changed particles are electrons Electric current, I, is the rate of flow of charge, Q. vew aq @ ae ‘The unit of p.d. is the volt (V). For a pid. of IV ‘The unit of current, the amp (A), is a rate of flow of between two points ina circuit, IJ of energy is charge of | covlomb (©) per second, IA'= ICs", transferred per IC of charge flowing between the points, IV = TJC". ey Potential difference or p.d. is sometimes referred to as voltage. It is the amount of eneray that a component transters per unit of charge passing through it. A voltmeter it measures the difference in electric potential between two points in a circuit. Potential difference (p.4.) Potential difference is a measure of the work done per unit charge passing through a conducting Glement in a circuit ' A lamp has a current of S0mA through it * Calculate the electric charge that passes through itin I minute (mark) _ Convert to 9.1. units: 0.0504 and 60s erent AQ=1x At AQ = 0.050 x 60 = 3.06 ‘The lamp in the example on the left was connected 10.2 6V supply Electrical power 00s. ov. ov Power is the rate of doing work, or the rate of ‘energy transfer. You can express this definition in Setica lors mag te souicne shove ts hd S criatontes pom bete cai Wav WoW sanixt t (Qh 2 par Si its ore vats (0: IW = 1V 1A since P=" i tle that W = PE ges tho stent of lectiea! energy transfered 325 page 20 or» remncer of the Wabonahp sebiect power ail not ‘Worked example An electric heater operates from a 230 V supply and. draws a current of 12.5 A, (a) Caleulate the power of this heater. P = VI = 230 x 12.5 = 2875 ‘ = 2680W (3 5.4.) t (b) Caleulate how much eneruy is transferred into heat in 1 hour and 40 minutes by the heater. (2 marks) Energy transferred W = Pe = 2875 x (I00 x 60) = 17.3 (3 s.1.) (mark) How much energy is transferred into heat and light in the lamp if the lamp is on for I minute? (2 marks) w=vx@ W=6.0x3.0= 18) enrD <1 A reading lamp operating from a 230 V supply hhas a power of 60.W, (a) Caleulate the current that it draws, (1 mark) (b) Caleulate how much charge passes through it in 5.0 minutes. (@ marks) 2 Acurrent of 250mA passes through a torch lamp. After 30 minutes 2400J of electrical energy has been transferred into light and heat, (a) Calculate the power of the lamp. 2 marks) (b) Caleulate how much power is transferred in the lamp, (2 marks) (c) Calculate the voltage across the lamp. e@ rks) 23Had a look oO Nearly there Ohm's law You will recall the equation V = 1X R from your earlier studies. Ohm’s law is a special case in which Tox Vat constant temperature. Ohm's law experiment and results oat ‘9098 Sue eo Tlasg2 off diceds o. 0! x 008 Potential diference VV For 2 metallic conductor at constant temperature the graph of current against p.d. is straight line passing through the origin. The resistance R, measured in ohms (Q), can be calculated at any point by reading off values for I and V, and will be found to be constant provided that the temperature is unchanged. Ohm's tas it constant temperature, the current through the conductor is proportional to the p.d, Non-ohmie components Not al circuit components follow Ohm's law. You will be ate: oo i ea a required to recognise, sketch and interpret graphs for some ‘components that do not. pa Ps These are called non-ohmie components. As the temperature of the See ieee = le BE tant LZ resistance increases. ‘The diode has low resistance when ‘forward biase. 0 high that it is virtually non-conducting, The thermistor shown, which is negative temperature coefficient or NIC type, has a resistance that decreases as it gets hotter. A use for thermistors is covered on page 3. worked examel cx ‘The current through a filament lamp is 10 mA when the pd. across itis 0.10.V, When operated at its + Be 1 20.6V, whereas when V <0.6V its resistance is 1. Find the current in a 120 resistor when 9.0V ape emu) working pd, of 60 it draws 6OmA. "Ro 12 x1 O79 (a) Calculate the resistance of the lamp at these 2. Find the resistance needed to allow a current of pads. (2 marks) 200 wA when the resistor is connected across a (b) Explain why this change occurs. (2 marks) 5.0 supply (1mark) vl 5 és TEx 18 250 24Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Conservation laws in electrical circuits ‘The rules of conservation of charge and energy show how currents and p.d.s behave in series and parallel circuits. Current in = current out The current into @ component, like a lamp or a resistor, must equal the current out of it, 50 Jp = ly and [y= Ig. IF this were not the case, charge would be disappearing or being created within the components. ‘Similarly the current flowing toward and away from the nodes A and B must also balance. Theretore |, = le + la, and ly + by = le This is the consequence of conservation of charge in electrical circuits. dei tte ed a a rs 0. Pd.s add up in series and are the same across parallel branches Vis the amount of energy a transferred per coulomb [yy “(I Vis the amount of energy y " transfered per coulomb 2 in Ry and Ve io the amount || || Me of eneray transferred per — that passes from A to B passes through R, then Rp Energy conservation requires that the total amount of energy transferred as charge is moved from A to B must be equal to the energy This is the consequence of conservation of energy in electeical circuits, ‘Since the potential difference between A and B must be the same through both possible paths, Vs passing from A to B. coulomb In Re. Each coulomb $ transferred in R, and Re. Therefore V= V, + Va must be equal to V. 1 Complete this sentence about electric current in circuits, G marks) ‘The total current out of any point in a circuit must the ‘current into that point as ‘must be conserved. 2 Complete this sentence about pds in electric ~~ circuits. (marks) The p.d.s across components in series must to the supply em. The pd.s across comporients in parallel must be The total. supplied by a battery per coulomb of charge circulated must be the total energy transferred in the circuit. Worked example 1 Calculate the current through the two resistors, Hence state the current, I, supplied by the battery (GB marks) The p.d. across both resistors is IOV. i en IO Fop = 0.0258. hao e= 1h + b= 0.125 2. Write equations for the power dissipated in a resistor in terms of (a) pd. and current, (b) current and resistance, (c) pa. and resistance, G marks) @P=v (&) Since P= Viand V= IR, P= xR (c) Since P= Viand |= VIR, P= VR shown above. marks) V, = 3V (p.d.s between the same two points in a circvit must be equal), V, = 9.0V (Y= 12 =v). (b) Calculate the value of fy if R,= 1500.2 marks) le = VelRz = 3/150 = 0.02 £ (©) If f, = 50mA state the value of fs, and cealeulate the value of Ry. G marks) h=bth = Is = l= bp5 | = 0.05 50 |, = 0.030A R= Vill, = 910.05 = 1809 25Hada look [_| Nearly there [|_| Nailed it! (_] Resistors ‘There are formulae to calculate the equivalent resistance of resistor combinations. Resistors in series The total p.d. across resistors in series will be the sum of their individval p.d.s. Take an example of three resistors R,, Rp and Ry in series. The current / through each resistor must be the same. The total pid. V is the oum of the pid. across each resistor, Vou = Vi + Ve + Vy Finally, V= (Row. Therefore: [Riga = IR, + IRe + IRa 20 Rag = R+ Re + Ry Therefore, for resistors in series the total resistance is the sum of the individval resistances. Resistors in parallel Resistors in parallel will have a total current through them that is the sum of their individual currents. The pd. Vacrose each must be the same for each branch. Take an example of three resistors in parallel, hats = |) + fe + ls vivyy ein RR Re Therefore, for resistors in parallel the total resistance is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances. Worked example Find the total resistance of the following resistor networks (a) 3002 15KO 10KE react) il Toel__Toe__lo ae (b) (2 marks) seca 1202 aca enn Ton il 1 1 3 R~ 1200 * 1200 * 1200 ~ 1200 Find the total or equivalent resistance of the Therefore R = 400 following resistor combinations. 8 emmy ara larg enn) za os t Sam ‘worn ema) 1g R~ 2008 * 3000 * 600m ~ Goon Therefore R = 10 26