© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. G.C.E. (Advanced Level) PHYSICS Grade 12 Resource Book Unit 1: Measurement Unit 2: Mechanics Department of Science Faculty of Science and Technology National Institute of Education www.niedk © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. Physics Resource Book Grade 12 © National Institute of Education First Print - 2020 Department of Science Faculty of Science and Technology National Institute of Education Sti Lanka ISBN 978 - 955 - 654 - 897-6 Published by: Press National Institute of Education Maharagama Sri Lanka Printedby: —_SisaraPrintway (Pvt) Ltd. No, 110, Pagoda Road, Pitakotte. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. Message from the Director General ‘The National Institute of Education takes opportune steps from time to time for the development of quality in education. Preparation of supplementary resource books for respective subjects is one such initiative. Supplementary resource books have been composed by team of curriculum developers of the National Institute of Education, subject experts from the national universities and experienced teachers from the school system. Because these resource books have been written so that they are in line with the G.C. E. (A/L) new syllabus implemented in 2017, students can broaden their understanding of the subject matter by referring these books while teachers can refer them in orderto plan more effective learning teaching activities. wish to express my sincere gratitude to the staff members ofthe National Institute of Education and external subject experts who made their academic contribution to make this material available to you. Dr. (Mrs.) T.A. R. J. Gunasekara Director General National Institute of Education Maharagama. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. Message from the Director ‘Since 2017, a rationalized curriculum, which is an updated version of the previous curriculum is in effect for the GC.E (A/L) in the general education system of Sri Lanka. In this new curriculum cycle, revisions were made in the subject content, mode of delivery and curricular materials of the GCE. (A/L) Physics, Chemistry and Biology. Several alterations in the learning teaching sequence were also made. A new Teachers’ Guide was introduced in place of the previous ‘Teacher’s Instruction Manual. In concurrence to that, certain changes in the learning teaching methodology, evaluation and assessment are expected. The newly introduced Teachers’ Guide provides 1g outcomes, a guideline for teachers to mould the leaning events, assessment and evaluation. When implementing the previous curricula, the use of internationally recognized standard textbooks published in English was imperative for the Advanced Level science subjects. Due to the contradictions of facts related to the subject matter between different textbooks and inclusion of the content beyond the limits of the local curriculum, the usage of those books was not convenient for both teachers and students. This book comes to you as an attempt to overcome that issue. As this book is available in Sinhala, Tamil, and English, the book offers students an opportunity to refer the relevant subject content in their mother tongue as well as in English Within the limits of the local curriculum. It also provides both students and teachers a source of reliable information expected by the curriculum instead of various information gathered from the other sources. This book authored by subject experts from the universities and experienced subject teachers is presented to you followed by the approval of the Academic Affairs Board and the Council of the National Institute of Education, Thus, it can be recommended as a material of high standard, Dr. A. D. A. De Silva Director Department of Science © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. Guidance Dr. (Mrs) T. A. R. J. Gunasekara Director General National Institute of Education Supervision Dr. A.D. A. De Director, Department of Science National Institute of Education R.S. J. P, Uduporuwa Former Director, Department of Science National Institute of Education (NIE) Internal Editorial Panel P. Malavipathirana Dr. M.L-S. Piyat Miss. R.A.A marasinghe Mrs. M.R-PLJ. Herath External Editorial Panel Prof. TR. Ariyarathne Dr. LK. Perera Prof. S.R.D. Rosa Prof. LR.A.K. Bandara Prof. J.C.N. Rajendran Dr. MK. Jayananda Prof. D.D.NB. Daya Writing Panel WD. Rathnasooriya B.A. Tilakarathna HSK. Wijaeyathilaka DS. Withanchchi SR Jayakumar P.Wicramasekara V.PK. Sumathipala Mrs. Sathitha Gunaratne Sujeewa Dissanayake Senior Lecturer, NIE Assistant Lecturer, NTE Assistant Lecturer, NIE Former Assistant Lecturer, NIE Emeritus Professor of Physies Former Senior Professor of Physics (Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka) Department of Physics, University of Colombo Department of Physics, University of Peradeniya Department of Physics, Open University of Sri Lanka Department of Physics, University of Colombo Department of Physics, University of Colombo Former Chief Project Officer, NIE Former SLEAS, Former Project Officer, NIE Former SLEAS Former Chief Project Officer, NIE ‘Teacher Service Former Teacher Service ISA (Science), Zonal Education Office, Walasmulla Teacher Service Teacher Service © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. Language Editing - _M.A.P.Munasinghe Former Chief Project Officer, NIE Cover and Setup - Mrs. R.R. K. Pathirana, Technical Assistant, NIE ‘Typesetting - Mrs. D.K.J.P. Dassanayake, NIE Supporting Staff ~ Mrs, Padma Weerawardana, NIE Mangala Welipitiya, NIE Ranjith Dayawansa, NIE © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. Content Pages Unit 1 Measurement ol Introduction to physics 07 Physical quantities and units 06, Dimensions B Measuring instruments 18 Scalar quantities and vector quantities 30 Unit 2 Mechanies 3B Kinematics, u Resultant of a system of coplanar forces st Force and motion, 58 Equilibrium of forces ” Work, energy and power 5 Rotational motion and circular motion 81 Hydrostatistics 6 Fluid dynamics 109 References 7 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. 3 S. o Q o oe 2 = > oe © 2020 National Institute of Education. vill © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. Resource Book GCE. (A) Ply a Unit 1 Measurement 1 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physics Resource Book - Unit OF een Introduction to physics If we go back to human history we can see that most discoveries which are useful to human development are based on science, information networks, electric communication media which spread around the world transformed the whole community as staying in asmall village. Science is the basis of all miracles in medicine and the development of modern technology. Itis not an exaggeration to say that discoveries in physics are conspicuous. Figure .1.1-Electron microscope Figure 1.2- Hubble telescope Physics is involved in constructing instruments from electron microscopes which can be used to see viruses clearly, (for which light microscope with even a higher magnification cannot be used) tothe Hubble telescope, which can be used to see originating and diminishing stars at far distances in the universe, These instruments help widen the vision range of humans. Figure 13-Concordsir plane Because ofthe discoveries in physies, man who travelled by a cart at the very beginning developed the transport facilities to travel bya concord air plane, which exceeds the speed of sound. 2 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physics Resource Book - Unit OF Figure 1 5-High pressure waterjet, Figure 1.4-A photograph taken in the dark by infrared rays Physics is directly involved with constructing instruments such as infrared binoculars which are used for far night vision and also high pressure water jets used to cut concrete Physics is the basis for discoveries that has led to the development of the stethoscope to modern medical devices such as ultra sound scan, CT scan and MRI scan which are used for diagnosis in medicine. ‘The contribution of the discoveries of scientists in producing such excellent construetions should be appreciated. In this connection more service has been renderd by scientists such as Galileo, Newton, Robert Boyle, Albert Einstein and Stephen Hawking Among the pioneer scientists who were responsible for important discoveries in the field of physics by performing experiments in physics, Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) can be the frst tobe mentioned, He is the one who discovered the characteristic properties of the simple pendulum which led to revolutionary changes in measuring time. The service done by him for the future advancement of physics was more important because of the discoveries such as principles of motion and Galilean telescope. Figure 1.6- Galileo Galilei Figure 1.7-Sir Isaac Newton Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) can be introduced as a great seientist who contributed to a large ‘number of discoveries in physics. Among his discoveries, gravitation, basic concepts of calculus which transformed mathematics in a new way and the discovery of the colour components of sunlight can be considered to be important, 3 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (A) Physies Resource Book - Unit 01 Robert Boyle (1627-1691) who also lived inthis period of ime did research relating to gases and the basic discoveries that followed is more used in chemistry though outlined in the work of physics. Albert Einstein (1879-1955) produced the modern constructive concept of the special theory of relativity which even changed the former accepted theories to explain day-to-day activities and experiments in physics. In the twentieth century, he was awarded the Nobel prize for modem mathematical physies and photoelectric effect Figure 1.8-Albert Einstein Figure 1.9-Stephen Hawking Stephen Hawking clearly understood and managed to explain black holes that even most recent astronomical scientists were unable to explain asa very high gravitational field, using physical and ‘mathematical principles and concepts. Light and other electromagnetic waves were considered until recent times to be continuous flowing, of energy. A phenomenon like photoelectric effect cannot be explained using wave nature of light only. Asa solution for these problems, Max Planck (1854-1947) introduced the Quantum Theory. According to his idea, when an electron falls from an outer orbit of an atom to an inner orbit, a packet of energy is released as a quantum which is equal to the difference in energy between the twolevels Figure 1.10- Max Planck 4 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE, (ay Physies Resource Book -Unit OF Physics rapidly developed from various discoveries and theories presented by different scientists ‘The basic foundation for these developments was the seientifie method adopted for this. It is important for a person who studies science to have an understanding about the scientific method. Collecting information and knowledge through experiences ina formal way by observing the nature can be considered a basic step. To explain those phenomena, hypotheses, principles and laws have to be developed. Models are being prepared which can explain these hypotheses and principles. To test the correctness of the models, formal experimental methods can be applied. Predictions can be made by models using results obtained by experiments and according to the progress or failure of them. Models are developed using new experiences, This continuous development process is called the scientific method. Measurements done usinga correct approach is important in building most theories in physics. As such, we can consider measurement tobe the foundation of physics. Scientific methodology The steps of scientific methodology = Observation ‘+ Hypothesis © Experiment + Theory + Prediction Observation: ‘The first step in scientific method is to make careful observations to collect data. The data may be drawn froma simple observation, or they may be obtained from experiments. Hypothesis Froman analysis of these observations and experimental data, a model of nature is hypothesized, The hypothesis isan assumption that is made in order to draw out and testits logical or empirical consequences. We should be able to confirm it by testing, Testing of the hypothesis is called the experiment. Experiment Anexperiment isa controlled procedure carried out to discover, test, or demonstrate something. Anexperimentiis performed to confinn that the hypothesis is valid. Ifthe results of the experiment do not support the hypothesis, the experimental procedure must be checked. Ifthe procedure is alternate and results still contradict the hypothesis, then the original hypothesis must be modified. Another experiment is then designed to test the modified hypothesis. Theory Ifthe experimental results confirm the hypothesis, the hypothesis becomes anew theory about some specific aspect of nature, a scientifically acceptable general principle based on observed facts. Prediction Aftera careful analysis of the new theory, a prediction about some unknown aspect of nature can be made 5 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a °© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AM) Physics Resource Book - Unit OF Ceo Physical quantities and units A property which can be measured directly or indirectly, in a physical system can be expressed asa physical quantity. Example | Thinkabout the description of alog of wood as shown in Figure 2.1. For this, physical quantities such as its length, breadth, height, mass, volume and density can be considerd. Of these, length, breadth and height can be measured directly whereas volume and density can be calculated. Example2 When describing the motion ofa vehicle, quantities such as the distance travelled by the vehicle in between two points, the time spent to travel that distance, speed or velocity of the vehicleand acceleration can be used, Measurements havea magnitude and a unit and sometimes a direction as well. “metre” is the intemational unit for measuring length, Lengths have to be measured from a very small value toa very large value. A tabulation is shown below, about several objects within that range of measurement. Table 2.1 Ranges of distance relavant to various objects [Object Range of distance (mp | diameter ofa proton 10" diameter of the nucleus of aheavy atom 10 wavelength of 7 rays 10? average distance between atoms of acrystalline solid substance] 10"? distance between air molecules inside aroom 10° wavelength of visible light 107 diameter of ared corpuscle 108 thickness ofa paper 10" ness of a window glass plate 10° diameter of pencil 10° Tength ofa pencil 10" height ofa child 101 height ofa three storied building 10! 6 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 2 2 a = @ < S = © i ° q S a ©© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AIL) Physics Resource Book - Unit 1 Object Range of distance (m) length of a football ground 10° ‘maximum depth of the sea 108 diameter of the moon 10" diameter of the Earth 10" distance from the Earth to the moon 108 diameter of the sun 10” distance from sun to the Earth’ 10" distance from sun o the planet Saturn distance to the nearest star To? end of the observed universe 107 Tn measuring time there are measurements from a very small value toa very large value. A tabulation about them is given below. ‘Table 2.2 Measurments related with time Incident Time spent (s) Tight to travel through an atomic nucleus 10 time for one revolution of a proton inside an atomic nucleus 10™ time for one revolution of an electron around the nucleus of 10 inner orbitof'a heavy atom time for one revolution of an electron around the nucleus of 10" hydrogen atom, Tight to travel through a window glass plate 10 Tight to travel across. classroom 10 for one vibration of a high frequency sound note 10 Tor one rotation of an electric fan 10 for rifle bullet to travel across a football ground’ 107 periodic time of the bob of a pendulum clock 10°=1 shorter distance runner torun 100 meters 10" Tor lightto travel from sun to the earth 10° Tor earth to rotate one revolution about its axis (one day) 10° Tor one revolution of the earth around sun (one year) 107 Tifetime ofa human 10 halflife ofradiaum 10” Time from Christian erato present 10" ‘time from ancient human era to present 10" Time for one revolution of the sun around the galaxy 10" ‘age of an ancient fossil 107 expected life ime of sun as anormal star 10" 7 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physics Resource Book iol [In general the measurement of mass involves relatively large values though some are very small ‘Table 2.3 Mesurments related with mass. ‘Object Order of the mass (kg) galaxy star sun the Earth moon large air plane 10° anelephant 10° human 10" adog 10° one litre oF water 10? =1 ‘one apple fruit 10° asimpleliving cell 10" ared blood compuscle 10 aheavy atom 1o** ‘a proton 1027 an electron) 10" International system of units SI According to international system of units seven basic quantities and seven corresponding units have been approved. Table. 2.4 - Seven basic quantities and corresponding SI Units Basic (fundamental) quantity Unit Symbol of the unit Length metre m Mass kilogram kg Time second s Thermodynamic temperature _| kelvin K Electric current ampere A ‘Amount of substance mole mol Taaminous intensity candela cd ‘Table 2,5 - Supplementary SI units Quantity Unit Symbol of unit Plane angle radian rad Solidangle steradian w 8 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physies Resource Book - Unit OF Defini n of basic SI u metre (m) - metre is the length of 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of radiation emitted ina vacuum due to the transfer ofan electron between energy levels 2p!*and Sd° of the Krypton— 86 atom, second (s) - second is the time required for 9,192,631,770 periods of radiation due to the transfer between the two miero levels in the ground state of Cesium — 133 atom, ampere (A) - ampere is that current that, exsists in each of two infinitely long parallel straight wires with negligible citcular cross section, placed Im apart ina vacuurn which results ina force ofexactly of Im length of each conductor. kelvin (K) - Thermodynamic unit of temperature kelvin is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature at triple point of water. candela (cd) - candela is the luminous intensity that is produced perpendicular toa surface of 1 Fo0.000 Sduare metre ofa black body at a temperature of freezing platinum under a pressure of 101, 325 newtons per metre. Units which can be obtained using basic units are called derived SI units. SI unit ofa derived physical quantity can be obtained by using the definition of that physical quantity. In writing the units, there should bea gap between the symbols of basic units. There should not bea dot ora coma in between basic units. There are special names forsome derived units, but those units can also be expressed by SI base units ‘Some derived units without special names are given in the following table. Quantity Definition/Survey SLunit Area length s breadth m Volume’ Tength x breadth x height | m> Velocity displacement ag time Arctica: difference in velocity ms? time Momentum mass x velocity kgms' 9 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S BS © s a 3 wi 6 £ 2 a = a ec i 3 Zz ° q 3° a °© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. Resource Book Unit OL GCE. (AL) Physics ‘Several SI units with special names are given below Table 2.7 Several SI Units with special names Quantity | Special | Symbol] Definition using [Other ST Basic units name of expression units units Fore newton N_ | massxaeceleration force Pressure | pascal Pa | oo Nm? Work joule J | forcex displacement | Nim Energy | joule J | ability to work Nm P w | om , ower watt ae Js Frequency | hertz reiiencé no.of vibrations time Electrical | coulomb c current x time As charge ork Electric volt v = jc! charge potential Electrical ‘ohm Q potential va" kgm? s* A? resistance vcumrent™ Electrical farad F charge cv" [A’s‘kg'm? [capacitance potential magnetic flux Magnetic | tesla T aa Wb m? flux density luminous intensity [Luminous flux | lumen Im | ed sr solid angle © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (A/L) Physics Resource Book - Unit 01 STderived units expressed using special names, are given below. Table 2.8 Derived SI units with special names Quantity ‘Name of the SI unit Symbol of _ [Expression using ‘SI unit SI base units Entropy/thermal capacity | joules per kelvin jKt im? kg s~? K7* |Thermalconductivity | watt permetreperkelvin [Wm =K™ |mkgs™K™ | [Permeability henry per metre Hm™ im kg s~? A~* |Permittivity farad per metre m7? kg~* s* A? [Surface tension newion per metre kgs Moment ofa force newton metre m? kgs? Electric field intensity volt permetre mkg s~> At Electric flux density ‘coulomb per square metre ms A [Specific entropy joules per kilogram perkelvin| J kg~* K™*_ |m? s~? K™* Specificheat capacity | joulesperkilogram perkelvin] [kg™= K"* rm? s-> K™ Ifthe value of a physical quantity is very small or very large it is not possible to write or read it as itis, Insuch instances prefixes are used to indicate the multiples or submultiples of Sl units. Name and symbols of multiple factors of several prefixes are given in the following table. Table 2.9-Names and symbols of multiple factors of several prefixes Multiple factor| Name of prefix | Symbol 10" exa E 108 pela P 10" tera T 10” giga G 10" mega M 10" kilo k 10° ecto h 10" deca da 10 deci @ 107 cent € 10 rl 7 10° micro a 10” mano T lo" spico. Pp 10" femto f 10 ‘atto a ul © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physies Resource Book- Unit 01 Rules to obey in writing SI units. © Inwriting base units, the unit should be written on the right side of the value and close to it eg tenmetres-10m © Noplurals are used in writing SI units even ifthe value s greater than one. eg fivekilograms -5kg * Inwriting units asa product of base units there should be a single gap between base units eg tenmetres persecond-10ms" © Inwriting the value of physical quantity with a prefix the symbol corresponding to the prefix should be written in front of the SI unit symbol and there should not bea gap between the two symbols. eg. millisecond-ms 1g temperature in kelvin scale no need to puta small zero to indicate degrees. eg — 303kelvin -303K | Rights Reserved. ° Inw e S BS © s a 3 wi 6 £ 2 a = a ec i 3 Zz ° q 3° a ° 2 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (4/1) Physics Resource Book - Unit eos! Dimensions Inthesystem of SIunits, mass, length, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, luminous intensity and amount of substance are the basic units. Other quantities such as energy and acceleration which can be derived using basic units are called derived units. Symbolic expressions which show the relation of'a physical quantity to basic units is called its dimension. In studying ‘mechanies and properties of matter, mostly used dimensions are mass M, length L, and time T. Also thereare dimensions for other quantities like temperature and electric current. ‘The way of finding the dimensions of several physical quantities we meet in mechanies are given below. Table 3.1 dimensions of several physical quantities Physical quantity Basic relation Dimension Area length x breadth L ‘Volume Tength x breadth x height [ 1 Density ‘mass/ volume ML Velocity displacement/ time IT Acceleration velocity time Force mass x acceleration MLT? ‘Quantities without units such as refractive index, coefficient of friction have no dimensions, ‘There are quantities with units but without dimensions. eg plane angle and solid angle Several uses of dimensions are given below; 1. To check the correctness of a given relation among physical quantities, 2. To derive a relation among physical quantities. ‘The following can be given as examples forthe above. 1. Checking the correctness of an equation using dimensions. How several physical quantities are related to one another is expressed mathematically by a physical equation. Ifthe equation is correct, the dimension ofits both sides should be equal. If the equation has several terms, the dimensions ofall the separate terms should be the same. Ifthe equation connecting physical quantities a,b, c, dand eis, azbe+e ¥ d dimensions of a = dimensions of be= dimensions of é 1B © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 2 2 a = @ < S = © i ° q Ss a ©© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE, (A/L) Physics Resource Book - Unit OL Worked examples fan object that travels alonga straight line with an initial velocity w and uniform acceleration a for atime ¢and attains a final velocity v and the displacement experienced by it is s, equations relating to its motion are given below. () v=utat 1, 2s (iy Seats part Gi) wm s [) 2 (Inthe equation veu-+at dimension of ? +2as LT?) x (T] Tt it) «=. dimensions of fy] =[w Dimensi dimensions. - Equation (i)is dimensionally correct. ‘of both sides of the equation is the same and all terms have the same (ii) Inthe equation 1 ut+=ar 2 dimensionsof [s]=L [ui LT") x [T] L [ae] =(LT?] x (P]=L dimensions of [5] =[ut]=[ar*] Dimensions of both sides of the equation are the same and all terms have the same dimensions. Equation (ii) is dimensionally correct. 4 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S a a 3 wi 6 £ 2 a = a ec i 3 Zz ° q 3° a °© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physics Resource Book- Unit 01 (iil) Inthe equation v au +2as dimensionsof [v'] = [LT =L°T? (e]=(LT'P=LT? [as]=[LT7] x LT? :, dimensions of [ ]=[1? ]=[as] Dimension of both sides of the equation is the same and all terms have the same dimensions. -. equation (ii)is dimensionally correct. (iv) Fromthe equation (iv) [° + ‘| s= t 2 another important property of dimensional analysis can be introduced. Ifthere is a term inan equation expressing sum or difference, the two quantities inthe term with sum or difference should be of the same dimensions. i.e. dimensions of [«] =[¥] dimensions of [s] = L [f] and [ut]}=(LT"] « [7] =L Dimensions of both side of the equation is the same and all terms have the same dimensions. - equation (iv) is dimensionally correct. 2. Derivation of equation by the method of dimensional analysis, ‘Suppose we want to develop an equation for the periodic time Tofa simple pendulum. First we have to identify experimentally or logically the quantities related to the periodic time. Here ‘we can assume that the periodic time depends on the following quantities, (i) Mass ofthe pendulum bob (m) (Gi) Length of the pendulum (2) (iii) Gravitational acceleration (g) Since we have no idea about the correct relation among the quantities we can write, Tam'l’g* herex, y andzare real numbers T= k m'P’g* where kis the proportionality constant without a dimension. 15 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S a a 3 wi 6 £ 2 a = a ec i 3 Zz ° q 3° a °© 2020 National institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE (AML) Physi Resource Book - Unit 01 Applying dimensions to both side of the equation, T=MLUTYy T=MbL*T™ Equating the indices of M x=0 o) Equating the indices of L VIE = Oeeeeccceeeee 2) Equating the indices of T z= 1 8) Solving the above equations The relation among quantities can be written as T=kn'tg 4 f ‘The value of the constant k cannot be found by dimensional analysis. | Rights Reserved. itt Whena stone is tied toa string and it moves in circle in a horizontal plane, we can assume that the tension F gained by the string depends on the mass m of the stone, speed v of the stone and. the radius r of the circle in which it moves. Since we have no idea about the correct relation among the quantities, we can write, F a m'v'r' wherex, yand zare real numbers. F = k m'y’r! where kis proportionality constant without dimension. Applying dimensions to both sides of the equation Equating indices of M x= a Equating indices of L e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a ° 2) 3 3) solving the above equations, x=ly=2,2=-1 16 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AM) Physics Resource Book - Unit 01 ‘The elation among quantities can be written as Fskmr* 2 Fae r Different tools are used to collect data in the field of science, Experiments should be done for the verification of models built by organizing the collected data, and in the quantitative analysis main activity is the measurement. There isa development of theories from measurements so obtained, Several such instances can be introduced like this. ‘The solar system was found from the measurements of the position of planets taken over a long period of time. Measurement of forces between masses is the reason for the total development of the Law of universal gravitation. Measurements about the motion of objects help the development of mechanics. Measurement of force between charges, forces between currents and other phenomena about electricity and magnetism is the reason for the development of electricity, ‘magnetism and electromagnetism. Itisclear that different measurements made according to the observed natural phenomena is the reason for new discoveries and development of theories so formulated in physics, 17 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AVL) Physics Resource Book - Unit 01 Tend Measuring instruments Working with errors (Working with uncertainties) Systematic errors (systematic uncertainties) These occur due to faulty apparatus such as an incorrectly labelled scale, an incorrect zero mark ona meter ora stopwatch running slowly. Repeating the measurement a number of times will have no effect on this type of error and it may not even be suspected until the final result is calculated, To eliminate this type of error, a correction can be introduced tothe final reading. The instrument can be recalibrated or replaced. Random errors (random uncertainties) ‘The size ofthese errors depends on how well the experimenter can use the apparatus. The better the experimenter, the smaller will be the random error reflected in an experiment. Making a ‘number of readings of a given quantity and taking an average will reduce the overall error. ‘The maximum errorthat can occur during a measurement isthe least count of the scale, The size of the error needs to be considered together with the size ofthe quantity which is being measured. For example, (208 +1) mmisa fairly accurate measurement. (241) mmishighly inaccurate In order to compare errors, use is made of absolute, fractional and percentage error, Forthereading (208 + 1)mm; 1 mmis the absolute error, 1/208 is the fractional error (= 0.0048). 0.48% is the percentage error. ‘As we usually require errorto only one significant figure, the last two values given above would be used as 0.005 and 0.5%, respectively. ‘The accuracy ofa measurement is considered suflicient if the percentage erroris 1 %orless than 1%, When we use a metre ruler for measuring a length of 100 mm, the percentage error is I 7p *100= 1%. ‘Therefore, the accuracy provided by a meter ruler in measuring a length which isles than 10 cm, is not sufficient, In such a case, ameasuring instrument with a least count less than Imm should be used. For this, the instruments which use the principle of vernier or serew are required, When calculating the value of quantity y given by y= a°b, the error ofa" influences much higher than the error of “b” towards the error of ‘y”. Therefore, when measuring aterm which has been raised to some power, an additional care should be taken. 18 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 2 2 a = @ < S = © i ° q Ss a ©© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physics Resource Book - Unit OL When we calculatea final result like y = a"b, the errorof the quantity “a” will havea greater effect in the error in y. Therefore, we have to take an extra care in measuring terms raised to powers. Various measuring instruments are used to measure various physical quantities. Buthere we consider only the measuring instruments used to measure physical quantities such as length, mass and time which are mostly used in mechanics, A measuring instrument has a scale and there isa least count which can be obtained from that scale, The instrument is not used to measure more accurate values than this least count. Asan example of a metre ruler calibrated in mm scale the least count is 1 mm, Because of this, we cannot obtain an accuracy more than Imm from a metre ruler. According to this, we can express ‘a measurement such as 17.3 m or 17.4 em but not as17.35 em. Principle of vernier and yernier scale Seales which are constructed by dividing the range of certain number of divisions of a millimetre scale into equal parts greater than that numbers of divisions are called Vernier scales. The millimetre scale used is called the main scale 0.1mm - 0 ines 41cm (10 mm) Figure 4.1 ‘The diagram showsa vernier scale constructed by dividng the range of9 mm in amilli metre scale into 10 equal pars. In the instrument with vernier scale, the vernier seale can be moved along the main scale. When the instrument is adjusted so that the front ends of both scales coincide, then the mark ‘0’ ofthe vernier scale should coincide with mark ‘0” of the main scale and mark 10 of the vernierseale coincide with mark9 mm of the main scale. Noother marks ofthe vemier scale coincide with any other mark of the main scale. To coincide mark | of the vernier scale with mark | of the main scale the distance which the vernier scale should be pushed forward is the difference in length between one part of the vernier_ scale and one part of the main scale. This length is called the least count of the vernier scale. least count = length of one part of the main scale —length of one part ofthe vernier scale According to this the least count of the above vernier scale can be found. Length of one part of the main scale= I mm 1x9 Length of one part ofthe vemierscale= >> mm 9 Least count = [I-jg} mm = 0.1mm 9 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AA) Physics Resource Book - Unit OL When taking measurement such as the thickness of a normal ruler (2 mm)usingan instrument with the above mentioned vernier seale, the percentage error is very large. Ol That percentage error = -x100% = 5% To minimize the percentage error of such a measurement we need vernier scales with other fractions of millimetre. We know that Vernier scales can be constructed by dividing the range of certain divisions ofa linear scale into another equal divisions. But as the numbers of division are large its difficult to observe from the naked eye, which division of the vernier scale coincides \ith adivision ofthe main scale, Sometimes itis difficult to observe usinga magnifying glass also. Because of this, asa result of experiments done to obtain measurements like thickness of a paper, the screw instruments were produced. The principle of screw instruments are discussed fone (a) Figarea2 0) ‘Tomeasure the length d of rod using a vernier arrangement as shown in Figure4.2(a), one end ofthe rod should be kept coinciding with the firstedge of the main scale and the vemier scale is, in contact with the other end of the rod as shown in the Figure4.2 (b). The length d of the rod is equal to the distance moved by the first edge of the vernier scale. This distance is also equal to the distance moved by the mark ‘0’ of the vernier scale, Therefore, the length ofthe rod can be obtained from the reading corresponding to the mark ‘0’ of the vernier scale. Consider the way of observing that reading, ‘The value of the main scale in front of the mark ‘0” of the vernier scale is 1.1 em, which is the reading of the main scale. The distance between this reading and mark ‘0’ of the vernier scale should be read by the vernier seale, We know that the distance through which the vernier scale should be moved to coincide first mark of the vemier scale with first mark of the main seale is 1 least count, To coincide the 2" mark of the vernierscale with the 2" mark of the main scale, the distance through which the vernier scale should be moved is 2 x least count. Here the 4® mark of vernier coincides with a mark of the main scale (Figure 4.2 (b)) and hence the distance moved by the vemier scale is4 x least count = 4x0,1=0.4 mm. Therefore, the reading given by the vemier scale is 0.04 em. , d=(1.1+0,04)=1.14.em 20 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a °© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AM) Physics Resource Book - Unit O1 1 The length can be measured accurately up to 75, m= 0.01 em using this vemier scale Vernier calipers Depth measuring strip(Depth bar) \ 5 ins \ | Vernier scale re ! X-Serew nut to stop the sliding jaw’ /” ¥ Wheel to move the sliding jaw Fixed xtemal Jaws Figure 4.3 - Vernier calipers Figure 4.3 shows vernier calipers constructed usinga similar vemierscale. It consists of fixed jaw attached toa main scale calibrated in mm and a movable jaw attached to a venier scale ‘hich can slide along the main scale, Arod isalso attached to the vernier scale, External jaws can be used to measure external diameter of a cylinder, internal jaws can be used to measure intemal diameter ofa hollow cylinder and the rod can be used to measure the depth of a hole. By rotating the wheel, vemier scale with the movable jaws can be moved to and fro along the main scaleand by tightening the nut, vernier scale can be kept ina fixed position before taking a reading Vernier calipers mostly used in laboratories for experimental work, have a main seale calibrated inmm and the vernierscaleis marked by dividing the 9 mm range of the main scale into 10 equal parts. According to this the least count of the vernier calipers is 0.1 mm or 0.01 em. Zero error When the vernier scale of the vemier calipers is adjusted such that the jaws are in contact with the zero mark of the venierscale should coincide with the zero mark of the main scale, But in some vernier calipers of the above type, due to some reasons such as corrosion or wasted jaws, the zero mark of the vernier scale lies to the right side orto the left side of the main scale zero mark. Because of this there isan error in the instrument. ‘This erroris called the zero error of the vernier calipers. 2 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 2 2 a = @ < S = © i ° q Ss a ©© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GC. (AL Physics Resource Book Cnit 01 Pea or ; eee I pili Lit fan T TT TTTT \ t t t 1T bi 23.4567 8910 pi 2345678910 soni: Vernier scale @ ) Figure. Example 1 When the jaws of the vemier calipers are in contact, suppose that the 2"! mark of the vernier scale coincides with a mark of the main scale as shown in the Figure 4.4 (a). Then the reading indicated by the vernier scale is30.1 mm. Because of this, the zero error is denoted by +0.3 mm. When there is azero error, reading of the measurement obtained by the instrument is incorrect. The reading obtained from the vernier calipers indicated in the Figure 4.4(a) is more than the true value, To obtain the true value if the zero error is positive, zero correction is negative. That is, for the correction, zero error should be dedueted from the relevant reading. Example2 ‘The reading obtained fiom the vernier calipers indicated in the Figure 4.4 (b) is ess than the true value, Ifthe zero of the vernier is moved to the left side of the zero of the main scale, zero error isa negative number and for the correction, this value should be added to the relevant reading. Because of this, the zero correction isa positive number. Therefore, the magnitude of zero error ofthe vernier calipers indicated in Figure 4.4 (b) i 70.9 mm-6 x | mm= (63 -6)mm= 03 mn Whether the zero error is positive or negative is not an important issue. Now the concept of positive and negative is hardly in use. When the vernier scale is adjusted so that the jaws of the vernier calipers are in contact and ifthe zero mark of the vernier scale lies to the right side of the zero mark of the main scale, the zero error should be deducted from the relevant reading. Ifthe zero mark of the vernier scale lies to the left side of the zero mark of the main scale, the zero error should be added to the relevant reading. Vernier scales with least counts smaller than 0.1 mm is used to measure very small lengths. In the travelling microscope the main scale is divided upto 0.5 mm parts. Vernier scale is formed by dividing the range of 49 parts of the main divisions into 50 equal parts. Consider the way of calculating the least countof this vernier. Length of one division of the main scale =0.5 mm 05x49 Length of one division of the vernier scale = Least count of the vernier seal © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a °© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (A) Physics Resource Book - Unit O1 Travelling microscope A,.Ay ~ Screws forlevelling Microscope theplane of the pei travellingmicroscope horizontally (levelling screws) B ~ Screw to fix microscope vertically and horizontally C, = Screw forthe fine adjustmentof vertical slidingjaw C, = Screw forthe fine adjustment of the horizontal sliding jaw D - Screw for focusing the microscope E ~ Eyepiece Figure 4.5-Travelling microscope F = Objective G - Magnifying glass The travelling microscope is shown in Figure 4.5 and its main parts are named, It consists of a base with a main scale calibrated in 0.5 mm divisions and a vertical scale calibrated in 0.5 mm parts attached toa platform with a vernier scale which can move up and down along the vertical scale. A small microscope is attached to this platform and the microscope can be fixed in a horizontal or vertical position according to the needs. By moving the horizontal platform along the horizontal scale microscope can be moved horizontally and the horizontal distance moved can be obtained from the horizontal scale, By moving the vertical platform up and down along the vertical scale the microscope can be moved vertically and the vertical distance moved can be obtained from the vertical scale. ‘Tiny movements along the vertical scale can be done by the serew C, and tiny movements along horizontal scale can be done by the screw C,.. Before using the instrument the base should be levelled horizontally and that can be done by using the levelling screws A, and A, Miscroscope can be focused on the object of which a measurement has to be taken, by adjusting the serew D. Theleast count ofthe vertical scale of travelling microscope is 0.01 mm as mentioned above. Vernier division which coincides with a scale division cannot be read from the naked eye. Therefore, a magnifying glass is used. Travelling microscope is used to obtain measurements such as the length of'a mercury thread inserted ina capillary tube, horizontal and vertical diameters of a capillary tube base, real and apparent depth ofa mark when viewed through a glass block etc 23 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 2 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a °© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physics Resource Book - Unit OF Extended vernier scale 012345678 9 0 Figure4.6 Extended vernier scale is designed to obtain very small measurements and an easily readable vernier scale with gaps of calibration not so close to each other. Insuch verniers the number of vernier divisions is 20. The 20 divisions include 39 mm of the main scale. The least count of the vernier isthe difference between two divisions of the main scale and one division of the vernier scale, Consider the method of calculating the least count ofthis vernier. 39 Value ofone verierdivision = 55 mm =195mm Range of two divisions of the main scale =2.00 mm Least count = (2.00-1.95) mm =0.05 mm Circular vernier Figure4.7 Circular verniers are used in instruments such as spectrometer and theodolite. Figure 4.7 shows sucha circular sale calibrated in half'a degree divisions. The vernier scale has 30 divisions. 30, vernier divisions are included in 29 divisions or 14°30 'of the circular scale. Because of this 1 calibration, the verier can be read up to 5 th ofa degree that is one minute((I'). Consider how to obtain the reading indicated in the diagram. Zero of the vernier lies between 172°30" and 173° . Circularscale can read up to 5 or 30". Since 14 mark of the vernier coincides with a mark of the circular scale the correct reading is(172° 30°14’), that is 172° 44" 4 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a °© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (A/L) Physics Resource Book - Unit 01 Screw principle A measurement lke the thickness of'a paper cannot be measured by verier calipers which are in ‘common use. Asa result for experiments on these measurements screw instruments are produced. ‘Screw instruments consist of a fine thread screw which can pass through a nut. When the screw is rotated one revolution it moves to a distance equal to the gap between two consecutive threads. This is called as the pitch (screw gap) of the screw. Circumference of the screw head is divided into equal parts and the distance moved by the serew forward or backward can be obtained from a linear scale calibrated in 0.5 mm partsattached to thenut pitch Figure 4.8 Micrometer screw gauge Locking lever “Thimble ait) spite | Spe z Thimble head o Q Circularcale Main Seale Figure 49 rs Micrometer screw gauge is shown in the Figure 4.9 and its main parts are named, Anvil is attached to the end ofa frame which is connected to a nut.. The spindle is connected toa screw with fine threads passing through the nut, Main (linear) scale is calibrated on the sleeve attached tothe nut and the screw can move on the sleeve while rotating, The thimble head is connected to the screw. By rotating the thimble head, the thimble can be moved along the main scale. At the end ofthe thimble there isa circular scale. ‘The pitch of'amicrometer serew gauge is 0.5 mm and the circular seale is divided into 50 equal parts. By rotating one division of the cireular scale the distance moved by the screw is the least count. While rotating by holding from thimble head, when the spindle just touches the anvil or ‘when thespindle and anvil just touch an object kept between them, the thimble head freely rotate emitting a sound due to a mechanism inside it. This avoids unnecessary pressing on the measuring, object by spindle and anvil. Before taking the reading the spindle can be kept ina fixed position by the locking lever. Zero error 25 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a °© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE (AL) Phsies Resource Book - Unit OF 1 ‘s of > 5 0 “Lo ° 45| E45) 40] ©) ) () Figure 4.10 When itis rotated by holding from the thimble head so that the spindle just touches the anvil, the zero of the circular scale should coincide with the main scale line as shown in the Figure 4.10 (a). But in some screw gauges due to some reasons such as corrotion or waste of the spindle and anvil, when the thimble head is rotated so that the spindle just touches the anvil, the zero of the circular scale isin a position as indicated in the Figure 4.10 (b) and Figure 4.10 (c). Because of this, an error will occur . This error is called the zero error of the screw gauge According to Figure 4.10 (b) the reading of the circular scale starts from the 2 division, that is 0,02 mm, Therefore, the zero error is 0.02 mm and for the correction this value should be deducted from the relevant reading, According to Figure 4.10 (c) the zero ofthe circular scale coincides with the main scale line only when four divisions of the circular scale is rotated. That is, 0.04 mm is rotated. Therefore, the zero error is 0.04 mm, When taking the reading, since the values are counted from zero of the cireular scale, the above value isnot included in the reading obtained, Therefore, forthe correction, the zero error should be added to the relevant reading, Mierometer screw gauge is used to obtain measurements such as thickness ofa paper, diameter of a small bieyele ball bearing, diameter of a thin wire or thickness of a blade. Spherometer Main seale Circular scale Points serew (oflegs) Figure 4.11 26 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S Ss © 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < 2 3 i ° q S a °© 2020 National institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (A) Physies Resource Book Spheromefer is another Important measuring instrument which uses the screw principle. this is used to measure the thickness of a cover slip ora microscopic slide as well as to take measurements needed to calculate the radius of curvature of a spherical surface (convex and concave), itis called a spherometer, ince, Spherometer consists of three equal legs with their points situated atthe vertices of'an equilateral triangle and a screw with fine threads and a point passing through a nut situated at the centre of circle passing through the three legs. Main scale is attached vertically to one leg ofthe instrument and the circular scale is attached to the head of the screw. Since the main scale is centre zero scale, movement of the screw pointerabove or below the plane passing through the pointers of the legs can be read. ‘The main scale (vertical scale) of the spherometer which is mostly in use is calibrated in 0.5 mm parts and the circular scale is divided into 50 equal parts. Its pitch is 0.5 mm. Oneverier division = 0.01 mm Least count =0.01 mm When using the spherometer first we have to keep the points of the three legs to touch the supplied optically flat glass surface and rotate the screw head so that the screw point just touches the glass surface. In that instant the zero of the circular scale of instrument without defect, will lie along the main seal. Ifitis not, the circular scale indicates a non-reading reading, That readings the zero error. The correction can be positive or negative according to whether the initial reading of the spherometer is above or below the foot plane and also whether the reading is taken using a convex or concave surface. In finding the radius of curvature ofa spherical surface, ifthe distance in which the screw pointeris raised up (or moved down) from the foot plane is 4, the gap between the points of two legs of the spherometer is ‘a’ and the radius of curvature of the spherical surface is‘R’ then, Measuring h and a, R can be calculated using the above expression 7 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. 8 e o % o a # = oy ao © 2020 National Institute of Education.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL Physics Resource Book - Unit OL Measurement of time Time spent for a certain incident can be measured upto one second using a normal clock ora wrist watch, which cannot be used to measure a fraction of a second, For measurements such as the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum, or the time spent fora short distance running event, stop watch is used from which a fraction of a second can be measured. @ () A stop clock which is used to measure short time range is shown in the Figure 4.13 (a) Itean be started by pushing the leaver A downwards, and by pushing the leaver upwards itcan be stopped. By pushing the leaver B downwards the indicator can be brought to the initial zero position, An electron stop watch used to measure short time ranges is shown in Figure 4.13 (b). Itean be started by pressing the button C and can be stopped by pressing the same button again. By pressing the button D the indicator numbers can be brought back tothe initial zero value. Time can be measured upto 0.1 second using this stop watch, ‘When measuring time using instruments like this, the accuracy of the measurement depends on the reaction time of the person who operates the instrument. The reaction time of a person is the time range between the observation of some incident and responding to it Measurement of mass Zero stop end for siding weights samen Metal plate Sp Calibrated beams — yer indicator ‘ZeroTare adjustment kstob Metal base 500 g weight 1000 g weight Figure4.13(a) 28 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AA) Physics Resource Book - Unit OF S39 Figure 4.13 (b) A triple beam balance is shown in Figure 4.14 (a). Recently in laboratory work the triple beam balance is mostly used to measure masses. It consists of a pivoted system having a metal plate on one side and on the other sidea combination of three calibrated beams, Three beam are calibrated as (0-10) g, (0-500) g and (0-1000) g. There are small weights which can easily slide to and fro along the beams. From the pointers on the small weights we can read the corresponding position ofthe weights. Ifall the weights slide to the zero stop end, zero indicator atthe end of the beams comes to a horizontal position, Ifthere isa change, beams can be brought to a horizontal position byadjusting the zero adjustment knob, ‘When the beams of the balance are in horizontal positions the object to be weighed iskept on the ‘metal plate and the weights are moved on the beams to the right side so thatthe beams come to horizontal positions again. ‘The value of mass of the objectcan be obtained from the values corresponding to the pointers of the weights on the beams, The minimum mass that can be measured from the tiple beam balance is0.1 g. The value of the maximum mass that can be measured, can be inereased by hanging the extra weights 100 g, 500 g and 1000 g form the relevant points. Very small masses can be ‘measured using electronic balance as shown in Figure. 14 (b). Thisis like a compression balance. When we keep an object to be weighed on the plate there isa digital electronic circuit inside it, which indicates the value of the mass numerically on the indicator screen according tothe thrust exerted by the object on the plate. Using this instrument we can measure masses up to one milligam. 29 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a ©© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physics Resource Book - Unit OL Scalar quantities and vector quantities Physical quantities can be divided into two categories, namely vector quantities and scalar quantities. Scalar quantities A scalar quantity is completely specified by its magnitude. eg. Mass, time, distance, pressure, energy, density, speed, area, volume, work, power Vector quantities They have both magnitude and direction and obey the law of vector addition. eg, Displacement, acceleration, impulse, moment, momentum, magnetic flux density, velocity, force, electric field intensity, gravitational field intensity, weight, Scalar quantities can be added mathematically (algebraically), but for vectoraddition, the direction must also be considered. A vector can be represented by a line segment geometrically, The length of te line is proportional to the magnitude of the vector and the direction of the arrow head shows the direction of the vector (Figure 5.1). Magnitude of a vector = [4B|=4B Vector AB= a Equal vectors a a @ I AB=CD (Figures.2). ABIICD Figure .1 the direction of 4 to Bis same as the direction of CtoD. Then AB=CD — =a Note: If 4B=CD (Figure 5.3) ot ABCD ec ‘And the direction of A to Bis opposite to that of C to D. Biome 22: ‘Then AB =-CD at _ kt D Figures.3. 30 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 2 2 a = @ < S = © i ° q Ss a ©© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. ) Physics Resource Book - Unit OF Addition of two parallel vectors When adding two parallel vectors magnitude of the resultant will be the sum of magnitudes of the two vectors. Direction of the resultant will be the same direction as those of the two vectors, e.g. If the addition of veetor Sand 3 is R (Figure 5.4) R=54+3=8 5 B Vector triangle method D Iftwo vectors are represented in magnitude and cr direction by the two sides of a triangle taken in . eae order, then the third side taken against the order will represent the sum of the two vectors in ‘magnitudeand direction (Figure 5.5). Parallelogram law of vectors Iftwo vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by two adjacent sides ofa parallelogram, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that point at which the two adjacent sides meet (Figure 5.6). Resolution of a vector Figure 5.6 Ifthe side AB of a parallelogram ABCD represents the vector aand the side AD represents the vectors then the diagonal AC will represent the resultant of the two vectors denote by ¢ ais the resolved part of calong AB and b is the resolved part ofc along AD. Unlimited parallelograms can be drawn by taking.a particular sideasa diagonal. Therefore , the number of resolved parts (pairs) obtainable along two prependicular directions, ofa particular vector, are infinite 31 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a °© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physies Resource Book- Unit OL Resolution of a vector into two perpendicular components Consider vector inclined at an angle @ to the horizontal (Figure 5.7). Ie Figure $7 Its components, in the horizontal and vertical directions, which are perpendicular to each other are (Figure 5.8); Rsind Reosd Figure 58 32 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AM) Physics Resource Book Unit 2 Mechanics 33 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE (AL) Physics, Resource Book - Unit 02 Kinematics “How fast” a body moves at a certain instance is described as the velocity of the body at that instance, time Zo Definition of velocity $ Velocity is the rate of change of displacement of a body in a certain direction, 5 ‘Usual symbols used to express velocity is vand u. 3 bythe definition e velociny = nse of displacement = 2 ‘© Velocity isa vector quantity and thus has an associated direction, # Slunitofvelocity isms’, Relative motion Example 1 Suppose two motor cars travel along the same direction one followed by the other, with speeds ‘of 100 km hi. A policeman standing on the side of the road detects their speeds as 100 km Ir' by the speed gun. But to one driver, the other seems to be stationary. This shows thatthe velocity ofan object depends on the “reference frame” of whoever is observing ‘ormeasuring the velocity. In everyday life this reference frame is considered the ground, For example the police officer detected the speeds of the motor cars as he was a rest. But he ‘would detect the speed incorrectly if he was moving while detecting the speed. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 2 2 a = @ < S = © i ° q Ss a © Example 2 ‘A passenger inside a moving vehicle observes that atree on the ground moves witha velocity in opposite direction to his velocity with an equal magnitude. Even though the tree is actually at rest relative tothe frame of reference of the ground, ithasa velocity relative tothe frame of reference of the moving vehicle. ‘The actual velocity of an object that is its velocity relative to the Earth can be indicated by, v,. Likewise, the velocity of the object A relative to the frame of reference of the object B can be indicated as, v,, 34 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE (AL) Physics, Resource Book it-02 The relationship between the velocities relativeto different frames of reference can be obtained ‘as shown by the following example. ‘Take Aand Bas two bodies moving with uniform velocities v, and v, respectively, relative to the Earth heading in the same direction along the same path. If they simultaneously pass the same point X with the uniform velocities v, and v, (if v,> Vj), | Rights Reserved. Velocity of A, ¥ Velocity of B, Ys = That is, relative to B (or as seen by B) during a time ‘r’, Ahas displaced by an amount As , As =(5.-5,) e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a ° Yan = Yarn (As the velocities of A and B relative to the Earth has been concerned, v,=v,, and ¥,=¥%,,) 35 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE (AML) Physics Resource Book Since by properties of vectors, Var =Vep Hence the relationship can be written as, Van = Yar + Yew This shows that the velocity of one body relative to another can be expressed with their respective velocities relative to a third frame of reference. Worked examples 1. Amotor boat (B) speeds ata velocity of 60 kmh" towards North. A steady wind (W) blows from the North ata velocity of40 km h’'. Find the velocity of the wind felt by a | Rights Reserved. passenger in the boat. Answer: ,, =60T wherethen v,, = 601 (E represents the Earth) 40L =, we Ven = 40) +60) =(40+60)) = 100km 2 Amotorcycle (M) travels ata velocity of 100 km h”' alonga straight road. As it passes apolice car(C), the car begins to chase it at a speed of 110 km h', Find the velocity of the motor cyclerelative to a policeman in the car. Answer: yy. = 100 kmh! 110 kmh" and y,¢=i10 km h" e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a ° Yan + Yee kmh" -2ats Yue = 100 + 110 ee -ioo * 110 < 10 kmh* 36 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE (AL) Physics, Resource Book - Unit 02 3. Atrain (1) of length 150 m travels in a straight track at a constant speed of 70 km h A ‘motor car (M) travels alonga straight road close and parallel to the rail track, at a constant speed of 85 kml" inthe same direction as the train. Find the time taken by the motorist to pass the train. Answer: Yee =70 and ven = 70 Vace = 85 kmh"! Tar oo Ser Yur =85 +70 =85-70 Vyq = kmh" AAs, velocity = #sblaeement time 15 km b!=!50%10" km t t= 10°h 1 = 10? x 3600s 36s Applications 1, Itis observed that the sun moves around the Earth every day. But in the actual motion itis the Earth that moves (spins) about its axis. 2. When raining, the rain drops fall vertically downwards due to gravity, in still air. Buta person inside a moving train will observe the rain fall at an angle. Rectilinear motion under constant acceleration Graphs of motion Properties such as displacement, velocity or acceleration can be used to describe a rectilinear motion of'a body. where, A displeement velocity = A time _ _ A velocity acceleration = > A time 37 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a °© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE (AL) Physics, Resource Book - Unit -02 Displacement- time graph When the displacement ofa body moving inacertain direction is plotted against time,the displacement (3)-time (2) graphs can be obtained. s, Ifthe graph of displacement (s) - time () is astraight line, 5, gradient = tand gradient = 2 (0.0) Figure 12 As radient = 9° 2 ar [gradient = velocity of the body| This shows that ifthe graph of displacement vs. time (f) isa straight line, then the described motion is “uniform velocity”. Shown below are the successive positions of a vertically projected ball, when photographed during its motion under gravity, in equal periods of time. 8 O oO ° “The shots are captured within equal time intervals and thus its clear that when moving upwards its displacement decreases and when moving downwords displacement increases. na Hence ifits displacement i plotted against time, the graph will beas shown in Figure 1.4 O O00O Figure 13 38 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a °© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physics Resource Book -Unit 02 09) Figure 14 t * Itisclearthat the ball does not travel with a uniform velocity and hence the graph is non-linear. | Rights Reserved. ‘© When considering the two points X and Y on the graph, the velocity of the ball at these ‘ovo instances will be given by the gradients of the tangents drawn to the graph at the point X and Y. where, a dient), = = (velocity (Gradient), = 27= (velocity ), ‘Ay (gradient), = “= (velocity ) , At Since, (gradient), > (gradient), (velocity), > (velocity) , That is, the ball has travelled with a decreasing velocity, or with a “deceleration” vertically up wards. Atthemaximum height atthe point Z, (gradient) = 9 e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a ° Therefore, then the body has attained a zero velocity in the vertical direction. 39 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physies Resource Book - Unit 02 Similarly, if motion is represented as follows, Ax y= AL ye a itis clear that, y [yeuradl By the area= displacement (s) 2 Hence by the above two equations. Figure 1.19 (een) Tal ga [OS |s=ur+ Lar 2 2 v? =u? + 2as) 45 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a °© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AML) Physics Resource Book Motion under gravity ‘The motion under the action of gravitational force, with negligible resistances, such as air resistance, is called motion under gravity. Example-1 A fiuit falling from atree YF= ma mg=mxa a= gms" g- gravitational acceleration g=10ms* near the surface of the Earth | Rights Reserved. Example- 2 Ifaman skiing, on ice (of negligible friction) slides down along an inclined bank, ¢ F=ma a duane ara 8 " 3 a= gsind a Hence when the inclination (@) increases, his acceleration 6 0 oe 8 increases, s @ =i = a z 3 g sll ” ° Projectile motion = ‘You may have seen cricketers batting to cam 6 marks on the score. The ball fiesalongacurved path, Such a motion of an object is called a projectile motion. Have you thought about the © Science behind the motion of the ball? How far the ball goes depends on several factors. They N Pa © 1, ‘The magnitude of initial velocity given to the object 2. Angle of projection (inclination of the direction of initial velocity tothe horizontal direction) Coaches consider these factors when guiding a batsman to hit the ball to geta sixer. Projectile motion is a combination of horizontal and vertical motion. So we can study this by considering theeffeet on horizontal and vertical components, Consider a case when a batsman strikes a ball projecting it at an angle (@) to the horizontal. 46 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE (AL) Physics, Resource Book - Unit 02 using Figure 1.10 me ‘Considering the effect on the vertical component, Vertical component ofinitial velocity $ u sin O | Rights Reserved. acceleration = +g 4 Tv=utat vy, =usind- g xt ucos6 Since horizontally, Acceleration =0. veutat y=nc0s0 Horizontal component remains constant. In determining the velocity of the ball ata given time using veetor addition, itis clear that its trajectory isa parabola, e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a ° Worked Examples 1. Abusstoppedata bus halt takes off obtaining a velocity of 72 km hr during 10s. Then it travels with this obtained velocity for 10 sand comes to rest at another halt during another 5. Ifall accelerations and decelerations are uniform, determine the acceleration, deceleration, total distance between the two bus halts and the average velocity ofthe bus 47 © 2020 National institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AML) Physics: Resource Book Answer: Tr km bh = 72x79 3600 Ifacceleration is ‘a? Displacement during acceleration veutat zg 2 ® ©.20=0+4a,x10 g at ir a=2ms a oc oy Displacement during uniform velocity z . (@ ~) z s=(4*); 2 5&5 (20420 ) 19 -200m 2 Decceleration Displacement during decceleration wv), veutat ce 0=20-a, x5 x0 +0 mE 4ms? zl )5=50m Total displacement = 100 + 200+ 50= 350m. distance between the two bus halts= 350m Total Displacment Average velocity = —“—'SPitement e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a ° Total time (0+10+5) 25 2. Achild dropsa tennis ball from the window of a high-rise building. Itreaches the ground with a speed of 25 m s* The ball rebounds upwards with a speed of 16 ms. Ifair resistance is negligible and ball moves under gravity determine, (1) The height tothe child from the ground (2) The height the ball reaches after the rebounce 48 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE.) Physics Resource Book 02 (3) The total time of flight ofthe ball between the first and the second collisions with the ground, Answers : (1) From the release, until it hits ground, dv? = uw? + 2as O+2xgxh 25 = 31.25 m 20 (2) After rebounce until it reaches the maximum height (Jt. ) Tv =u? +2as =16°+2xgxh = 255 = 20 (3) Between the 1* and 2! collisions, 12.8m ts =u + dae Z Ley 0=16 x +(e) testa =G2-gyr Oor (32-g¢) = 0 but, ¢40..t=32s 3. Aman skiing on ice slides down alonga banked cliff of angle of inclination 30 to the horizontal. Ifthe surface has negligible friction determine, (1) The time taken and distance he travels when his speed increases from 5 m s"' to 10ms* (2) The distance he will travel thereafter, during an equal period of time which you have got as an answer in (1) above. Answers: () a= gsin30=5ms* v=utat 10=5+ Sr s 49 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S BS © s a 3 wi 6 £ 2 a = a ec i 3 Zz ° q 3° a °© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE (AL) Physics, Resource Book - Unit -02 Dass Sut + +> e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a ° Figure 26 2. Uniformring G-Centre of ring PP Figure 27 3. Uniform circular dise G-Centre of dise Figure 2.8 34 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE (AM) Physies Resource Book - Unit 2 4, Uniform rectangular shaped laminar _G - centre (or point of intersection of diagonals) Figure 2.9 5. Uniform solid /hollow cylinder G-Mid point along the axis Figure2.10 6. Uniform triangular shaped laminar G- Centroid (point of intersection of medians) A 2 AG= 5 AD B c Figure211 7. Uniform hollow cone G- Centroide of cone (along axis) Figure2.12 8. Uniform solid cone G-Centre of cone (along axis) Figure2.13, 35 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a °© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AA) Physics: Resource Book 9. Uniform hollow, solid sphere G-Centre of sphere Figure2.14 Centre of gravity of regular shaped compound bodies Worked examples - 1. Uniform ring and rods fixed to form a cart wheel. Determine centre of gravity. Answer—Centre of gravity at X % Figure2.15 | Rights Reserved. 2, ABCD isaunifomm rectangular shaped laminarand BCE isa uniform tiangular shaped laminar made of samemetal and of uniform thickness. Determine the centre of gravity of the composite laminar formed by connecting them as shown inthe diagram. 16cm e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a ° mg+mg Figure2.16 56 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE (AM) Physics, Resource Book - Unit -02 Answer: G, —Centtre of gravity of rectangle (of weight mg) G, Centre f gravity of triangle (of weight m,g) G— Centre of gravity of compounded object (of weight m,g + m,g) By taking clockwise moments, ‘Net moment ofall forces = moment of resultant force oy mg x (GG,)~ mg (G,G)= (mg +m.g)x0 (Jet6s6+p8 2-21-20 16)+pgx(x)=0 Centre of mass Centre of mass of a body is defined as the point at which an applied force produces linear ‘acceleration but no angular acceleration. 37 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AML) Physics Resource Book Unit 02 os Force and motion ‘The exact link between force and motion is not easy to find in everyday life. It isnot that force is needed to maintain motion, Push a heavy box across a rough floor with a uniform velocity and you may mistakenly conclude that motion needs force. In fact the “hidden force of friction confuses the link, ‘The general link between force and motion is that unbalanced (resultant) force is required to change motion. In other words, to change the velocity of an object, the object must be acted on byan unbalanced force. If there is no unbalanced resultant force on an object, its velocity must stay the same. If there is an unbalanced force on an object, its velocity must change. Inertia ‘Try the following activity. post eard. Figure 3.1 Acoinis placed on a post card, Pull the card away quickly. Coin will not move away with the card, Coin will drop into the glass. What prevented it from moving with the card? Itis the mass of the coin, Since the coin has more mass than the postcard, itresists moving with the card. This resistance to change the state of motion is called inertia, The more mass something has the more inertia it has. Inertial mass Mass isa measure of inertia, Inertial mass indicates the opposition ofa body to change of motion when responding to all types of forces. Gravitational mass Gravitational mass is determined by the strength of the gravitational force experienced by a body ‘when itis ina gravitational field. Experiments show that toa high degree of accuracy these two masses are equal fora given body. © 2020 National institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 2 2 a = @ < S = © i ° q Ss a ©© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AML) Physics Resource Book Unit 02 Frame of reference Motion of body is always described with reference to some well defined co-ordinate system. This co-ordinate system is referred to as “frame of reference’. In three dimensional space a frame of reference consists of three mutually perpendicular lines called “axes of frame of reference” meeting ata single point called origin, Inertial frames A fiame of reference that remains at rest or moves with constant velocity with respeet to other frames of reference is called “Inertial Frame of Reference’. An inertial frame of reference is, actually an unaceelerated frame of reference. Newton’s laws of motion are valid in all inertial frames of reference. According to Newton’s first law when a body or system of bodies is not accelerating, a resultant force is not acted upon it, Since the inertial frames are not accelerating, no external force is acted upon from outside the frame. So in this frame of reference, since the system is not accelerating the body is not acted upon by external forces. Eg. ‘© Our earth (Although the Earth is not exactly inertial, we assume it to be inertial ) ‘© A space shuttle moving with constant velocity relative to the earth. ‘* Arocket moving with constant velocity relative tothe earth. Non-Inertial frames A frame of reference is said to be a non-inertial frame of reference when it is moving non- uniformly (accelerating) relative to an inertial frame. In non-inertial frame of reference, Newton’s Jaws of motion are not valid. Newton’s first law of motion ‘This law explains the exact link between force and motion. Newton's first law of motion Every object continues to be at rest or move with uniform velocity unless acted upon by a resultant force. Momentum ‘When amass ismoving its momentum is given by, momentum = mass ~ velocity p=my| isthe same as The unit of momentum iskg m s~*, Momentum is a vector quantity. Its direc the direction of velocity. © 2020 National institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physics Resource Book - Unit 02 Eg Ifa model car has a masss of 2kg and a velocity of 2m s momentum = mass x velocity =2kgx2ms" =4kgms" Newton's second law of motion Newton’s first law states that a resultant force can change the state of motion of an object. Newton’s second law states about this resultant force. Newtown’s second law ‘The rate of change of moments of an object is proportional to the unbalanced (resultant) force which aets on the object. The direction of the unbalanced (resultant) force isthe same as the direction of the momentum change. Consider an object of fixed mass m acted upon by a constant resultant fore F. Suppose the object is accelerated from velocity w to velocity vin time ¢ Change of momentum = final momentum-initial momentum = my - mu my-mu 1 From Newton's second law, the resultant force F'is proportional to the change of momentum per Change of momentum per second = second, my—mu but the object’s acceleration change of velocity _ (vu) time taken t -. Above relationship can be denoted as, F=kma The value of kis set at | by defining the unit of force. © 2020 National institute of Sucation. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physics Resource Book - Unit 02 Defining the unit of force - newton (N) A force of I newton (N), is the force which would givea I kg mass an acceleration of I ms” accordingly, 1=Ax1x1 F = mal F - Resultant force in newtons m-mass ink, acceleration inm Impulse and impulsive force A large force accting in a very small period of time isan impulsive force. Ex:-i, Shot on a nail byahammer ii, Stroke on a ball by a bat, [impulse = Impulsive foree x Time of action of the force] The unit ofimpulse is Ns. I=Fxt (Ns) =maxt v-u =m|—|xr t =mv-mu ‘The quantity on the left-hand side is called the impulse, the product of force and time, and is measured in N s. The quantity on the right-hand side is the change of momentum produced by this impulse Impulse = Change in momentum! Large force acting for a short time may cause the same change of momentum as small force acting fora long time. You use this every time you jump off something and bend your knees on landing, If you were to land rigidly, your momentum would fall to zero ina very short time. The large rate of change of momentum would exert large forces on your body and probably cause injuries. Bending your knees allows the same change of momentum to occur overa longer time and so reduces the force on your body. A similar principle applies in the use of air bags to make cars safer. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S a a 3 wi 6 £ 2 a = a ec i 3 Zz ° q 3° a °© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AML) Physics Resource Book Unit 02 Principle of conservation of linear momentum According to Newton’s second law resultant force is proportional to the rate of change of momentum, So if the resultant force acted upon is zero, it implies that momentum does not change mv—mu t If F =0 then Fa my—mu=0 my =mu Now considera system of objects interacting with each other. Ifno external resultant foree acts on this system of objects, the total momentum does not change, However, within the system, the interactions between the objects cause transfer of momentum between them. But the total momentum stays constant. Principle of conservation of linear momentum Fora system of interacting objects, the momentum remains constant, provided no external force acts on the system. Consider collision of two balls of masses m, and m, . The velocities of balls before collision are u,and u,, while the velocities of balls after collision are v, and v3 —> beforecollision 4 A uy Figure 3.2 According o principle of conservation of linear momentum, ‘momentum of the system before collision= momentum of the system after collision ms, mu, = —my, + mV © 2020 National institute of &Gucation. All Rights Reserved. © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AM) Physics Resource Book - Unit 02 Newton’s third law of motion ‘When you push on awall, did you fall through the wall? You may say no. What prevented you from going through the wall? The wall pushes back on you with an equal and opposite force. If the wall suddenly gives way, the push back on you is removed allowing you to fal towards the wall. |Newton’s third law of motion ‘When the objects interact (collide), they exert equal and oppsite forces on one another. Applications of Newton's laws Worked examples: 1, An object of mass 20 kg is to be accelerated at 3 m s-2. What force is required? By Newton’s second law, | Rights Reserved. F=ma=20x3=60N 2. Acar of mass 1500 kg, travelling at 80 km h" is to be stopped in 11 s. What force is required? By Newton’s second law, F =ma=1500 x (-2)=-3000N -, A force of 3000 N oppsite to the direction of velocity should be applied to stop the car. e S BS © s a 3 wi 6 £ 2 a = a ec i 3 Zz ° q 3° a ° 3. Abox ofmass 5 kgis pulled alongahorizontal floorbya foree Pof SON, appliedatan angle of 60° to the horizontal plane. A frictional force F' of 20 N acts parallel to the floor. Calculate the acceleration of the box. © 2020 National Institute of EGucation. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physies Resource Book -Unit-02 ° <—F=ma R Pcos 60° ~ F’ = ma d 1 50x5-20=5x 5 a a=1 ms” ‘a TTT z w 4.‘ Twomasses of mass 6 kg and 4 kg are kept in contact ona smooth horizontal floor. The 6 kg mass is pushed with a horizontal force of 10 N. Find the acceleration of the system and the reaction force between the two masses. +F=ma —— tothewhole system R, ak 10N, R. [Ake at ¥ W Ww Above diagram shows the firee body force diagram for the above system > F =mato6kg mass 10-R=6x1 R=4N © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 2 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a ©© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physics Resource Book - Unit -02 5. _Astringis put overa smooth pulley and two masses of 4 kg and 6 kg are attached at the ‘ends of the string. Ifthe masses are released from rest, find the initial acceleration of the masses and the tension ofthe string (g = 10ms*) If is the tension of the strings and ‘a’ is the initial acceleration, tF=ma to6ke, 68 TH 60 ooo) to4kg, > T-4g=4a secanneee(@) equation (1) + equation (2) 2g =10a a=02g=2m r i From equation (2) {es [tks t a a T=4x02xg +4xg =4.8¢ =48N | Rights Reserved. 6g 4g Self adjusting forces Tension Consider piece of rope which is stretched along. What force prevents it from breaking? It isa force called tension, If this force is always acting in the rope, it has to be shrinked, Butit does not happen. So this force appears only when its stretched. When you pull the rope this foree adjusts itself to prevent the breakage of the rope. When you increase the pulling force the tension force also will be increased. Since this tension force adjusts itself it is called as a “self-adjusting force”. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a ° ‘Tension, thrust or compression and friction are self-adjusting forces. ‘Thrust or compression This acts in a way of opposite to the tension. For example when you push a small piece of wood by both your hands a force of compression appears to prevent it from breaking. © 2020 National Institute of EClucation. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physics Resource Book - Unit 02 This force is changing itself to balance the external force given by hands. So itis also a self adjusting force. Fg: | Rights Reserved. Thrust forceacts along the support to prevent the fiee from falling Figure3.5 Frictional force Friction is the force that tres to stop materials sliding across each other, Frictional force prevents or opposes relative motion. Microscopically all surfaces are rough. When such two surfaces placed in contaet there will be regions where the irregularities interlock , and points where high pressure may result in temporary bonds. Any attempt to slide the surfaces over one another will require a certain amount of work to be done, lifting and deforming the surface, This will require a force as the surface moves. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a ° In some circumstances friction is unwanted because it wastes energy. However at some circumstances friction is useful. For example, braking a car are applied, friction between the wheels and the road surface is essential if the car is to be slowed down Static friction ‘Sometimes the force applied is not large enough to overcome the friction. So, no movement takes place, though a force is applied. The friction acting in ths situation is called static friction, © 2020 National Institute of Eucation. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physics Resource Book - Unit 02 So static friction acts between surfaces at rest when a force is applied to make them slide past one another. Think of sliding aheavy case across a horizontal floor. Ifyou push it gently it doesn’t move. Push ita bit harder and it still doesn’t move. In both cases the static frictional force has balanced the applied force. Static friction adjusts itself to equalize the applied force until the object starts to move. Limiting frictional force However, with enough force applied, the force of friction can be overcome and then movement takes place. The frictional force acting when the surfaces just begin to slip past one another is called the limiting frictional force. Consider case in which a man tries to push a heavy box on a rough horizontal surface. | Rights Reserved. = Figure 3.6 If we plot the frictional force against the applied force, the shape of the graph will be as shown in Figure 3.7. Friction Force Dynamic Static, ra e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 2 2 a = @ < S = © i ° q S a © Applied force Figure 3.7 Point ‘A’ indicates the instant at which the box just begins to slip over the surface. So, the friction atthat instant is the limiting frictional force. After point ‘A’ the box moves over the surface and the frictional force remains constant. The friction acting when the box is movingiis called dynamic friction, © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physics Resource Book Unit 02 Although the frictional force between real surfaces will vary from one place to thenextas the local surface changes, itis possible to describe sliding friction by a fairly simple rule. This rule links the normal force between the two surfaces(that is how hard they are pressed together) to the frictional force acting on them when they just begin to slip past one another( the limiting fiction) limiting friction between surfaces 2 normal contact force between surfaces FoR Four 11 is called the coefficient of static friction and is roughly constant fora particular pair of surfaces, Dynamic (or kinetic) friction ‘The frictionacting between two surfaces as they slide over one another s called dynamic fiietion. Atthe instant the surfaces just begin to slide the above relationship = ui is valid and there the dynamie friction is equal to the limiting frictional foree. The dynamic friction acting on an object is also proportional to the normal contact force between surfaces. I the dynamic friction is F and normal contact force is R, F,aR B= HR 1H, is called the coetficient of dynamic friction According to the graph in Figure 3.7, F>F, MP My So, the coefficient of dynamic friction is always less than the coefficient of limiting friction, Worked example i) Amanistrying to push a packing case of weight 300 N across a horizontal floor. What is the minimum horizontal force required to slide it, ifthe coefficient of limiting frietion between the ease and the floor is 0.3? ‘Toslide the case the applied force must just equal the limiting friction F = uR=0.3x300=90N (ii) Finally the man was able to push the packing case over the floor. When he started pushing, he felt that the packing case is easily moving with less effort, He only needed 87N force to maintain a constant velocity. Calculate the coefficient of dynamic friction, © 2020 National Institute of ucation. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a °© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AL) Physics Resource Book - Unit -02 Since the man is maintaining a constant speed, the pushing forve given by the man is equal tothe dynamic frictional force. Let Fbe the force applied by the man and F, be the dynamic frictional force. > F=ma F-F,=0 Ce — F=sE, é Fy = MR 87=4,%300 87 29 300 | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 2 2 a = @ < S = © i ° q S a © © 2020 National Institute of EGucation. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (A) Physics Resource Book -Unit-02 Coro Equilibrium of Forces ‘The bridge in the Figure. isbuilt not tobe collapsed under large amounts of loads. This is done by designing each part of the bridge to be under equilibrium with heavy loads. So equilibrium acts aan important role when building stable structures. Conditions for Equilibrium Fic ei TS Figure 4.1 As itis known, equilibrium is the state in whicha body is atrest without any translatory motion or rotation when itis acted upon by a system of forces. For this to happen, itis clear that the main condition for equilibrium ofa system of forces is that when subjected to composition the system should not reduce toa single force or resultant (to prevent motion) and also to a couple of forces or torque (toprevent rotation). Considering this main condition, the necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium, depending on the number of forces in the system, can be stated as follows. 1. Conditions for the equilibrium of two forces. 1____2 e pF Figure 42 1. Thetwo forces should be collinear 2. The two forces should be equal in magnitude. 3. Thetwo forces should act in opposite directions © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 5 3 Ww o 2 2 a = @ = S 2 c ra S q S aq ©© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AML) Physics Resource Book Unit 02 2, Conditions for the equilibrium of three forces Q iP Ne Figure 43 1, ‘The three forces should be coplanar. 2. Their lines ofaction should meet ata point. 3. The three forces should be able to be represented by three sides ofa triangle taken in order (this triangle is known as the triangle of forces). | Rights Reserved. orelse § P R 2 g 8 = 3 uw 6 £ 2 z 0 £ OR g 3 Figure 5 3 1, Thethree forces should be parallel and coplanar, S 2. Thealgebraic sum of the three forces in their direction should be zero. g 3. Thealgebraic sum of the moments of the three forces about any point in their plane & should be zero, © Conditions for the equilibrium of any number of coplanar forces 1. Thealgebraic sum of the components ofall the forces in any direction should be zero 2. The algebraic sum of the components of ll the forees ina direction perpendicular to the above mentioned direction should also be zero. 3. Thealgebraic sum of the moments of al the forces about any point in their plane should be zero. © 2020 National institute of Education. All Rights Reserved.© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AM) Physics Resource Book Note Justas three forces in equilibrium can be represented by a triangle of forces, a langer number of coplanar forces in equilibrium can be represented by a polygon of forces. Noes Ts Figure 4.5 States of equilibrium ‘There could be many ways in which a body can be placed in equilibrium. These are called states of equilibrium of which one would be safe, another moderately safe and yet another unsafe. The three main states of equilibrium are known as 1. Stable equilibrium 2. Unstable equilibrium 3. Neutral equilibrium Eg: Hs Figure 4.6 © 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a °© 2020 National Institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. GCE. (AM) Physics Resource Book - Unit Consider an empty bottle which is placed in three states as follows. 1. Stable equilibrium Ifa body which i in equilibrium, when displaced slightly from its equilibrium position and released, retums to its original equilibrium position, then the body isin stable equilibrium. 2. Unstable equilibrium Ifthe body which slightly displaced as above and released does not return to its original equilibrium position, then the body isin unstable equilibrium. 3. Neutral equilibrium Ifthe body in equilibrium when displaced slightly as above and released remains to be in its new equilibrium position, then the body is in neutral equilibrium, From the above three states of equilibrium it can beseen that the unstable equilibrium position is the most unsafe position. Itcanalso be seen that lower the position of the centre of gravity of a body the more stable or safe the body is, However the main factor of stability of'a body is the potential energy possessed by the body. Lesser the potential energy (mgh) of a body, more stable the body is and as the potential energy increases the body becomes more unstable. Worked example A body of mass 500 g is hung {roma fixed point by means of an inextensible, light string and is, then pulled aside by a horizontal force F until the string is inclined at 60° to the horizontal. Find the value of Using the triangle of forces 0.5g (N) © 2020 National institute of Education. All Rights Reserved. | Rights Reserved. e S 8 zi 3 uw 6 £ 2 a = a < S = © i ° q S a °