Naturally, humans have a strong sense of inquiry.

Because of that, Philosophy came to exist as a

field of study.
»We inquire and investigate all the phenomena of human experience

»We never cease to ask questions.

PHILOSOPHY – comes from two Greek words: Philos (meaning: love) and Sophia (meaning:
knowledge)
PYTHAGORAS of Samos - The first to use the term PHILOSOPHER.
FOR PHILOSOPHERS:
► They aim to be wise in all aspect of human discipline.
►They inquire and investigate all forms of human phenomena.
►They seek answers to the question of the world not because they are forced to do so, but
because they are passionate in their quest for wisdom.
3 Philosophers:
◽Aristotle ◽Pythagoras ◽Socrates
The reason why Philosophers are known to be entities or beings of wisdom:
► For their teachings helped shed light to the many questions of humankind.
►Their wisdom stood the test of time and were even immortalized

OVER THE YEARS, PHILOSOPHY WENT BEYOND TO ITS ETYMOLOGICAL

DEFINITION:
►It desires to understand the mysteries of reality.
►It prefers to unveil the nature of truth
►It thirsts to examine the significance of life.
►It encompasses the examination of the relationships between a person and his environment
and the society.
►It became the story of people who never cease to wonder, inquire and investigate about
everything and anything under the sun.
One cannot divorce himself/herself from philosophy
The moment that someone starts asking about; Their environment, Themselves, and Society. They are
philosophizing.
It is in the nature of philosophy that a person inquires about the meaning of himself/herself and the world
around him/her.
3 GENERAL STATEMENTS ABOUT PHILOSOPHY
1. PHILOSOPHY INTEGRATES - Philosophy integrates itself with other disciplines to achieve a
comprehensive and coherent world view.
2. PHILOSOPHY ANALYZES - Philosophy analyzes the very foundations of other truth. Philosophy explores
and examines all the bases or roots of each discipline such as science, art and religion.
3. PHILOSOPHY CRITICIZES - Philosophy criticizes treasured beliefs and traditions. Philosophy
weeds out insignificant traces of inconsistency, superstition, and irrationality.

◽METAPHYSICS ◽EPISTEMOLOGY ◽ETHICS

◽AESTHETICS
Metaphysics – comes from the Greek word: metaphysika (meaning: beyond physics)
- the branch of philosophy that deals with the true nature of reality - It focuses on the study
of existence. - considered as the science of ultimate reality as it
seeks to present what is absolutely real in contrast to what is perceived by the naked eyes.
ACCORDING TO RENE DESCARTES, GOTTFRIED WILHEM LEIBNIZ, BARUCH
SPINOZA:
General Metaphysics – study of being, also known as ONTOLOGY (the study of how to
be)
Special Metaphysics – focuses on freedom of the will, immortality, and mind-body problem
Special Metaphysics is divided into 3 areas:
◽COSMOLOGY ◽RATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY ◽NATURAL THEOLOGY
Epistemology- comes from the Greek words episteme (meaning: knowledge) and logos (meaning: to
study)
- It investigates the acquisition of knowledge
- It deals with the process by which people are led to know that something is true.
- This philosophy deals with the study of the nature and scope of knowledge and justified beliefs.
2 domains of epistemology
◽Rationalism ◽Empiricism
Rationalism (By Rene Descartes)
- “Corgito, ergo sum.” MEANING “I think therefore I am.”
- He contended that a person was born with innate “a priori” or theoretical knowledge and could deduce truths
through mental reasoning.
- Descartes stated that reason alone could validate knowledge and that Human mind could operate alone.
Empiricism (By John Locke) – this philosophy asserts that all of a person’s knowledge comes from
his/her 5 senses.
John Locke conceived the concept of mind being a tabula rasa (blank sheet) upon which one could write and
store his/her ideas based on experiences and learn out those experiences.
- He argued that it was only through experience that one could derive knowledge.
2 forms of experience where a person could acquire knowledge:
◽Sensation ◽Reflection
Ethics – comes from the Greek word: Ethos(meaning: custom or habit)
- Is also called Moral Philosophy
- It is a discipline which aims to synthesize the concepts or right and wrong behavior.
3 domains of ethics:
Metaethics- it deals with: ►the origin and meaning of ethical concepts. ►issues on the universally
accepted truths. ►People’s justification of their own judgement.
Normative ethics: is concerned with setting of certain standards of what is morally wight and morally
wrong
Applied Ethics – it attempts to apply theories/principles to situations in real life.
►The solutions to various controversial problems/issues are being used in the formulation of public policy.
Aesthetics(Immanuel Kant) – it deals with the nature and appreciation of art, beauty, and good
taste. Comes from the Greek word: Aesthetikos (meaning: sense of perception)
►It can be objective/subjective because: there were things beautiful and pleasing to everyone’s eyes, on the
other hand, it was anchored upon the individual’s taste.
►It can be universal/negative or positive because: aesthetics encompasses all the responses people may solicit
from all forms of art, be it negative or positive.
►It can be emotional/intellectual because: One’s judgement on what is beautiful transcends beyond sensory level,
and includes both emotional and intellectual aspects.

PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY
THE IONIANS
The birthplace of Philosophy was believed to be in MILETUS, a province of Ionia which is a Greek colony in Asia
Minor.

THE IONIANS/PRE-SOCRATIC THINKERS

The Ionian philosophers were the first to employ a rational explanation of the origin of the world and other
physical phenomena, divorcing from the realm of mythology and fables as means to explain the origin of things.
While pre-Ionian philosophy explained the nature and origin of the physical world through myths and gods, the
Ionians established a more naturalistic (material substance as the first principle of things) explanation on the
origin of things.
THALES OF MILETUS - Considered as the first Philosopher.
He contended that the cosmos (universe) was made up of water, and firmly believed that it was the principle
from which all things came to be.

ANAXIMANDER - He believed that the first principle of things was Apeiron or infinite and limitless.
Four elements are mixed together in the Apeiron to form an undifferentiated mass.
ANAXIMENES - He believed that air was the first principle of things
Condensation and Vaporization
HERACLITUS - He believed that fire was the first principle.
-A man’s soul is FIRE.
-When an individual exercises their reason, their soul becomes pure fire.
- He affirmed that everything was in a constant flux and becoming was the only thing that remained constant.
“We cannot step on the same river twice.”
CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY
SOCRATES - Born in 469 B.C.E, in Athens Greece
- was one of the greatest philosophers who wrote nothing.
- He focused more on the cultivation of the soul.
- Perhaps, it is but fitting to recognize him as the first major philosopher of ethics.
- “voting is a skill and not a random intuition
- “true knowledge exist in knowing that you knew nothing.”
- he hated decromacy; compared the society to a ship and asks who who would you like to run the ship? (A
doctor or a sweet shop owner)
Based on VIRTUE: To know what is right (Knowledge) and To do what is right (Application)
Diotima – a wise woman who taught him about love: love is neither physical or divine and cannot be
described as good or beautiful. It is the spirit of seeking something.
Socratic method – his greatest contribution to the academic
world. – process of asking question instead of spoonfeeding

Trial of Socrates – 399 B.C.E. Reason: they said that he was

corrupting the youths, he was then poisoned (Cause of death)

PLATO - was Socrates’ best student and perhaps the most popular and highly influential philosopher of all
time.
- Plato’s political philosophy was encapsulated in his political treatise known as THE REPUBLIC, where he
believed that an ideal society must be composed of workers and warriors ruled by a philosopher-king.
Wrote 36 books: The republic, the symposium, the laws, the meno, the apology
Eudaimonia – means fullfilment or great happiness

How we can make life more fulfilled:

1. think more – doxa meaning (popular opinions)
2. let your lover change you – “true love is admiration” each other should bring out the best version
of themselves
3. decode the message of beauty – they help educate ourselves
4. Reform society – guardians (ideally wise and good people)
The academy – the school he started
ALLEGORY OF THE CAVE (PLATO)- representation of plato of the 2 worlds: real world, and a biased and
imperfect world.
Cave- symbolizes ignorant world or world of falsehood
Chained people – symbolized ignorant people
Shadow – symbolizes fake reality
People outside- those who are open minded

ARISTOTLE - He was Plato’s student. He was known as the “Father of Logic” as he was the first to
formalize a system of reasoning.
He also teached Alexander the great.
Born around 384 BC in the ancient freek kingdom of Macedonia.
Syllogism- deductive validity of any judgement or argument.
He also introduced the NICHOMACHEAN ETHICS: a certain code of conduct for good living.
SYLLOGISM EXAMPLES: All mammals are animals. All elephants are mammals. Therefore, all elephants are
animals.
GOLDEN MEAN- life moderation
Lyceum – the little school he founded
The lycees’ – french secondary schools
Peripatetics – nickname of his followers; meaning the wanderers
Nicomachean ethics – his book which was named after his son: Nichomacus.

4 philosophical questions he answered:

1. What makes people happy? - good and success people all posses distinct virtues. (knowing how to
have a good conversation is one of the ingredients of a good life)
2. What is art for?
peripeteia - a change in fortune.
Anagnoresis - a dramatic revelation.
Katharis (catharsis) – a kind of cleaning where you get rid of the bad stuff.
3.What are friends for?
there are 3 different types of friendship:
1. for seeking fun 2. Strategic acquaintances 3. True friend
4. How can ideas cut through in a busy world? – the best argument doesn’t always win the
battle.

Rhetoric- the act of getting people to agree with you.

DETERMINING THE TRUTH
PHILOSOPHY (Lesson 2)
STEM 11 TRITON | SEM 1 2022

Truth is central in the study of ★ It states that the truth of

Philosophy proposition is determined by
its relationship to the way
★ A person’s quest for truth is things actually are in the
the reason why Philosophy world (reality).
exists. Example:
★ The sky is blue
★ Dog barks
★ there is no definite measure ★ I am wearing a maroon
in determining the truth. blouse today

★ Somehow the thinkers of the COHERENCE THEORY

past and the present ★ developed by Georg
conceded to the idea that Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
truth is relative to the kind of and Baruch Spinoza.
standard one adheres to
★ It contends that a proposition
Fact, Truth and Opinion is true if it is consistent with a
system of other propositions
Fact is a piece of information having
that are considered to be
objective reality which is
true.
acknowledged by the greater whole.
(has evidence/data or statistics)
★ More complex and needs
reasoning.
Truth is a proposition believed to be
You connect it to your other
the absolute reality. (no definite
beliefs.
measurement, subjective, beliefs)
Example:
Example: the existence of Jesus.
★ Pigs are unclean animals
(based on Islamic beliefs
Opinion is a judgment based on
which are respected in
personal convictions, which may or
society
may not be factual, truthful, or false
★ 2+2 = 4
REMEMBER!
PRAGMATIC THEORY
ALL FACTS can be considered as ★ Holds that a proposition is
truth, but NOT ALL TRUTH can be true if it is useful
considered as facts.
★ This theory implies that in
order to know the truth, a
Theories of Truth person must engage oneself
Since truth is a vague concept, with something that would
philosophers formulated several give him/her the benefit or
theories to understand truth. the highest form of success
★ A belief can be considered
CORRESPONDENCE THEORY true if it’s proven to have a
practical use.
★ Bertrand Russell (1912) Example:
and Ludwig Wittgenstein ★ Heaven and hell is true
(1914-1916). ★ Ghost, vampires, spirits, and
other urban legends exist.
 Examples:
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ★ Tooth fairies are real! You have
FALLACIES to believe me or I will punch
you in the face.
Aside from the truth theories ★ He deserves a high score in
presented, there are other means by this subject. You know that his
which a person can determine the father is a mayor, right?
truth. One is by looking into the error ★ Chain mails
in reasoning (judgment).

It is a settled fact that a human is a APPEAL TO PITY

rational animal, but his/her sense of ★ Urging the hearer to accept the
rationality must first be validated in argument based upon an
order to determine the truthfulness of appeal to emotions, sympathy,
his/her contention. etc.

FALLACIES are arguments that Examples:

deceive and prove nothing. These ★ I cannot take the exam. You
arguments somehow could sound have to consider that my dog
convincing and be very persuasive in just died.
order to shape other’s opinion and ★ Your honor, the accused of this
deliver flawed judgment and reason. robbery case must not put to
jail because he is father of 12
AD HOMINEM children and a husband of a
woman who has stage 4
★ Attacking the individual person cancer.
instead of the argument ★ Pipay should not be given a
failing grade in Pre-Calculus
Examples: because she has taken the
★ You are irritatingly ugly, that is subject thrice already.
why you cannot be promoted.
★ The reason you don’t
understand the lesson is APPEAL TO POPULAR
because you are stupid. OPINION
★ You used to be a drug addict, ★ Urging the hearer to accept a
right? So no one will ever trust position because the majority
you. of the people hold to it.

REMEMBER! Examples:
★ Everyone wants him to be
Saying something negative about president; we should support
someone does not automatically him/her too.
mean an ad hominem is ★ My classmates are playing
committed: it is only an ad Mobile Legends. Therefore, it
hominem if the point of attacking the must be the best online game
person is to attack some claim (or to play.
argument) from that person. ★ Fairy Skin Sunscreen is being
promoted by influencers. We
must try that too.
APPEAL TO FORCE
★ Telling the hearer that APPEAL TO TRADITION
something bad will happen to ★ Trying to get someone to
him/her if he/she does not accept something because it
accept the argument. has been done or believed for
a long time.
DETERMINING THE TRUTH
PHILOSOPHY (Lesson 2)
STEM 11 TRITON | SEM 1 2022

Examples: jam. Therefore, if everyone

★ A mother tells a pregnant leaves home earlier in the
woman that she should give morning, everyone will avoid
birth to her child by natural birth the traffic jam.
because all the women in the family FALLACY OF DIVISION
have natural births, not cesarean
★ Assuming that what is true of
sections.
the whole is true for the parts
★ Marriage is a union between a
man and a woman. Therefore,
Examples:
gay marriage is wrong.
Her entire family is a family of beauty
★ We’ve never had a woman
queens. I’m sure she will be a beauty
President before. The next
queen too.
president must still be a man.
Women in the United States are paid
less than men. Therefore, my mom
BEGGING THE QUESTION must make less money than my dad.
★ Assuming the thing that you
are trying to prove is true. One of the causes of poverty is
laziness. Since 80% of the Filipinos are
Examples: poor, then it can be argued that
★ I am pretty because my mom Filipinos are lazy.
said I am pretty, and I believe
her.
★ Son: Why can’t I go to Miguel’s FALLACY OF EQUIVOCATION
house? ★ Using the same term in an
Mom: Because I said you can’t argument in different places
go. but the word has different
★ Student: Why didn't I receive meanings.
full credit on my essay?
Teacher: Because your paper Examples:
did not meet the requirements ★ Her grandmother loves to eat
for full credit. apples but she is the apple of
the eye of her grandmother.
I’m sure her grandmother will
APPEAL TO FORCE
have a hard time eating her.
★ Assuming that what is true of ★ All star are exploding ball of
the part is true to the whole. gas. Miley Cyrus is a star.
Therefore, Miley Cyrus is an
Examples: exploding ball of gas.
★ Because two students in the ★ Noisy children are real
class have As, everyone must headache. Two aspirins will
have an A. make a headache go away.
★ If all the players in our team Therefore, two aspirins will
are the best players in their make noisy children go away.
positions, then this must be the
best team.
★ Both sodium (Na) and chlorine
(Cl) are harmful to humans.
Therefore, table salt (NaCl)
must also be harmful.
★ If I leave home earlier in the
morning, I can avoid the traffic
THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED
SPIRIT
PHILOSOPHY (Lesson 3)
STEM 11 TRITON | SEM 1 2022

Over the course of time, various PYTHAGOREANS also taught:

thinkers have given people theories ● Transmigration - the soul is
and explanations on the true nature something that exists beyond
of humans which led them to a death, and that can be reborn
conclusion that there is something in
in other bodies: whether
them that transcends beyond their
mortality. They say that there is an human or animal
"inner self" in every human that gives ● Immortality of the soul
him/her that sense of discernment:
one that gives him/her the power of 2. SOCRATIC DUALISM
will and intellect. This had led them to
conclude that a person is an Socrates
embodied spirit-a being possessed believed that human nature is
with a soul. determined by one's soul.
➔ views the soul as the center of
moral life.
THE NOTION OF THE SOUL
➔ knowledge paves the way for
the perfection of the soul and
1. PRE-SOCRATIC THOUGHT enables a person to achieve
Heraclitus the highest form of
➔ father of universal change, happiness.
believed in the existence of ➔ believed that knowledge is the
the soul as an infinite part of a main string of all virtues.
human being.
➔ He believed that the soul is SELF-MASTERY
associated with FIRE, and ➔ mastery of reason over the
there is something in store sensible nature of a person.
for the soul the moment it Notion of a DAIMONION
leaves the body. ➔ a divine voice inside one's
Pythagoreans being that is claimed to be
➔ the philosophers who believed guiding his/her actions.
that numbers are the first
principle, contending that a 3. PLATO’S DUALISM
human being is a composite
Plato
of body and soul.
➔ also believed in the idea that a
➔ soul existed before the body
person is his/her soul.
until such time when the soul
➔ As the body dies, the soul
committed sins, and it was
survives: hence, for Plato,
jailed inside the body as a
the soul goes through a
PUNISHMENT.
cycle of reincarnation or
transmigration.
Purification Of The Soul - Highly
Intellectual Activities
PLATO'S SENSE OF DUALISM must be immortal.
➔ anchored on the relationship THE ARGUMENT FROM
between reincarnation and the OPPOSITE
means of obtaining knowledge ➔ Plato believed that the body
through recognition of forms. and soul are not only different
from each other, but they are
FOUR ARGUMENTS FOR
also opposites and
DUALISM AS PROVIDED IN THE
DIALOGUE PHAEDO irreconcilable.
➔ Claiming that the soul is the
● Life and Death (The Cyclical essence of a person, Plato
Argument)
even considered the body as
● Knowing is Reminiscing the tomb of the soul, and
(The Recollection Argument) contended that one does not
experience the true meaning of
● Incorruptibility of the Soul life as he/she is stuck in the
(The Affinity Argument) body.
● The Argument from
Opposite 4. ARISTOTLE’S VIEW ON THE
SOUL
Aristotle
LIFE AND DEATH (THE CYCLICAL
ARGUMENT) ➔ The soul is part of the body
➔ This is the cycle of that animates it.
transmigration or reincarnation ➔ The soul does not survive
of the soul. When the body death. Hence, he dismisses
dies, it paves the way for the concept of Transmigration.
another body which means ➔ EMBODIED SOUL
that if life leads to death,
then death must lead to life.
5. ST. THOMAS AQUINAS AND
THE NATURE OF THE SOUL
KNOWING IS REMINISCING (THE
RECOLLECTION ARGUMENT)
St. Thomas Aquinas identified
➔ This banks on the idea that all
three divisions of the soul:
knowledge is a form of
● The vegetative,
remembrance or reminiscing
● The sensitive, and;
on the part of the soul.
● The intellectual or rational
➔ According to Plato, since the
soul
soul has preexisted over the
THE VEGETATIVE SOUL - is
body, it becomes a witness to
dependent upon matter (food, home,
everything; hence, the process
etc.) to survive.
of knowledge is recollecting
THE SENSITIVE SOUL - is inherent to
on what had always been
all animals, and is used for sensation
there in the soul.
and locomotion.
THE RATIONAL OR INTELLECTUAL
INCORRUPTIBILITY OF THE SOUL
SOUL - is specific and exclusive only
(THE AFFINITY ARGUMENT)
to a human. Such soul is responsible
➔ The third argument attempts to
for thinking and reasoning. According
prove that the soul, arguing
to Aquinas, humans possess all
that it is capable to know
three kinds of soul.
immutable and eternal realities
THE HUMAN MIND: The Linked Between
the Body and the Soul.
PHILOSOPHY (Lesson 3)
STEM 11 | SEM 1 2022

The mind is a mystery that is yet to be

uncovered in the human body. How 2. MENTAL FACULTY OF
would one explain the state of REASONING
consciousness, memory and ➔ This enables a person to form
intelligence? These are the attributes conclusions and render
of the human mind that transcend judgements based from the
beyond mere brain functions. People
still yet to fathom the nature of the facts and premises. But one’s
human mind, but have identified sense of reasoning is largely
already the different “faculties of the dependent on the amount of
human mind” which could be knowledge he/she has gained
developed and trained in order for a all throughout his/ her lifetime.
person to have a meaningful existence ➔ A person’s ability to reason
in this world.
sets him/her apart from the
other species of the animal
FACULTIES OF THE HUMAN MIND kingdom.
1. Mental Faculty of Perception ➔ The reasoning ability of human
2. Mental Faculty of Reasoning serve as enough weapon to
3. Mental Faculty of Imagination defend himself/ herself from
4. Mental Faculty of the Will his/ her environment.
5. Mental Faculty of Memory
REMEMBER!
1. MENTAL FACULTY OF
PERCEPTION Being reasonable is more often than not
➔ Perception is the faculty of mistaken to being logical. But in a real
sense, logic is simply a means to
apprehension by the senses.
reason out but is not reason itself. There
➔ This is sometimes called are times when one’s reason are illogical
“one’s point of view”. The if they are anchored on fallacies.
mental faculty of perception However, logical contentions make up
may be pertinently considered sound reasoning, and in this way,
to be relative. reasoning itself could be a means to
seek truth.
Example:
● There are two persons 3. MENTAL FACULTY OF
looking at the same object. IMAGINATION
They may have different ideas ➔ Also known as the ability to
about the object, but both of visualize, this refers to the
them are right because their forming of images in the
ideas came from their own mind.
points of view. It is a matter of ➔ When a person is forming an
perception idea in his/her mind, he/ she is
creating an image
corresponding to such
particular idea as to how it is in
 reality. 5. MENTAL FACULTY OF
➔ The power of imagination is MEMORY
considered one of the most ➔ Memory is one’s ability to
valued miracles of the human retain, revive, recall, and
being. recognize
➔ Imagination enables a person information.
to experience an entirely ➔ It is said to be a two- way
different world inside the mind. process; retaining and
➔ One can create all the things recalling information which
that he/ she wants where the means memory stores
only limitation is imagination information inside the mind,
itself. and pulls them back as the
➔ If a person should learn to fully need arises.
develop this mental faculty, he/ THREE TYPES OF MEMORY IN
she would cease to be a mere THE HUMAN MIND
daydreamer and wishful
● Sensory Memory
thinker. Instead, his/ her ● Short-term memory
creative abilities and potentials ● Long-term memory
would be strengthened and
could be a powerful tool for Sensory Memory
creating a better world for the ➔ enables a person to recall
benefit of humankind. perceptions. Memory is being
used by another faculty in
forming images of things that
one sees in reality.
4. MENTAL FACULTY OF THE
WILL
Short-Term Memory
➔ Also known as Willpower.
➔ gives a person the ability to
This is defined by the German
remember information without
philosopher Friedrich
practice for a short period of
Nietzsche as an internally
time.
motivated action.
➔ It is the inner drive in a
Long- term Memory
person that enables him/ her to
➔ This is the most useful of all
do anything.
types of memory as this is the
➔ Willpower gives rise to
one that undergoes training,
motivation, which in turn,
practice and mastery.
fuels ambition.
➔ It is that inner strength in a
person that moves him/ her to
act upon his/ her desires.
➔ Strong Willpower = capable
of accomplishing his/ her
dreams in life.