SYSTEM STABILITY

Introduction
Complexities resulting from the deregulation of power sector in
Nigeria, the possible introduction of distributed generation and
increase in the number of large machines become a thing of concern,
hence the stability of the system is at stake.
It is expected that after a large generator is connected to a system or a
large load is removed from a system, the disturbance that results from
any of the activity should not stay long in the system.
Steady-State Stability
Although most instabilities occurred during transient state, but the
steady state also has its own small swings which can be understood
between two equipment; a generator and a motor.
For a safer system, the system frequency and voltage have the
following ranges; frequency (±1%) and voltage (±6%).
Simplified two-machine power system
Where EG and EM are the internal voltages of the two machines
and θ is the phase angle between them.
Any attempt to transmit more power than Pmax will cause the two
machines to pull out of step.

From the above equation, we deduced the things that can affect
stability in the steady state as follows:
• Internal voltage of the generator(s)
• Reactance(s) of the machines and transmission system
• Internal voltage of the motor(s), if any
Transient and Dynamic Stability
The factors that affect steady state stability are the basis also during
transient state.
Transient stability is the ability of a power system to experience a
sudden change in generation, load, or system characteristics without
an elongated loss of synchronism.
For basic understanding this, we take a look at the steady state torque
equation;
T is the mechanical shaft torque
P is the number of poles of machine
φSR is the air-gap flux
FR is the rotor field MMF
δR is the mechanical angle between rotor and stator field parts

This relationship is for a motor, the case is reverse for a generator.

 Torque vs. rotor angle relationship for synchronous machines in steady state

A generator operates similarly. Increasing torque input until the rotor

angle exceeds 90° results in pole slipping and loss of synchronism with
the power system, assuming constant electrical load.
Thus, if the other factors remain constant, a change in system voltage
will cause a change in rotor angle. Likewise, changing the field
excitation will cause a change in rotor angle if constant torque and
voltage are maintained.

Two-machine systems
When two machines are tied together, the system will be more
complicated compared to a single machine discussed above.
The medium through which this occurs is the air-gap flux. This is a
function of machine terminal voltage, which is affected by the
characteristics of the transmission system, the amount of power being
transmitted, the power factor, etc.
Multi-Machine Systems
Stability analysis of more complex systems, where machines are of
comparable sizes and are separated by substantial impedance, will
usually require a full-scale computer stability study.
Results of Instability
• High transient mechanical torque and currents
• Loss of supply to some areas
• For the simple system below;

Simplified power system network

Power transfer curves before , during and after fault
System Disturbances that can Cause Instability
• Short circuits
• Loss of a tie circuit to a public utility
• Loss of a portion of on-site generation
• Starting a motor that is large relative to a system generating capacity
• Switching operations
• Impact loading on motors
• Abrupt decrease in electrical load on generators
Remedies for System Instability
• System Design
• Design and Selection of Rotating Equipment
• Voltage Regulator and Exciter Characteristics
• Application of Power System Stabilizers (PSSs)
• System Protection
• System Stability Analysis
• Time- and Frequency-Domain Analysis
• Simulation of the System
• Simulation of Disturbances
PROTECTIVE SCHEMES FOR STABILITY ENHANCEMENT
High-speed single-pole tripping

Transient stability enhancement using SPT scheme

 Many microprocessor-based relays provide the fault detection
and faulted-phase identification algorithm required for SPT
schemes.

 Single-pole tripping (SPT) schemes trip only the faulted phase for
single-phase-to-ground faults. The line continues transmitting
power over the two healthy phases during SPO condition. The
power transfer reduces the chance of loosing synchronism.

 The open-phase condition following a single-pole trip on a

transmission line creates unbalances that can affect relays.
The protection element must be designed to be immune to the
unbalance effects or must be desensitized or blocked during the
SPO period.
Automatic line reclosing
The majority of overhead line faults are transient and can be cleared by
momentarily de-energizing the line. Utility reports show that less than 10
percent of all faults are permanent. It is, therefore feasible, to improve
service reliability by automatically reclosing he breaker after fault relay
operation. The different reasons for reclosing a line include:
• System stability
• System security
• Continuity of service.
POWER SWING BLOCKING AND OUT-OF-STEP TRIPPING

 Power swings are variations in power flow that occur when the
internal voltages of generators at different locations of the
power system slip relative to each other . Large power swings,
stable or unstable, can cause unwanted relay operations at
different network locations, which can aggravate the power
disturbance and cause major power outages or blackouts.
 Power swings can cause the load impedance which under
steady-state conditions is not within the relay’s operating
characteristic, to enter the relay’s operating characteristic.
Operation of these relays during a power swing may cause
undesired tripping of transmission line or other power system
element. This may lead to possible cascading outages and
shutdown of major portions of the power system.
 Distance or other relays should not trip unintentionally during
dynamic system conditions such as stable or unstable power
swings and allow the power system to return to a stable operating
condition. Distance relay elements prone to operate during stable
or transient power swings should temporarily be inhibited from
operating to prevent system separation occurring at random.
Swing impedance trajectory

Trajectory of the measured impedance at the relay during power swing

 The trajectory of the measured impedance at the relay during power
swing when the angle between the two source voltage varies,
correspond to straight line that intersects the line segment AB at its
middle point. This point is called the electrical center. The angle
between the two segments that connect P to A and B is equal to the
angle δ. When δ reaches 1800, the impedance is precisely at the
location of the electrical center.

 When the ratio of the sources voltage magnitudes are different from
1 (k≠ 1), it can be shown that the impedance trajectory would
correspond to circles as in the figure below:
Trajectory of the measured impedance at the relay during power swing for different values of source voltage
ratio.
Power swing detection methods
 Severe system disturbance could cause large separation of rotor
angles between groups of generators and eventual loss of
synchronism between groups of generators. When two areas of a
power system, or interconnected systems lose synchronism, the areas
must be separated from each other quickly and automatically to avoid
equipment damage and power blackouts.
 Ideally, the systems should be separated at pre-determined locations
to maintain a load-generation balance in each of the separated areas.
System separation may not always achieve the desired load-
generation balance. In cases where the separated area load is in
excess of local generation, some form of load shedding is
necessary to avoid a complete blackout of the area.
 The Out-of-Step Trip (OST) function accomplishes this separation. The main
purpose of OST function is to differentiate stable from unstable power
swings and initiate system area separation at pre-determined network
locations and at appropriate source-voltage phase-angle difference
between systems, in order to maintain power system stability and
continuity of service.

 The difference in rate of change of the positive-sequence impedance

has been used traditionally in PSB and OST functions to detect power
swing or out-of-step (OOS) condition. This detection method is based on
the fact that it takes a certain time for the rotor angle to advance
because of inertias , which means that the rate of change in the
impedance phasor is slow. On the contrary, the rate of change of
impedance phasor is very fast during a system fault.
 Actual implementation of measuring the impedance rate of
change is normally performed through the use of two impedance
measurement elements together with a timing device. If the
measured impedance stays between the settings of the two
impedance measurement elements for a predetermined time, the
relay declares a power swing condition and issues a blocking signal
to block the distance relay element operation. After a
predetermined time, the relay will trip if power swing element is not
reset.

 The required settings for PSB and OST elements could be difficult
in many applications. Extensive stability studies may be needed
resulting in huge expense.
Concentric characteristic schemes
This is accomplished by placing two concentric impedance
characteristics separated by ΔZ. If the measured impedance
crosses the concentric characteristics before the timer expires,
the relay declares a fault. Otherwise, if the timer expires before the
impedance crosses both impedance characteristics, the relay
classifies this a power swing event.
The advantage of this concentric characteristic is that the power
swing condition is checked before one of the tripping zones is
entered allowing tripping elements to be blocked if desirable.
This advantage is realized by setting the concentric zone larger
than the largest tripping zone one seeks to control. The major
setting effort is limited to ΔZ and the timer .
A drawback of the concentric circular characteristic is load
encroachment. Variations in the characteristic that have been
devised to address load encroachment.
Two-blinder scheme
The two blinder scheme is based on the same principle of measuring
the time needed for the impedance vector to travel a certain delta
impedance. The time measurement starts when the impedance vector
crosses the outer blinder (RRO) and stops when the inner blinder (RRI)
is crossed.
If the measured time is above the setting for delta time, a power swing
situation is detected.
One advantage of the blinder scheme is that it can be used
independent of the distance zone characteristic.
Two-Blinder PBS and OST scheme
Swing-center-voltge (scv) method
The swing-center-voltage (SCV) is defined as the voltage at the location
of a two-source equivalent where the voltage is zero when the
angles between the two sources are 1800 apart. When the system
goes into OOS situation after some disturbance the angle difference
between the two sources, δ will increase as a function of time.
An approximation of the SCV magnitude can be made through the
use of locally available quantities.
where
SCV1 is the estimated magnitude of the of the positive-sequence SCV.
V1S is the magnitude of the measure positive-sequence voltage V1S

θ is the angle difference between 𝟏 and the measured positive sequence

current I1
Voltage phasor diagram of a two-source system