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Known:

σg ≔ 525 ⋅ MPa

c ≔ 12.5 ⋅ mm
KIc ≔ σg ⋅ 1.8 ⋅ ‾
c Eq. 6-2

KIc = ⎛⎝3.341 ⋅ 10 3⎞⎠ MPa ⋅ ‾‾‾‾

mm

For a longer crack,

c ≔ 50 ⋅ mm
KIc
σg ≔ ―――
1.8 ⋅ ‾
c

σg = 262.5 MPa
Analysis:
1. With a large rectangular sheet we have no geometric effects, and Y = 1 or
KI ⎯> KIC .

2. We have σ = 80 ksi and c = 0.5 in.

3. Therefore,

K Ic = 1.8 ! g c = (1.8)(80 ksi)√(0.500 in.) = 101.82 ksi√in.

4. Having established this critical value, we have for the sheet with the 1.75 in. crack,
from Eq. (6.2),

! g = K Ic = 101.82 = 60.47 ksi

1.8 c 1.8 0.875

5. Since the area equals 2wt, P = σg(2wt) = 60,470(2wt) lb ■

Comment: It is unknown whether the P/A stress based on the net area, t (2w - 2c), is
less than Sy since the yield strength of the material is not known.

SOLUTION (6.3)
Known: A large sheet with a 1.75 in. long edge crack fractures when loaded to 85 ksi.
(See Fig. P6.3). A similar sheet containing a 2.625 inch crack.
Find: Determine the fracture load (stress) for the similar sheet.
Schematic and Given Data:

t !critical = 85 ksi

w = large sheet
c
P t = thin (sheet)

w c = 1.75 in.

6-3
Known

KIc ≔ 20 ⋅ MPa ⋅ ‾‾
m SU ≔ 572 ⋅ MPa

w ≔ 75 ⋅ mm SY ≔ 503 ⋅ MPa

t ≔ 1 ⋅ mm c ≔ 12.5 ⋅ mm

Using equation 6.2

KIc
σg ≔ ――― = 99.381 MPa
‾
1.8 ⋅ c
Since the area equals 2wt,

P ≔ σg ⋅ ((2 ⋅ w ⋅ t)) = 14.907 kN

P
Comment: P/A stress based on net area, t(2w-2c), is σ ≔ ――――― = 119.257 MPa
t ⋅ (2 ⋅ w − 2 ⋅ c))
(
which is less than Sy = 503 MPa; hence the second assumption is satisfied.
Known

KIc ≔ 100 ⋅ MPa ⋅ ‾‾

m SU ≔ 860 ⋅ MPa

w ≔ 75 ⋅ mm SY ≔ 790 ⋅ MPa

t ≔ 1.5 ⋅ mm c ≔ 12.5 ⋅ mm

Using equation 6.2

KIc
σg ≔ ――― = 496.904 MPa
‾
1.8 ⋅ c
Since the area equals 2wt,

P ≔ σg ⋅ ((2 ⋅ w ⋅ t)) = 111.803 kN

P
Comment: P/A stress based on net area, t(2w-2c), is σ ≔ ――――― = 596.285 MPa
t ⋅ (2 ⋅ w − 2 ⋅ c))
(
which is less than Sy = 790 MPa; hence the second assumption is satisfied.
Assumptions:
1. The crack length is a small fraction of the plate width.
2. The tensile stress based on the net area (minus the area of the crack) is less than
the yield strength.
3. Yielding has occurred within one small volume of the material at the crack root.
4. Crack propagation to total fracture occurs instantaneously when the limiting value
of the stress intensity factor KI equals or exceeds the fracture toughness KIc for the
material.
Analysis:
1. From Eq. (6.2), !g = KIc = 100 = 78. 567 ksi
1. 8 c 1. 8 0. 5
2. Since the area equals 2wt, P = σg(2wt) = 78,567(6)(0.06) = 28,284 lb ■
Comment: P/A stress based on the net area, t(2w - 2c), is 94.28 ksi which is less than
Sy = 197 ksi; hence, the second assumption is satisfied.
SOLUTION (6.7)
Known: A thin plate of known material is loaded in tension and has a central crack of
given length perpendicular to the direction of the applied load.
Find: Estimate the highest tensile load P that the plate will support when the crack is
1 in. long.
Schematic and Given Data:

P D6AC Steel at room

temperature

S u = 220 ksi

S y = 190 ksi
2c t 0.5
KIc = 115 ksi in

P 2w = 6 in.
t = 0.06 in.
2w 2c = 1 in.
P=?

Assumptions:
1. The crack length is a small fraction of the plate width.
6-7
2. The tensile stress based on the net area (minus the area of the crack) is less than
the yield strength.
3. Yielding has occurred within one small volume of the material at the crack root.
4. Crack propagation to total fracture occurs instantaneously when the limiting value
of the stress intensity factor KI equals or exceeds the fracture toughness KIc for the
material.
Analysis:
1. From Eq. (6.2), !g = KIc = 115 = 90. 353 ksi
1. 8 c 1. 8 0. 5
2. Since the area equals 2wt, P = σg(2wt) = 90,353(6)(0.06) = 32,527 lb ■
Comment: The P/A stress based on the net area, t(2w - 2c), is 108.4 ksi which is less
than Sy = 190 ksi. Hence the second assumption is satisfied.

SOLUTION (6.8)
Known: A thin plate of known material is loaded in tension and has a central crack of
given length perpendicular to the direction of the applied load.
Find: Estimate the highest tensile load P that the plate will support when the crack is
1 in. long.
Schematic and Given Data:

P
4340 Steel
S u = 260 ksi

Sy = 217 ksi
2c t
KIc = 115 ksi in 0.5

2w = 6 in.
P t = 0.06 in.
2c = 1 in.
2w
P=?

Assumptions:
1. The crack length is a small fraction of the plate width.
2. The tensile stress based on the net area (minus the area of the crack) is less than
the yield strength.
3. Yielding has occurred within one small volume of the material at the crack root.

6-8
4. Crack propagation to total fracture occurs instantaneously when the limiting value
of the stress intensity factor KI equals or exceeds the fracture toughness KIc for the
material.
Analysis:
1. From Eq. (6.2), !g = KIc = 115 = 90. 353 ksi
1. 8 c 1. 8 0. 5
2. Since the area equals 2wt, P = σg(2wt) = 90,353(6)(0.06) = 32,527 lb ■
Comment: The P/A stress based on the net area, t(2w - 2c), is 108.4 ksi which is less
than Sy = 217 ksi. Hence the second assumption is satisfied.

6-9
Known

KIc ≔ 77 ⋅ MPa ⋅ ‾‾
m SU ≔ 807 ⋅ MPa

w ≔ 100 ⋅ mm SY ≔ 676 ⋅ MPa

t ≔ 1.3 ⋅ mm c ≔ 20 ⋅ mm

Using equation 6.2

KIc
σg ≔ ――― = 302.485 MPa
‾
1.8 ⋅ c
Since the area equals 2wt,

P ≔ σg ⋅ ((2 ⋅ w ⋅ t)) = 78.646 kN

P
Comment: P/A stress based on net area, t(2w-2c), is σ ≔ ――――― = 378.106 MPa
t ⋅ (2 ⋅ w − 2 ⋅ c))
(
which is less than Sy = 676 MPa; hence the second assumption is satisfied.
SOLUTION (6.10)
Known: A thin plate of known material is loaded in tension and has a central crack of
given length perpendicular to the direction of the applied load.
Find: Estimate the highest tensile load that the plate will support.
Schematic and Given Data:

P Leaded brass

S u = 55 ksi

Sy = 42 ksi
2c t
KIc = 35 ksi in 0.5

P 2w = 8 in.
t = 0.05 in.
2w 2c = 1.5 in.
P=?

Assumptions:
1. The crack length is a small fraction of the plate width.
2. The tensile stress based on the net area (minus the area of the crack) is less than
the yield strength.
3. Yielding has occurred within one small volume of the material at the crack root.
4. Crack propagation to total fracture occurs instantaneously when the limiting value
of the stress intensity factor KI equals or exceeds the fracture toughness KIC for the
material.

Analysis:
1. From Eq. (6.2), !g = KIc = 35 = 22. 45 ksi
1. 8 c 1. 8 0. 75
2. Since the area equals 2wt, P = σg(2wt) = 22,450(8)(0.05) = 8980 lb ■
Comment: The P/A stress based on the net area, t(2w - 2c), is 27.6 ksi which is less
than Sy = 42 ksi. Hence the second assumption is satisfied.

6-11
Known

KIc ≔ 100 ⋅ MPa ⋅ ‾‾

m SU ≔ 860 ⋅ MPa N ≔ 2.5

w ≔ 130 ⋅ mm SY ≔ 790 ⋅ MPa

t ≔ 1.3 ⋅ mm c ≔ 20 ⋅ mm

Using equation 6.3

 KIc
σg ≔ ――― = 353.553 MPa
2.0 ⋅ ‾
c

Since the area equals wt,

P ≔ σg ⋅ ((w ⋅ t)) = 59.751 kN

With a factor of safety of 2.5, the highest load that could be applied to the ends of the plate is
P
Psafe ≔ ―= 23.9 kN
N
P
Comment: P/A stress based on net area, t(w-c), is σ ≔ ――― = 417.836 MPa
t ⋅ (w − c))
(
which is less than Sy = 790 MPa; hence the second assumption is satisfied even
without a safety factor.
3. Using the linearity between stress (load) and stress intensity, we use superposition
and calculate the stress intensities for the tensile and bending components separately
and then combine (add) them.
4. The tension and bending cases are pictured below:

Fig. 6.5c Fig. 6.5e Fig. P6.12

+ = combined
tension bending tension &
! = 10 ksi M = 25, 000 in.lb bending
P P

+ = 3 in.

P=50,000 lb
Y = 1.20 Y = 1.05 c/w = 0.20
K = 21.3 ksi in.0.5 K = 11.17 ksi in.0.5 K = 32.47 ksi in.0.5
I I I

5a. For axial loading, σ = P/A = P/(wt) = 50, 000 lb/(5.0 in. x 1.0 in.) = 10 ksi. ■

5b. For bending, M = Pe = (50,000 lb)(0.5 in.) = 25,000 in.lb. ■

6a. From Fig. 6.5c, for axial loading with c/w = 1.0 in./5.0 in. = 0.20, h/w = ∞,
Y = 1.20 = KI /Ko, where Ko = σ √(πc). ■

6b. Solving for KI for axial loading we have KI = 1.20 σ √(πc)

= (1.20)(10,000 psi) √(π1.0 in.) = 21.3 ksi √in. ■

7a. From Fig. 6.5e, for bending with c/w = 1.0/5.0 = 0.20, Y = 1.05 = KI /Ko, where
Ko = [6M √(πc)]/(w2t). ■

7b. Solving for KI for bending we have

KI = [(1.05)6M √(πc)]/(w2t) or
KI = [(1.05)(6)(25,000 in.lb) √(π1.0 in.)]/[(5.02)(1.0)] = 11.17 ksi √in.

8. For combined tension and bending, we have

KI = 21.3 ksi √in. + 11.17 ksi √in. = 32.47 ksi √in. ■

9. The computed stress intensity KI = 32.47 ksi √in. is less than the fracture
toughness KIc = 55 ksi √in. Nonetheless, without additional information and an
analysis for cycle life it would probably only be safe to return the bar to service
if it was repaired. ■

6-14
SOLUTION (6.13)
Known: A thick plate having a central crack is loaded in tension to a known gross-area
stress.

Find: Determine the critical crack depth, acr, at which rapid fracture will occur for
4340 steel at room temperature.
Schematic and Given Data:

P
4340 Steel at room
temperature

2w = 6 in.
a t = 1 in.
a/2c = 0.25
2c !g = 0.73 S y

P
2w
t

Assumptions:
1. The temperature is 70oF (room temperature).
2. The crack length is critical when the value of the stress intensity factor K
exceeds KIc.
Analysis:
1. From Eq. (6.4), and setting K = KIc

a cr = [
K Ic 0. 39 - 0. 053(σ /S ) 2
σg
g y
]
Since σg = 0.73 Sy

KIc 2
acr = 0. 39 - 0. 053(0. 73)2
0. 73 Sy
2
acr = 0. 68 KIc
Sy

6-15
2. Using Table 6.1 to find Sy and KIc for 4340 steel plate at room temperature:
K Ic = 52 ksi in. , S y = 217 ksi, a cr = 0. 0390 in. ■

Comments:
1. Eq. (6.4) is appropriate if 2w/t > 6, a/2c = about 0.25, w/c > 3, a/t < 0.5, and
σg < 0.8 Sy. For this problem, these conditions are satisfied.
2. An important design requirement of internally pressurized members is that a crack
be able to propagate through the full wall thickness (thereby causing a leak that
can be readily detected) without becoming unstable and leading to total fracture.
SOLUTION (6.14)
Known: A thick plate having a central crack is loaded in tension to a known gross-area
stress.

Find: Determine the critical crack depth, acr, at which rapid fracture will occur for
7075-T651 aluminum.
Schematic and Given Data:

P
7075-T651
Aluminum

2w = 6 in.
a t = 1 in.
a/2c = 0.25
2c !g = 0.73 S y

P
2w
t

Assumptions:
1. The 7075-T651 aluminum is at room temperature.
2. The crack length is critical when the value of the stress intensity factor K
exceeds KIc.

Analysis:
1. From Eq. (6.4), and setting K = KIc

KIc 0. 39 - 0. 053(! /S )2 2
g y
acr =
!g
6-16
 Since σg = 0.73 Sy

KIc 2
acr = 0. 39 - 0. 053(0. 73)2
0. 73 Sy
2
acr = 0. 68 KIc
Sy

2. From Table 6.1 for 7075-T651 aluminum at room temperature, and using the
above equation for acr, we have
K Ic = 27 ksi in. , S y = 70 ksi, a cr = 0. 101 in. ■

Comments:
1. Eq. (6.4) is appropriate if 2w/t > 6, a/2c = about 0.25, w/c > 3, a/t < 0.5, and
σg < 0.8 Sy. For this problem, these conditions are satisfied.
2. An important design requirement of internally pressurized members is that a crack
be able to propagate through the full wall thickness (thereby causing a leak that
can be readily detected) without becoming unstable and leading to total fracture.
SOLUTION (6.15)
Known: A thick plate having a central crack is loaded in tension to a known gross-area
stress.

Find: Determine the critical crack depth, acr, at which rapid fracture will occur for
D6AC steel at room temperature.
Schematic and Given Data:

P
D6AC Steel at room
temperature

2w = 6 in.
a t = 1 in.
a/2c = 0.25
2c !g = 0.73 S y

P
2w
t

6-17
Assumptions:
1. The temperature is 70oF (room temperature).
2. The crack length is critical when the value of the stress intensity factor K
exceeds KIc.
Analysis:
1. From Eq. (6.4), and setting K = KIc
2

a cr = [
K Ic 0. 39 - 0. 053(σ /S ) 2
σg
g y
]
Since σg = 0.73 Sy

KIc 2
acr = 0. 39 - 0. 053(0. 73)2
0. 73 Sy
2
acr = 0. 68 KIc
Sy

2. Using Table 6.1 to find Sy and KIc, for D6AC steel at room temperature:
K Ic = 70 ksi in. , S y = 190 ksi, a cr = 0. 092 in. ■

Comments:
1. Eq. (6.4) is appropriate if 2w/t > 6, a/2c = about 0.25, w/c > 3, a/t < 0.5, and
σg < 0.8 Sy. For this problem, these conditions are satisfied.
2. An important design requirement of internally pressurized members is that a crack
be able to propagate through the full wall thickness (thereby causing a leak that
can be readily detected) without becoming unstable and leading to total fracture.

6-18
SOLUTION (6.16)
Known: A thick plate having a central crack is loaded in tension to a known gross-area
stress.

Find: Determine the critical crack depth, acr, at which rapid fracture will occur for
D6AC steel at -40 oF.

Schematic and Given Data:

D6AC Steel at -40 °F

2w = 6 in.
a t = 1 in.
a/2c = 0.25
2c !g = 0.73 S y

P
2w
t

Assumptions:
1. The temperature is -40oF.
2. The crack length is critical when the value of the stress intensity factor K exceeds
KIc.
Analysis:
1. From Eq. (6.4), and setting K = KIc
2

a cr = [
K Ic 0. 39 - 0. 053(σ /S ) 2
σg
g y
]
Since σg = 0.73 Sy

KIc 2
acr = 0. 39 - 0. 053(0. 73)2
0. 73 Sy
2
acr = 0. 68 KIc
Sy
6-19
2. Using Table 6.1 to find Sy and KIc for D6AC steel at -40 oF:
K Ic = 45 ksi in. , S y = 197 ksi, acr = 0. 0354 in. ■

Comments:
1. Eq. (6.4) is appropriate if 2w/t > 6, a/2c = about 0.25, w/c > 3, a/t < 0.5, and
σg < 0.8 Sy. For this problem, these conditions are satisfied.
2. An important design requirement of internally pressurized members is that a crack
be able to propagate through the full wall thickness (thereby causing a leak that
can be readily detected) without becoming unstable and leading to total fracture.
SOLUTION (6.17)
Known: A D6AC steel (at room temperature) plate is loaded to a gross-area stress σg =
0.50 Sy. The dimensions for the thick plate are t = 1 in., 2w = 8 in., a/2c = 0.25, and 2c
= 1 in. See Fig. P6.17. The thick plate had a center crack and is loaded in tension.
Find: Calculate the center crack depth, a, and determine if the plate will fail due to the
center crack. Also, determine the safety factor.
Schematic and Given Data:

P
D6AC Steel at room
temperature

2w = 8 in.
a t = 1 in.
a/2c = 0.25
2c !g = 0.50 S y

2c = 1 in.

P
2w
t

Assumption: The crack length is critical when the value of the stress intensity factor K
exceeds KIc.
Analysis:
1. From Table 6.1 for D6AC steel at room temperature we find Su = 220 ksi, Sy = 190
ksi, KIc = 70 ksi √in.

2. The center crack depth a can be determined easily from the given equations, a/2c =
0.25 and 2c = 1 in., as a = 0.25 in.
6-20
3. From Eq. (6.4), setting K = KIc and since σg = 0.50 Sy, we first determine the critical
crack depth, acr, at which rapid fracture will occur for D6AC steel at room
temperature:
2

[
a cr =
K Ic 0. 39 - 0. 053(σ /S ) 2
σg
g y
]
2
KIc 2
acr = 0.39 - 0.053(0.50)
0.50 S y

2 2
K
acr = 1.51 Ic = 1.51 70 ksi in. = 0.205 in.
Sy 190 ksi

4. Since a = 0.25 in. and acr = 0.205 in. the center crack depth has exceeded the critical
depth and the plate should be removed from service immediately.
Comments: Eq. (6.4) is appropriate if 2w/t > 6, a/2c = about 0.25, w/c > 3, a/t < 0.5,
and σg < 0.8 Sy. For this problem where 2w/t = 8, a/2c = 0.25, w/c = 8, a/t = 0.25, and
σg = 0.5 Sy, these conditions are satisfied.

6-21
SOLUTION (6.18)
Known: Equation (6.4) is applicable for a thick plate having a central elliptical crack
where the plate is loaded in tension to a known gross-area stress. Specifically, Eq. (6.4)
gives the stress intensity factor at the edges of a central elliptical crack for the
geometric and load conditions of 2w/t > 6, a/2c = about 0.25, w/c > 3, a/t < 0.5, and
σg/Sy < 0.8.

Find: What conclusions can be drawn from an analysis of Fig. 6.5h for the given
geometric and load conditions?
Schematic and Given Data:

2w/t > 6
a a/t < 0.5
a/2c = about 0.25
2c w/c > 3
!g/Sy < 0.8

P
2w
t

Assumptions: (1) Figure 6.5h is accurate for the range of plotted values. (2) Equation
(6.4) is valid for the conditions under which it is applicable.
Analysis:
1. Figure 6.5h applies to a slab with a plane semi-elliptical surface crack subject to a
uniform uniaxial tensile load where KI is for the point A on the semi-elliptical edge
crack.
2. Eq. 6.4 gives the stress intensity factor KI for 2w/t > 6, a/2c = about 0.25, w/c > 3,
a/t < 0.5, and σg/Sy < 0.8.

3. For Eq. (6.4), we focus on the conditions a/2c = 0.25 or a/c = 0.50 and a/t < 0.5.

4. We now examine Fig. 6.5h for a/c = 0.50 and a/t < 0.5. We note that the curves for
a/t < 0.5 are essentially horizontal and almost parallel to the a/t axis. Also, for a/c ≈
0.50, Y = KI/Ko ≈ 0.88.

6-22
5. For Eq. (6.4) with !g/S y < 0.8.
!g a !g a
KI = " = 1.60 ! g a
2 0.39
0.39 - 0.053(! g/S y)

6. From Fig. 6.5h, KI = Y Ko = Yσ √(π ) = 0.88 σg √(π ), and KI = 1.56σg √ .

7. We conclude that Eq. (6.4) -- for its limited range -- provides values of KI close to
(within 3%) of those given in Fig. 6.5h.
Comments: In Fig. 6.5h, note the rapidly increasing values of Y as a/t approaches 0.9.

6-23
SOLUTION (6.19)
Known: A machine frame made of steel having known Sy and Ssy is loaded in a test
fixture. The principal stresses at two critical points on the surface are known.
Find: Compute the test load at which the frame will experience initial yielding
according to the
(a) maximum-normal-stress theory
(b) maximum-shear-stress theory
(c) maximum-distortion-energy theory
Discuss the relative validity of each theory for this application. Compute the value of
test load at which yielding would commence.
Schematic and Given Data:
!2 = 100 MPa

!1 a !1 = 200 MPa

Test Load = 4 kN
!2
Sy = 400 MPa

Ssy = 250 MPa

!2 = -100 MPa

!1 b !1 = 150 MPa

!2

6-24
 !2 (MPa)

400

300

Load Line
for a
200

100 a 240
275
150 290
!1
100 200 300 400
(MPa)
b
-100 ! Theory

Load Line
for b
-200
0.577S y = -230
Ssy = -250

-300
" Theory Shear
D.E. Theory Diagonal
Mohr Theory
-400

Assumption: The material is homogeneous.

Analysis:
1. For the maximum-normal-stress theory, the σ1 - σ2 plot shows point a to be
critical. Failure is predicted at

(
Load = 4 kN 400 MPa = 8 kN
200 MPa ) ■
2. For maximum-shear-stress theory, the σ1 - σ2 plot shows point b to be critical.
Failure is predicted at

6-25
Analysis:
1. From the above Mohr-circle, σmax = (140 – (-100)) = 120 MPa
2. (a) For the maximum-normal-stress theory:
SF = 410/140 = 2.93 ■
(b) For the maximum-shear-stress theory:
SF = 205/τmax = 205/120 = 1.71 ■
(c) For the maximum-distortion-energy theory:
SF = 410/S', where from
Eq.(6.6) S' = [σ12 - σ1σ2 +
σ22]1/2
= [(140)2 - (140)(-100) + (- 100)2]1/2 = 208.8 MPa
thus, SF = 410/208.8 = 1.96 ■
3. The existence of a yield strength implies a ductile material for which:
• maximum-distortion-energy theory is best
• maximum-shear-stress theory may be acceptable
• maximum-normal-stress theory is not appropriate
SOLUTION (6.20)
Known: A machine component with given critical stresses is ductile, with yield
strengths in tension and compression of 410 MPa.
Find: Determine the safety factor according to:
(a) the maximum-normal-stress theory
(b) the maximum-shear-stress theory
(c) the maximum-distortion-energy theory
Schematic and Given Data:

σ1 = 175 MPa τ max = 137.5 MPa

σ2 = -100 MPa
σ3 = 0 ksi

σ2 σ3 σ1
Assumption: The material is homogeneous.

Analysis:
1. From the above Mohr-circle, σmax = (175 – (-100)) = 137.5 MPa
2. (a) For the maximum-normal-stress theory:
SF = 410/175 = 2.34 ■
(b) For the maximum-shear-stress theory:
SF = 205/τmax = 205/137.5 = 1.49 ■
(c) For the maximum-distortion-energy theory:
SF = 410/S', where from
Eq.(6.6) S' = [σ12 - σ1σ2 +
σ22]1/2
= [(175)2 - (175)(-100) + (- 100)2]1/2 = 241.1 MPa
thus, SF = 410/241.1 = 1.70 ■
3. The existence of a yield strength implies a ductile material for which:
• maximum-distortion-energy theory is best
• maximum-shear-stress theory may be acceptable
• maximum-normal-stress theory is not appropriate
 !2

80

* Relative positions for value of

yield strength of 80.
60

Load Line
for (4)
40

20 (4)

(1)
0 !1
20 40 60 80
(2)

-20 ! Theory*
(3), (5)
Load Line
for (2)
-40

-60
" Theory* Shear
D.E. Theory* Diagonal

-80

Assumption: We assume an arbitrary value for Sy = 80 in the above diagram.

Analysis:
1. For the maximum-normal-stress theory SF = Sy/σmax, and all stress states have the
same safety factor. ■
2. For the maximum-shear-stress theory, SF = Ssy/τmax, and the order of decreased
safety factor would be 1 & 4, 2, 3 & 5. ■
3. For the distortion energy theory, SF = Sy/σe where from Eq. (6.6), σe = (σ12 + σ22
- σ1σ2)1/2. The order of decreased safety factor is 4, 1, 2, 3 & 5. ■

6-29
Comments: For Sy = 80, the accompanying table lists the safety factors.
Table of Safety Factors

Maximum Maximum Distortion Maximum Maximum

normal shear energy normal shear Distortion
Stress stress, stress, stress, stress stress energy
state σmax τmax σe Theory Theory theory

1. σ1 = 30 30 15 30 2.7 2.7 2.7

σ2 = 0
2. σ1 = 30 30 22.5 39.69 2.7 1.8 2.0
σ2 = -15
3. σ1 = 30 30 30 51.96 2.7 1.3 1.5
σ2 = -30
4. σ1 = 30 30 15 25.98 2.7 2.7 3.1
σ2 = 15
5. τ = 30 30 30 51.96* 2.7 1.3 1.5

* σe = (3τxy2)1/2

6-30
SOLUTION (6.23)
Known: The solutions to problems (a) 4.46, (b) 4.49, (c) 4.51, (d) 4.53, (e) 4.55, (f)
4.56, (g) 4.58, (h) 4.62, and (i) 4.67 are given.
Find: Determine the tensile strength a ductile material must have in order to provide a
safety factor of 2 with respect to initial yielding at the locations investigated in the
above listed problems. Determine the answer using both the maximum-shear-stress
theory and the maximum-distortion-energy theory.
Assumption: The materials are homogeneous.
Analysis:
Answer Answer
Per τ Theory σeq From Per D.E. Theory
τmax Sy for SF = 2 Eqns. (6.5-6.8) Sy for SF = 2
(a) 97.5 MPa (@ "S") 390 MPa 185.4 MPa 371 MPa
(b) 128 MPa (@ "a") 512 MPa 241.4 MPa 483 MPa
(c) 37.2 ksi 148.8 ksi 68.1 ksi 136 ksi
(d) 17 ksi 68 ksi 31.9 ksi 64 ksi
(e) 34.3 MPa 137.2 MPa 66.0 MPa 132 MPa
(f) 278 MPa 1112 MPa 500 MPa 1000 MPa
(g) 110 MPa 440 MPa 193.6 MPa 387 MPa
(h) 200 MPa 800 MPa 346 MPa 692 MPa
(i) 350 MPa 1400 MPa 608 MPa 1216 MPa

SOLUTION (6.24)
Known: The solutions to problems (a) 4.46, (b) 4.49, (c) 4.51, (d) 4.53, (e) 4.55, (f)
4.56, (g) 4.58, (h) 4.62, and (i) 4.67 are given.
Find: Determine the tensile strength a ductile material must have in order to provide a
safety factor of 1.5 with respect to initial yielding at the location(s) investigated in the
above listed problems. Determine the answer using both the maximum-shear-stress
theory and the maximum-distortion-energy theory.
Assumption: The materials are homogeneous.

Analysis:
Answer Answer
Per τ Theory σeq From Per D.E. Theory
τmax Sy for SF = 1.5 Eqns. (6.5-6.8) Sy for SF = 1.5
(a) 97.5 MPa (@ "S") 293 MPa 185.4 MPa 278 MPa
(b) 128 MPa (@ "a") 384 MPa 241.4 MPa 362 MPa
(c) 37.2 ksi 112 ksi 68.1 ksi 102 ksi
(d) 17 ksi 51 ksi 31.9 ksi 47.9 ksi
(e) 34.3 MPa 102.9 MPa 66.0 MPa 99 MPa
(f) 278 MPa 834 MPa 500 MPa 750 MPa
(g) 110 MPa 330 MPa 193.6 MPa 290 MPa
(h) 200 MPa 600 MPa 346 MPa 519 MPa
(i) 350 MPa 1050 MPa 608 MPa 912 MPa

6-31
SOLUTION (6.25)
Known: The solutions to problems (a) 4.46, (b) 4.49, (c) 4.51, (d) 4.53, (e) 4.55, (f)
4.56, (g) 4.58, (h) 4.62, and (i) 4.67 are given.
Find: Use the modified Mohr theory to determine the ultimate tensile strength that
would be required of a brittle material in order to provide a safety factor of 4 to a
member subjected to the same state(s) of stress as the above listed problems. If
overloaded to failure, what would be the orientation of the brittle crack in each case?
Assumptions:
1. The materials are homogeneous.
2. The ultimate compressive strength is 3.5 times the ultimate tensile strength.
Analysis:
ANSWER ANSWER
σ1 Su for SF=4 Crack Orientation
(a) 174 MPa (@ "S") 696 MPa 19.3o C.W. from a transverse plane
(b) 225 MPa (@ "a") 900 MPa 20o C.C.W. from a transverse plane
(c) 58 ksi 232 ksi 28.3o C.C.W. from a transverse plane
(d) 30 ksi 120 ksi 19o C.W. from a transverse plane
(e) 63 MPa 252 MPa 16.5o C.W. from a transverse plane
(f) 556 MPa 2224 MPa 51.5o C.W. from a transverse plane
(g) 220 MPa 880 MPa 67.5o C.C.W. from a transverse plane
(h) 400 MPa 1600 MPa Longitudinal
(i) 600 MPa 2400 MPa Longitudinal

SOLUTION (6.26)
Known: The solutions to problems (a) 4.46, (b) 4.49, (c) 4.51, (d) 4.53, (e) 4.55, (f)
4.56, (g) 4.58, (h) 4.62, and (i) 4.67 are given.
Find: Use the modified Mohr theory to determine the ultimate tensile strength that
would be required of a brittle material in order to provide a safety factor of 3.5 to a
member subjected to the same state(s) of stress as the above listed problems. If
overloaded to failure, what would be the orientation of the brittle crack in each case?

Assumptions:
1. The materials are homogeneous.
2. The ultimate compressive strength is 3.5 times the ultimate tensile strength.
Analysis:
ANSWER ANSWER
σ1 Su for SF=3.5 Crack Orientation
(a) 174 MPa (@ "S") 609 MPa 19.3o C.W. from a transverse plane
(b) 225 MPa (@ "a") 788 MPa 20o C.C.W. from a transverse plane
(c) 58 ksi 203 ksi 28.3o C.C.W. from a transverse plane
(d) 30 ksi 105 ksi 19o C.W. from a transverse plane
(e) 63 MPa 221 MPa 16.5o C.W. from a transverse plane
(f) 556 MPa 1946 MPa 51.5o C.W. from a transverse plane
(g) 220 MPa 770 MPa 67.5o C.C.W. from a transverse plane
(h) 400 MPa 1400 MPa Longitudinal
(i) 600 MPa 2100 MPa Longitudinal

6-32
SOLUTION (6.27)
Known: The surface of a steel machine member is subjected to known principal
stresses.
Find: Determine the tensile yield strength required to provide a safety factor of 2 with
respect to initial yielding.
Schematic and Given Data:

!2 = 100 MPa

!1 !1 = 200 MPa

!2

"

!1 = 200 MPa
!2 = 100 MPa
!3 = 0 MPa " max = 100

!3 !2 !1
!
100 200
SF = 2
Sy = ?

Assumption: The material is homogeneous

Analysis:
1. Maximum-shear-stress theory:
For σ1 = 200 MPa, σ2 = 100 MPa, σ3 = 0
τmax = (0 + 200)/2 = 100 MPa.
Thus, for SF = 2, Sy = 400 MPa is required. ■
2. Maximum-distortion-energy theory:
From Eq. (6.6),
6-33
 σe = (σ12 + σ22 - σ1σ2)1/2
= [2002 + 1002 - (200)(100)]1/2 = 173.2 MPa.
Thus, for SF = 2, Sy = 346.4 MPa is required. ■
SOLUTION (6.28)
Known: The surface of a steel machine member is subjected to known principal
stresses.
Find: Determine the tensile yield strength required to provide a safety factor of 2 with
respect to initial yielding.
Schematic and Given Data:
!2 = 100 MPa

!1 !1 = 300 MPa

!2

"

!1 = 300 MPa
!2 = 100 MPa " max = 150

!3 = 0 MPa

!3 !2 !1
!
100 200 300
SF = 2
Sy = ?

Assumption: The material is homogeneous.

6-34
Analysis:
1. Maximum-shear-stress theory:
For σ1 = 300 MPa, σ2 = 100 MPa, σ3 = 0
τmax = (0 + 300)/2 = 150 MPa.
Thus, for SF = 2, Sy = 600 MPa is required. ■
2. Maximum-distortion-energy theory:
From Eq. (6.6),
σe = (σ12 + σ22 - σ1σ2)1/2
= [3002 + 1002 - (300)(100)]1/2 = 265 MPa.
Thus, for SF = 2, Sy = 530 MPa is required. ■
SOLUTION (6.29)
Known: A round steel bar with Sy = 500 MPa is loaded simultaneously with known
axial tension and torsion stresses.
Find: Determine the safety factor.
Schematic and Given Data:

Sy = 500 MPa

" xy = 100 MPa

!x !x = 50 MPa

" xy

Assumptions:
1. The rod material is ductile.
2. The material is homogeneous.
3. The distortion energy theory is preferred (it is more accurate than the other
theories).

6-35
Analysis:
1. From Eq. (6.8), the distortion energy stress is
σe = (σx2 + 3 τxy2)1/2 = (502 + 3(100)2)1/2
σe = 180.3 MPa
2. The safety factor is
SF = Sy/σe = 500/180.3 = 2.77

Comment: The maximum shear stress theory predicts a safety factor

Ssy Sy /2 250
SF = = = = 2. 43
!max " x - " y 2
100 + 252
!2xy + ( )2
2
SOLUTION (6.30)
Known: A round steel bar with Sy = 400 MPa is loaded simultaneously with known
axial tension and torsion stresses.
Find: Determine the safety factor.
Schematic and Given Data:
Sy = 400 MPa

" xy = 100 MPa

!x ! x = 50 MPa

" xy

Assumptions:
1. The rod material is ductile.
2. The material is homogeneous.
3. The distortion energy theory is preferred (it is more accurate than the other
theories).

6-36
Known

T ≔ 565 ⋅ N ⋅ m

Sy ≔ 410 ⋅ MPa

SF ≔ 2
16 ⋅ T
τ ＝ ――
π ⋅ d3

Sy
SF ＝ ――
σmax
from Mohr's circle, in the case of pure shear, the maximum normal stress equals the maximum
shear stress.
Sy Sy ⋅ π ⋅ d 3
SF ＝ ―＝ ―――
τ 16 ⋅ T

3 ‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
16 ⋅ T ⋅ SF
d≔ ―――― = 24.122 mm
Sy ⋅ π
(b) Maximum Shear Stress
Theory
Sy 3
―⋅ π ⋅ d
Sys 2
SF ＝ ―― ＝ ――――
τ 16 ⋅ T

3 ‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
32 ⋅ T ⋅ SF
d≔ ―――― = 30.392 mm
Sy ⋅ π
(c) Maximum Distortion Energy Theory

From Eq. (6.8),

σe ＝ ‾‾
3 ⋅τ

Sy Sy ⋅ π ⋅ d 3
SF ＝ ―＝ ――――
σe ‾‾
3 ⋅ 16 ⋅ T

3 ‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
‾‾
3 ⋅ 16 ⋅ T ⋅ SF
d≔ ―――――= 28.97 mm
Sy ⋅ π
SOLUTION (6.32)
Known: A round shaft of known strength and specified safety factor is loaded with a
known torque.
Find: Determine the shaft diameter.
Schematic and Given Data:
T = 6000 lb in.

Sy = 60 ksi
SF = 2

T
! xy = Tr/J = 16T/ " d 3

! xy

Assumption: The shaft material is homogeneous.

Analysis:
(a) For the maximum-normal-stress theory,

Sy Sy 60, 000
SF = 2 = = =
σmax τxy 16(6000)
3
πd
Solving for d, gives d = 1.01 in.
(b) For the maximum-shear-stress theory,

S sy S y /2 30, 000
SF = 2 = = =
τmax τxy 16(6000)
3
πd
Solving for d, gives d = 1.27 in. ■

6-39
(c) From Eq. (6.8), σe = 0 + 3τ 2 = 3 τ. For the distortion-energy theory,
Sy 60, 000
SF = 2 = =
σe 3 16(6000)
3
πd
Solving for d, gives d = 1.21 in. ■
Comments:
1. If the shaft is a ductile material, the distortion-energy theory is the most accurate,
followed by the maximum-shear-stress theory (most steel shafts are ductile). If the
shaft were a brittle material, then the normal-stress-theory would be the most
appropriate of the three theories used in the analysis.
2. Good test data pertaining to actual material and torsion loading would be
recommended to improve the failure theory prediction.
SOLUTION (6.33)
Known: A round steel bar of given strength is subjected to known tensile, torsional,
bending and transverse shear stresses.
Find: (a) Draw a sketch showing the maximum normal and shear stress, and (b)
determine the safety factor for yield failure.
Schematic and Given Data:
P/A + Mc/I = 70 + 300 = 370
Tc/J = 200

S
T

T
T
S

P/A = 70
-Tc/J + 4V/3A = 200 + 170 = 370

6-40
 "
S y = 800 MPa,

S Tensile Test
" max = 370 Y

Y T
200

X
-370 370 800

Assumption: The location T (top) is subjected to torsion and bending tension, but no
transverse shear. Location S (side) is on a neutral bending axis and is on the side where
4V/3A and Tc/J are additive.
Analysis:
1. The Mohr circle plot shows "S" has the higher shear stress, and "T" the higher
tensile stress. These locations are 90o apart.
2. The safety factor with respect to initial yielding according to the maximum-shear-
stress theory is
S /2
SF = τ y = 400 = 1. 08 ■
max 370
3. From Eq. (6.8),
!e = 3(370) = 641 MPa
4. The safety factor according to the distortion energy theory is
S
SF = σy = 800 = 1. 25
e 641 ■
Comments:
1. The effect of tensile force P/A is not considered while calculating the stresses on
location S. If it is considered the safety factors according to the maximum shear
stress theory and distortion energy theory are 1.076 and 1.24 respectively.
2. The maximum shear stress theory is more conservative in predicting failure than
the distortion energy theory.

6-41
SOLUTION (6.34)
Known: A steel member has a specified safety factor and given stresses.
Find: Determine the tensile yield strength with respect to initial yielding according to:
(a) the maximum-shear-stress theory, (b) the maximum-distortion-energy theory.
Schematic and Given Data:

! 3 = - 80 MPa

!1 ! 1 = 100 MPa

SF = 2.5
! = 20 MPa
!3 2

Analysis:
(a) For the maximum-shear-stress theory,
with !1 = 100 MPa, !2 = 20 MPa, and !3 = -80 MPa, we have
!max = (100 + 80)/2 = 90 MPa
Sy = (2. 5)(2)(!max) = 450 MPa ■
(b) For the maximum-distortion-stress theory, using Eq.(6.5)

!e = 2 (!2-!1)2+(!3-!1)2+(!3-!2)2 1/2 = 2 (-80)2+(-180)2+(-100)2 1/2 = 156 MPa

2 2
The yield strength is Sy = 2. 5(!e) = 390 MPa ■

6-42
SOLUTION (6.35)
Known: A downhold oil tool has known biaxial static stresses, an ultimate tensile
strength of 97,000 psi and a yield strength of 63,300 psi.
Find: Determine the safety factor according to:
(a) the maximum-normal-stress theory
(b) the maximum-shear-stress theory
(c) the maximum-distortion-energy theory
Schematic and Given Data:

! 2 = 25,000 psi

!1 ! 1 = 45,000 psi

!2

Analysis:
1. Maximum-normal-stress theory
For !1 = 45, 000 psi, Sy = 63, 300 psi

SF = Sy/!1 = 63, 300/45, 000 = 1. 4 ■

2. Maximum-shear-stress theory
For !1 = 45, 000 psi, !2 = 25, 000 psi, !3 = 0

!max = (0 + 45, 000)/2 = 22, 500 psi

SF = Ssy/!max = 31, 650/22, 500 = 1. 41 ■
3. Maximum-distortion-energy theory

!e = (!21 + !22 - !1!2)1/2

= (45, 000)2+(25, 000)2-(45, 000)(25, 000) 1/2

= 39, 051 psi

The safety factor is SF = Sy/!e = 63, 300/39, 051 = 1. 62 ■

6-43
σx ≔ 300 ⋅ MPa Su ≔ 668.8 ⋅ MPa

σy ≔ 175 ⋅ MPa Sy ≔ 436.4 ⋅ MPa

τxy ≔ 100 ⋅ MPa

From Eq. (4.16)

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
2
⎛ σx + σy ⎞ ⎛ σx − σy ⎞ 2
σ1 ≔ ⎜――― ⎟+ ⎜――― ⎟ + τxy = 355.425 MPa
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

Sy
SFa ≔ ―= 1.228
σ1
(b) Maximum Shear Stress Theory

From Eq. (4.18)

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
2
⎛ σx − σy ⎞ 2
τmax ≔ ⎜――― ⎟ + τxy
⎝ 2 ⎠

Sy
―
2
SFb ≔ ―― = 1.85
τmax
(c) Maximum Distortion Energy Theory

From Eq. (6.7)

σe ≔ ‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
σx 2 + σy 2 − σx ⋅ σy + 3 ⋅ τxy 2 = 313.249 MPa

Sy
SFc ≔ ―= 1.393
σe
SOLUTION (6.37)
Known: The distribution of the maximum load encountered and the distribution of the
part strength are known.
Find: Determine the failure percentage expected in service.
Schematic and Given Data:
Maximum Load Strength of Part

µ y = 20 kN µ x = 25 kN

! y = 3.0 kN !x = 2.0 kN

Y X

20 25

µ z = 5 kN
!z = ?
Z

0 5

Failures

Assumption: Both the part loads and the part strengths are normally distributed.
Analysis:
1. From Eq. (6.14), µz = µx - µy = 25 - 20 = 5 kN
2. From Eq. (6.15), !z = !2x + !2y = (2. 0)2 + (3. 0)2 = 3. 6 kN

6-46
3. Thus, failures begin at µz/σz = 5 kN/3.6 kN = 1.39 standard deviations below the
mean in the z distribution.
4. Figure 6.20 shows 8% failures. ■

SOLUTION (6.38)
Known: A machine part is subjected to a known maximum load. The maximum load,
part strength, and their standard deviations are known.
Find:
(a) Determine the value to which the standard deviation of part strength would have to
be reduced in order to give a failure rate of only 5%, with no other change.
(b) Determine the value to which the nominal part strength would have to be increased
to give a failure rate of only 5%, with no other changes?
Schematic and Given Data:
(a)
Maximum Load Strength of Part

µ y = 20 kN µ x = 25 kN µz = 5 kN
! y = 3 kN ! x = ? kN !z = ?
Y X Z

20 25 0 5

5% Failures

(b)
Maximum Load Strength of Part

µ y = 20 kN µ x = ? kN µz = ?
!y = 3 kN !x = 2 kN !z = 3.6
Y X Z

20 0 5

5% Failures

6-47
Analysis:
1. A 5% failure corresponds to 1.7 standard deviations (from Fig. 6.20).
σz = 5/1.7 = 2.9 kN
!x = !2z - !2y = (2. 9)2 - (3. 0)2
This is not possible. ■
2. For 5% failures with σz = 3.6 (from Prob. 6.37), µz = (1.7) (3.6) = 6.12 kN.
Thus, µx = µz + µy = 6.12 + 20.0 = 26.12 kN ■

Comments:
1. If the failure rate were 6% (from Fig. (6.20), 6% failure corresponds to 1.6
standard deviations), then
σz = 5/1.6 = 3.125 kN and
!x = !2z - !2y = (3. 125)2 - (3. 0)2 = 0. 875 kN

2. For 6% failures with σz = 3.6 (from Prob. 6.37), µz = (1.6) (3.6) = 5.76 kN, and
µx = µz + µy = 5.76 + 20.0 = 25.76 kN

SOLUTION (6.39)
Known: The distribution of the maximum load encountered and the distribution of the
part strength are known.
Find: Determine the failure percentage expected in service.
Schematic and Given Data:

Maximum Load Strength of Part

µ y = 10 kN µ x = 15 kN

!y = 2 kN !x = 1.5 kN

Y X

10 15

6-48
 µ z = 5 kN

!z = ?
Z

0 5

Failures

Assumption: Both the part loads and the part strengths are normally distributed.
Analysis:
1. From Eq. (6.14), µz = µx - µy = 15 - 10 = 5 kN
2 2
2. From Eq. (6.15), σ z = σ 2x + σ 2y = 1. 5 + 2 = 2. 5 kN
3. Thus, failures begin at µz/σz = 5 kN/2.5 kN = 2 standard deviations below the
mean in the z distribution.
4. Figure 6.20 shows 2.27% failures. ■

6-49
SOLUTION (6.40)
Known: A machine part is subjected to a known maximum load. The maximum load,
part strength, and their standard deviations are known.
Find:
(a) Determine the value to which the standard deviation of part strength would have to
be reduced in order to give a failure rate of only 1%, with no other change.
(b) Determine the value to which the nominal part strength would have to be increased
to give a failure rate of only 1%, with no other changes?
Schematic and Given Data:
(a)

Maximum Load Strength of Part

µ y = 10 kN µ x = 15 kN µ z = 5 kN
! y = 2 kN !x = ? kN !z = ?
Y X Z

10 15 0 5

1% Failures

(b)
Maximum Load Strength of Part

µ y = 10 kN µ x = ? kN µz = ?
!y = 2 kN !x = 1.5 kN !z = 2.5
Y X Z

10 15 0 5

1% Failures

Assumption: Both the part loads and the part strengths are normally distributed.

Analysis:
1. A 1% failure corresponds to 2.35 standard deviations (from Fig. 6.20).
6-50
 σz = 5/2.35 = 2.13 kN
2 2
σ x = σ z2 − σ y2 = 2. 13 - 2 = 0. 73 kN ■
2. For 1% failures with σz = 2.5 (from Prob. 6.39), µz must be µz = (2.35) (2.5) = 5.8
kN. Thus, µx = µz + µy = 5.8 + 10.0 = 15.8 kN ■

SOLUTION (6.41)
Known: A shaft is subjected to a known maximum load. The maximum load, part
strength, and their standard deviations are known.
Find: Determine failure percentage.
Schematic and Given Data:
(a)
Maximum Load Strength of Part

µ y = 10 kN µ x = 15 kN

!y = 2.5 kN !x = 2 kN

Y X

10 15

(b)

µ z = 5 kN

!z = ?
Z

0 5

Failures

6-51
Assumption: Both the parts loads and the part strengths are normally distributed.
Analysis:
1. µz = µx - µy = 5 kN
2. σz = σ 2x + σ 2y = 3. 2 kN
3. Failures begin at µz/σz = 5 kN/3.2 kN = 1.56 standard deviations below the mean
in the z distribution.
4. Figure 6.20 shows 7.0% failures. ■

SOLUTION (6.42)
Known: A shaft is subjected to a known maximum load. The shaft strength, the
maximum load, and their standard deviations are known.
Find:
(a) Determine the value to which the standard deviation of shaft strength would have
to be reduced in order to give a failure rate of only 3%, with no other change.
(b) Determine the value to which the nominal shaft strength would have to be
increased to give a failure rate of only 3%, with no other changes.
Schematic and Given Data:
(a)

Maximum Load Strength of Shaft

µ y = 10 kN µ x = 15 kN µ z = 5 kN
!y = 2.5 kN !x = ? kN !z = ?
Y X Z

10 15 0 5

3% Failures

6-52
(b)

Maximum Load Strength of Shaft

µ y = 10 kN µ x = ? kN µz = ?
!y = 2.5 kN !x = 2.0 kN ! z = 3.2
Y X Z

10 15 0 5

3% Failures

Assumption: Both the part loads and the part strengths are normally distributed.
Analysis:
1. A 3% failure corresponds to 1.9 standard deviations (from Fig. 6.20).
σz = 5/1.9 = 2.63 kN
!x = !z2 " !y2 = 2. 632 - 2. 52 = 0. 82 kN ■
2. For 3% failures with σz = 3.2 (from Prob. 6.41), µz must be µz = (1.9) (3.2) =
6.08 kN. Thus, µx = µz + µy = 6.08 + 10.0 = 16.08 kN ■

6-53