LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS

E LECTRONIC VERSION OF LECTURE

Hoang Hai Ha

June 22, 2023

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O UTLINE

1 D EFINITIONS AND T ERMINOLOGY

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O UTLINE

1 D EFINITIONS AND T ERMINOLOGY

2 M ATRICES FOR G ENERAL L INEAR T RANSFORMATIONS

Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 2 / 41

O UTLINE

1 D EFINITIONS AND T ERMINOLOGY

2 M ATRICES FOR G ENERAL L INEAR T RANSFORMATIONS

3 T HE KERNEL AND RANGE OF A LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

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O UTLINE

1 D EFINITIONS AND T ERMINOLOGY

2 M ATRICES FOR G ENERAL L INEAR T RANSFORMATIONS

3 T HE KERNEL AND RANGE OF A LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

4 A PPLICATIONS

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D EFINITION 1.1
If f : E 7→ F is a mapping from a vector space E to a vector space F ,
then f is called a linear transformation from E to F if the following 2
properties hold for all vectors x and y in E and for all scalars λ:
½
f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y), ∀x, y ∈ E
f (λx) = λ f (x), ∀λ ∈ R, ∀x ∈ E .

We denote the set of all linear transformations from E to F by L (E , F ).

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D EFINITION 1.1
If f : E 7→ F is a mapping from a vector space E to a vector space F ,
then f is called a linear transformation from E to F if the following 2
properties hold for all vectors x and y in E and for all scalars λ:
½
f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y), ∀x, y ∈ E
f (λx) = λ f (x), ∀λ ∈ R, ∀x ∈ E .

We denote the set of all linear transformations from E to F by L (E , F ).

Vector y = f (x) ∈ F is called image(range) of linear

transformation.
Vector x ∈ E such that y = f (x) is called the preimage of y.

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E XAMPLE 1.1
The mapping f : R2 → R3 which is defined for ∀x = (x 1 , x 2 ), by
f (x) = (3x 1 − x 2 , x 1 , x 1 + x 2 ) is a linear transformation.

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E XAMPLE 1.1
The mapping f : R2 → R3 which is defined for ∀x = (x 1 , x 2 ), by
f (x) = (3x 1 − x 2 , x 1 , x 1 + x 2 ) is a linear transformation.

∀x = (x 1 , x 2 ), y = (y 1 , y 2 ) ∈ R2 ,

f(x+y) = (3(x 1 + y 1 ) − (x 2 + y 2 ), x 1 + y 1 , (x 1 + y 1 ) + (x 2 + y 2 ))
(3x 1 − x 2 , x 1 , x 1 + x 2 ) + (3y 1 − y 2 , y 1 , y 1 + y 2 ) = f(x)+f(y)

∀λ ∈ R, ∀x ∈ R2 ,

f (λx) = (3λx 1 − λx 2 , λx 1 , λx 1 + λx 2 )
= λ(3x 1 − x 2 , x 1 , x 1 + x 2 ) = λ f (x).

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E XAMPLE 1.2
The mapping f : R2 → R2 defined by ∀x = (x 1 , x 2 ), f (x) = (2x 12 − x 2 , x 2 )
is NOT a linear transformation.

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E XAMPLE 1.2
The mapping f : R2 → R2 defined by ∀x = (x 1 , x 2 ), f (x) = (2x 12 − x 2 , x 2 )
is NOT a linear transformation.

Indeed, f (λx) = (2(λx 1 )2 − λx 2 , λx 2 ) = (2λ2 x 12 − λx 2 , λx 2 ) ̸=

λ(2x 12 − x 2 , x 2 ) = λ. f (x), if λ ̸= 1

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E XAMPLE 1.3
For any vector x = (x 1 , x 2 ) ∈ R2 , let T : R2 → R2 be defined by:

T (x) = (x 1 − x 2 , x 1 + 2x 2 )

a) Find the image of x = (−1, 2).

b) Find the preimage of w = (−1, 11).

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E XAMPLE 1.4
Let f : R3 → R2 be a linear transformation such that:
f (1, 0, 0) = (2, 3), f (−1, 1, 0) = (3, 4), f (0, −1, 1) = (2, 1). Find f (x).

Solution
Let x = (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) ∈ R3 .
Denote the basis E = {e 1 = (1, 0, 0), e 2 = (−1, 1, 0), e 3 = (0, −1, 1)}.

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E XAMPLE 1.4
Let f : R3 → R2 be a linear transformation such that:
f (1, 0, 0) = (2, 3), f (−1, 1, 0) = (3, 4), f (0, −1, 1) = (2, 1). Find f (x).

Solution
Let x = (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) ∈ R3 .
Denote the basis E = {e 1 = (1, 0, 0), e 2 = (−1, 1, 0), e 3 = (0, −1, 1)}.
Find λ1 , λ2 , λ3 such that x = λ1 e 1 + λ2 e 2 + λ3 e 3 .

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E XAMPLE 1.4
Let f : R3 → R2 be a linear transformation such that:
f (1, 0, 0) = (2, 3), f (−1, 1, 0) = (3, 4), f (0, −1, 1) = (2, 1). Find f (x).

Solution
Let x = (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) ∈ R3 .
Denote the basis E = {e 1 = (1, 0, 0), e 2 = (−1, 1, 0), e 3 = (0, −1, 1)}.
Find λ1 , λ2 , λ3 such that x = λ1 e 1 + λ2 e 2 + λ3 e 3 .
We have
−1   
λ1
   
1 −1 0 x1 x1 + x2 + x3
λ2  = 0 1 −1 x 2  =  x 2 + x 3 
λ3 0 0 1 x3 x3

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E XAMPLE 1.4
Let f : R3 → R2 be a linear transformation such that:
f (1, 0, 0) = (2, 3), f (−1, 1, 0) = (3, 4), f (0, −1, 1) = (2, 1). Find f (x).

Solution
Let x = (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) ∈ R3 .
Denote the basis E = {e 1 = (1, 0, 0), e 2 = (−1, 1, 0), e 3 = (0, −1, 1)}.
Find λ1 , λ2 , λ3 such that x = λ1 e 1 + λ2 e 2 + λ3 e 3 .
We have
−1   
λ1
   
1 −1 0 x1 x1 + x2 + x3
λ2  = 0 1 −1 x 2  =  x 2 + x 3 
λ3 0 0 1 x3 x3

We have
f (x) = λ1 f (e 1 ) + λ2 f (e 2 ) + λ3 f (e 3 )
= (x 1 + x 2 + x 3 )(2, 3) + (x 2 + x 3 )(3, 4) + x 3 (2, 1)
= (2x 1 + 5x 2 + 7x 3 , 3x 1 + 7x 2 + 8x 3 ).
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E XAMPLE 2.1
The function f : R2 → R3 is defined as follows.
 
3 0 µ ¶
x
[ f (x)]T = Ax T =  2 1 1
x2
−1 −2

a. Show that f (x) is a linear transformation from R2 into R3 .

b. Find f (x), where x = (−2, 1).

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Given a linear transformation f : R3 → R3

f (x) = f (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) = (2x 1 + x 2 − x 3 , −x 1 + 3x 2 − 2x 3 , 3x 2 + 4x 3 )

or

Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 9 / 41

Given a linear transformation f : R3 → R3

f (x) = f (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) = (2x 1 + x 2 − x 3 , −x 1 + 3x 2 − 2x 3 , 3x 2 + 4x 3 )

or   
2 1 −1 x 1
[ f (x)]T = Ax T = −1 3 −2 x 2  .
0 3 4 x3
Which representation is better?

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T HEOREM 2.1
Every linear transformation from Rn → Rm can be represented by an
m × n matrix. Conversely, every matrix m × n represents a linear
transformation from Rn → Rm , i.e, we can always write a linear
transformation in the form

[ f (x)]T = Ax T

where A m×n matrix. Matrix A is called matrix representation or

standard matrix for f .

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E XAMPLE 2.2
The linear transformation f : R2 → R3

f (x) = (2x 1 − 3x 2 , −5x 1 , −2x 2 )

can be written in matrix form

 
2 −3 µ ¶
x
[ f (x)]T = −5 0  1 = Ax T .
x2
0 −2

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R EMARK !
Let f (x) be linear mapping from Rm → Rn such that

[ f (x)]T = Ax T .

If we are given vector images of a basis E in Rm , that is we know f (E ),

then
f (E ) = AE

⇔ A = f (E )E −1
where f (E ), E are two matrices formed by putting image vectors and
vectors of the basis in column, respectively.

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E XAMPLE 2.3
Let f : R3 → R2 be a linear transformation such that:
f (1, 0, 0) = (2, 3), f (−1, 1, 0) = (3, 4), f (0, −1, 1) = (2, 1).
Find f (3, 4, 5).
Find f (x).

Solution  
1 −1 0
The matrix basis E = 0 1 −1, the matrix image
0 0 1
µ ¶
2 3 2
f (E ) = .
3 4 1

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E XAMPLE 2.3
Let f : R3 → R2 be a linear transformation such that:
f (1, 0, 0) = (2, 3), f (−1, 1, 0) = (3, 4), f (0, −1, 1) = (2, 1).
Find f (3, 4, 5).
Find f (x).

Solution  
1 −1 0
The matrix basis E = 0 1 −1, the matrix image
0 0 1
µ ¶
2 3 2
f (E ) = .
3 4 1
The matrix representation(the standard matrix) for f is
 
µ ¶ x1
−1 2 5 7 T
A = f (E )E = ⇒ [ f (x)] = A x 2  .

3 7 8
x3

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D EFINITION 3.1
If f : E 7→ F is a linear transformation, then
1 The set of all vectors in E that maps into 0 is called the kernel of f :

K er ( f ) = {x ∈ E : f (x) = 0} (1)

2 The set of all vectors in F that are images under f of at least one
vector in E is called the range of f :

I m( f ) = {y ∈ F : ∃x ∈ E , y = f (x)} = f (E ) (2)

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T HEOREM 3.1
If f : E 7→ F is a linear transformation, then
1 The kernel K er ( f ) of f is a subspace of E .
2 The range I m( f ) of f is a subspace of F .

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R ELATION BETWEEN THE DIMENSIONS OF K ERNEL AND
R ANGE

T HEOREM 3.2
Let f : E → F be the linear transformation. Then

d i m(I m( f )) + d i m(ker ( f )) = d i m(E )

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S CHEME FINDING ker ( f ) AND I m( f ) FOR f : Rn → Rm

Ker(f)
Let A be the standard matrix for f , then K er ( f ) ≡ nul l (A).

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S CHEME FINDING ker ( f ) AND I m( f ) FOR f : Rn → Rm

Ker(f)
Let A be the standard matrix for f , then K er ( f ) ≡ nul l (A).
Im(f )
Choose a basis B of Rn (standard basis is recommended),
B = {e 1 , e 2 , ..., e n }.
Let x ∈ Rn , then x = λ1 e 1 + λ2 e 2 + ... + λn e n .

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S CHEME FINDING ker ( f ) AND I m( f ) FOR f : Rn → Rm

Ker(f)
Let A be the standard matrix for f , then K er ( f ) ≡ nul l (A).
Im(f )
Choose a basis B of Rn (standard basis is recommended),
B = {e 1 , e 2 , ..., e n }.
Let x ∈ Rn , then x = λ1 e 1 + λ2 e 2 + ... + λn e n .
y = f (x) = λ1 f (e 1 ) + λ2 f (e 2 ) + .... + λn f (e n ).

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S CHEME FINDING ker ( f ) AND I m( f ) FOR f : Rn → Rm

Ker(f)
Let A be the standard matrix for f , then K er ( f ) ≡ nul l (A).
Im(f )
Choose a basis B of Rn (standard basis is recommended),
B = {e 1 , e 2 , ..., e n }.
Let x ∈ Rn , then x = λ1 e 1 + λ2 e 2 + ... + λn e n .
y = f (x) = λ1 f (e 1 ) + λ2 f (e 2 ) + .... + λn f (e n ).
⇒ I m( f ) = span{ f (e 1 ), f (e 2 ), ... f (e n )}.

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E XAMPLE 3.1
If f : R3 → R2 is defined by
f (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) = (x 1 − x 2 , x 2 + x 3 )
1 Find K er ( f ), its dimension and a basis.
2 Find I m( f ), its dimension and a basis .

Solution.
1 Find K er f .
µ ¶
1 −1 0
The standard matrix is A = .
0 1 1
K er ( f ) ≡ null(A), thus dimK er f = 1.
A basis of K er f : {(−1, −1, 1)}.

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E XAMPLE 3.1
If f : R3 → R2 is defined by
f (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) = (x 1 − x 2 , x 2 + x 3 )
1 Find K er ( f ), its dimension and a basis.
2 Find I m( f ), its dimension and a basis .

Solution.
1 Find K er f .
µ ¶
1 −1 0
The standard matrix is A = .
0 1 1
K er ( f ) ≡ null(A), thus dimK er f = 1.
A basis of K er f : {(−1, −1, 1)}.
2 Find I m( f ).
The columns of A are images of the standard basis in R3 .

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E XAMPLE 3.1
If f : R3 → R2 is defined by
f (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) = (x 1 − x 2 , x 2 + x 3 )
1 Find K er ( f ), its dimension and a basis.
2 Find I m( f ), its dimension and a basis .

Solution.
1 Find K er f .
µ ¶
1 −1 0
The standard matrix is A = .
0 1 1
K er ( f ) ≡ null(A), thus dimK er f = 1.
A basis of K er f : {(−1, −1, 1)}.
2 Find I m( f ).
The columns of A are images of the standard basis in R3 .
Thus, I m( f ) = span{(1, 0), (−1, 1), (0, 1)}.

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E XAMPLE 3.1
If f : R3 → R2 is defined by
f (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) = (x 1 − x 2 , x 2 + x 3 )
1 Find K er ( f ), its dimension and a basis.
2 Find I m( f ), its dimension and a basis .

Solution.
1 Find K er f .
µ ¶
1 −1 0
The standard matrix is A = .
0 1 1
K er ( f ) ≡ null(A), thus dimK er f = 1.
A basis of K er f : {(−1, −1, 1)}.
2 Find I m( f ).
The columns of A are images of the standard basis in R3 .
Thus, I m( f ) = span{(1, 0), (−1, 1), (0, 1)}.
dimI m( f ) = r ank(A) = 2.
A basis of I m f is {(1, 0), (0, −1)}.
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E XAMPLE 3.2
Let f : R3 → R3 be a linear transformation defined by
f (1, 0, 0) = (1, 1, 1), f (−1, 1, 0) = (−2, −1, 0), f (0, −1, 1) = (2, 1, 3).
Find f (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 )
Find the dimension and a basis for K er f
Find the dimension and a basis for I m f

Solution.
Determine the standard matrix for f :
   −1  
1 −2 2 1 −1 0 1 −1 1
A = 1 −1 1 × 0 1 −1 = 1 0 1.
1 0 3 0 0 1 1 1 4
| {z } | {z }
f (E ) E −1
rank(A) = 3 ⇒ dim

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M ATRIX REPRESENTATION IN GENERAL BASES

D EFINITION 3.2
Let f : Rn → Rm be a linear transformation and E = {e 1 , e 2 , ..., e n } be a
basis for Rn , F = { f 1 , f 2 , ..., f m } be a basis for Rm . Then

.. .. .. ..
 
 . . ··· . ··· . 
A E ,F = [ f (e 1 )]F [ f (e 2 )]F · · · [ f (e i )]F · · · [ f (e n )]F 

.. .. .. ..

. . ··· . ··· . m×n

is called the matrix representation of f with respect to E and F .

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M ATRIX REPRESENTATION IN GENERAL BASES

D EFINITION 3.2
Let f : Rn → Rm be a linear transformation and E = {e 1 , e 2 , ..., e n } be a
basis for Rn , F = { f 1 , f 2 , ..., f m } be a basis for Rm . Then

.. .. .. ..
 
 . . ··· . ··· . 
A E ,F = [ f (e 1 )]F [ f (e 2 )]F · · · [ f (e i )]F · · · [ f (e n )]F 

.. .. .. ..

. . ··· . ··· . m×n

is called the matrix representation of f with respect to E and F .

R EMARK
When both E and E are standard bases of Rn , Rm then A E ,F becomes
the standard matrix for f .

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E XAMPLE 3.3
Find the standard matrix of the linear transformation f : R2 → R2
given by projecting each vector in R2 onto the x-axis.

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E XAMPLE 3.3
Find the standard matrix of the linear transformation f : R2 → R2
given by projecting each vector in R2 onto the x-axis.

Solution
To find the standard matrix, we have to find images of the
standard basis in R2 , that is, we find the projections of
{e 1 = (1, 0), e 2 = (0, 1)}.

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E XAMPLE 3.3
Find the standard matrix of the linear transformation f : R2 → R2
given by projecting each vector in R2 onto the x-axis.

Solution
To find the standard matrix, we have to find images of the
standard basis in R2 , that is, we find the projections of
{e 1 = (1, 0), e 2 = (0, 1)}.
We have f (e 1 ) = e 1 = (1, 0), f (e 2 ) = (0, 0).
µ ¶
1 0
Then the standard matrix is A = .
0 0

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E XAMPLE 3.4
Let f (x) : R3 → R2 such that f (x) = (x 1 + 2x 2 − 3x 3 , 2x 1 + x 3 )
E = {(1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0)}, F = {(1, 1), (1, 2)}. Find A E ,F .

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E XAMPLE 3.5
Let f: R3 → R3 be defined
 by ( f (x))T = Ax T , where
1 −3 1
A = 0 2 −1  . Find the matrix for f relative to the basis B,

4 3 1
where B = {(1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 0)}.

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T HEOREM 3.3
For any linear transformation f : V → W , there exists one and only
one matrix A E ,F which is matrix representation of f with respect to E
and F . Then:
[ f (x)]F = A E ,F [x]E
where E , F are the bases of V , W respectively.

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E XAMPLE 3.6
· ¸
2 1 3
Given the linear mapping f : R → R and A E ,F
3 2
= is the
0 3 4
matrix representation with respect to two bases
E = {(1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0)} and F = {(1, 1), (2, 1)}. Find f (3, 1, 5).

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E XAMPLE 3.7
Let f : R2 → R2 be the linear transformation µ and the
¶ matrix for f
1 −1
relative to the basis B = {(1, 1), (−1, 1)} be . Find f (−1, 5).
0 2

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E XAMPLE 3.7
Let f : R2 → R2 be the linear transformation µ and the
¶ matrix for f
1 −1
relative to the basis B = {(1, 1), (−1, 1)} be . Find f (−1, 5).
0 2

Scheme:
1. Find [−1, 5]B
2. Since [ f ((−1, 5))]B = A B [−1, 5]B , → [ f (1, 5)]B → f (1, 5)

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H ORIZONTAL SCALING

D EFINITION 4.1
f : R2 → R2 : f (x, y) = (kx, y).

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V ERTICAL SCALING

D EFINITION 4.2
f : R2 → R2 : f (x, y) = (x, k y).

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H ORIZONTAL SHEAR IN PLANE

D EFINITION 4.3
A linear transformation f (x, y) : R2 → R2 is called horizontal shear if
f (x, y) = (x + k y, y), k ∈ R.

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V ERTICAL SHEAR IN PLANE

D EFINITION 4.4
A linear transformation f (x, y) : R2 → R2 is called vertical shear if
f (x, y) = (x, y + kx), k ∈ R.

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R OTATION

E XAMPLE 4.1
In R2 , given the linear mapping f by rotation a vector about origin
π
counterclockwise an angle of α = . Find f (3, 4).
3
Solution

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R OTATION

E XAMPLE 4.1
In R2 , given the linear mapping f by rotation a vector about origin
π
counterclockwise an angle of α = . Find f (3, 4).
3
Solution
Find the standard matrix: determine images of the standard
basis in R2 , f (1, 0) = (cos α, sin α), f (0, 1) = (− sin α, cos α).

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R OTATION

E XAMPLE 4.1
In R2 , given the linear mapping f by rotation a vector about origin
π
counterclockwise an angle of α = . Find f (3, 4).
3
Solution
Find the standard matrix: determine images of the standard
basis in R2 , f (1, 0) = (cos α, sin α), f (0, 1) = (− sin α, cos α).
The standard matrix is
à p !
1 3
p2
− 2
A= 3 1
2 2

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R OTATION

E XAMPLE 4.1
In R2 , given the linear mapping f by rotation a vector about origin
π
counterclockwise an angle of α = . Find f (3, 4).
3
Solution
Find the standard matrix: determine images of the standard
basis in R2 , f (1, 0) = (cos α, sin α), f (0, 1) = (− sin α, cos α).
The standard matrix is
à p !
1 3
p2
− 2
A= 3 1
2 2

µ ¶
T 3
Then f (3, 4) = A .
4
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E XAMPLE 4.2
In R3 , given the linear mapping f by rotation a vector about z axis
π
counterclockwise(view from Oz to Ox y plane) an angle . Find
4
f (1, 3, 4).

Solution

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E XAMPLE 4.2
In R3 , given the linear mapping f by rotation a vector about z axis
π
counterclockwise(view from Oz to Ox y plane) an angle . Find
4
f (1, 3, 4).

Solution
Find the standard matrix: determine images of the standard
basis in R3 , f (1, 0, 0) = (cos α, sin α, 0), f (0, 1, 0) =
(− sin α, cos α, 0), f (0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 1).

Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 33 / 41

E XAMPLE 4.2
In R3 , given the linear mapping f by rotation a vector about z axis
π
counterclockwise(view from Oz to Ox y plane) an angle . Find
4
f (1, 3, 4).

Solution
Find the standard matrix: determine images of the standard
basis in R3 , f (1, 0, 0) = (cos α, sin α, 0), f (0, 1, 0) =
(− sin α, cos α, 0), f (0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 1).
The standard matrix is

A = f (1, 0, 0)T ; f (0, 1, 0)T ; f (0, 0, 1)T

¡ ¢

Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 33 / 41

E XAMPLE 4.2
In R3 , given the linear mapping f by rotation a vector about z axis
π
counterclockwise(view from Oz to Ox y plane) an angle . Find
4
f (1, 3, 4).

Solution
Find the standard matrix: determine images of the standard
basis in R3 , f (1, 0, 0) = (cos α, sin α, 0), f (0, 1, 0) =
(− sin α, cos α, 0), f (0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 1).
The standard matrix is

A = f (1, 0, 0)T ; f (0, 1, 0)T ; f (0, 0, 1)T

¡ ¢

 
1
T
Then f (1, 3, 4) = A 3.

4
Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 33 / 41
P ROJECTION

E XAMPLE 4.3
In R3 , given the linear mapping be projection onto plane
3x + y − 4z = 0. Find f (1, 1, 2), the dim and a basis of Kerf.

Solution

Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 34 / 41

P ROJECTION

E XAMPLE 4.3
In R3 , given the linear mapping be projection onto plane
3x + y − 4z = 0. Find f (1, 1, 2), the dim and a basis of Kerf.

Solution
Taking the basis E = {e 1 = (3, 1, −4), e 2 = (−1, 3, 0), e 3 = (4, 0, 3)} in
R3 .

Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 34 / 41

P ROJECTION

E XAMPLE 4.3
In R3 , given the linear mapping be projection onto plane
3x + y − 4z = 0. Find f (1, 1, 2), the dim and a basis of Kerf.

Solution
Taking the basis E = {e 1 = (3, 1, −4), e 2 = (−1, 3, 0), e 3 = (4, 0, 3)} in
R3 .
f (e 1 ) = (0, 0, 0), f (e 2 ) = (−1, 3, 0), f (e 3 ) = (4, 0, 3).

Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 34 / 41

P ROJECTION

E XAMPLE 4.3
In R3 , given the linear mapping be projection onto plane
3x + y − 4z = 0. Find f (1, 1, 2), the dim and a basis of Kerf.

Solution
Taking the basis E = {e 1 = (3, 1, −4), e 2 = (−1, 3, 0), e 3 = (4, 0, 3)} in
R3 .
f (e 1 ) = (0, 0, 0), f (e 2 ) = (−1, 3, 0), f (e 3 ) = (4, 0, 3).
Then the standard matrix is A = f (E )E −1 .

Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 34 / 41

R EFLECTION

E XAMPLE 4.4
In R2 , given the reflection about the line y = x. Find image of the
vector (1, 2).

Solution.
Take the basis e 1 = (1, 1), e 2 = (−1, 1), then we have

Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 35 / 41

R EFLECTION

E XAMPLE 4.4
In R2 , given the reflection about the line y = x. Find image of the
vector (1, 2).

Solution.
Take the basis e 1 = (1, 1), e 2 = (−1, 1), then we have
f (e 1 ) = (1, 1), f (e 2 ) = (1, −1).

Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 35 / 41

R EFLECTION

E XAMPLE 4.4
In R2 , given the reflection about the line y = x. Find image of the
vector (1, 2).

Solution.
Take the basis e 1 = (1, 1), e 2 = (−1, 1), then we have
f (e 1 ) = (1, 1), f (e 2 ) = (1, −1).

The standard matrix:

µ ¶µ ¶−1
1 1 1 −1
A=
1 −1 1 1
| {z } | {z }
f (E ) E −1
. µ ¶
T 1
f (1, 2) = A .
2
Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 35 / 41
E XAMPLE 4.5
In R3 , given the linear mapping be reflection across the plane
x + y − 2z = 0. Find f (1, 2, 3), the dim and a basis of K er f and I m f .

Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 36 / 41

E XAMPLE 4.5
In R3 , given the linear mapping be reflection across the plane
x + y − 2z = 0. Find f (1, 2, 3), the dim and a basis of K er f and I m f .

T HE COMPOSITION OF LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS

Let x ∈ Rn , we apply on x two consecutive linear mappings: f 1 is
followed by f 2 , then we have a composition transformation f :
f (x) = f 2 ( f 1 (x)), we denote: f = f 2 ◦ f 1 .
Let A f 1 , A f 2 be the standard matrices of f 1 , f 2 (resp), then the
standard matrix A f for f is

A f = A f2 A f1 .

Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 36 / 41

E XAMPLE 4.6
In R2 given figure:

with A(−2, 1), B (−1, 3), C (0, 1), D(3, 1), E (−2, −1). Find the image of this
figure if we perform two successive linear transformations f 1 , f 2 , where f 1 is
the counterclockwise rotation about origin angle π3 and f 2 is the reflection
across the line y = x.

Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 37 / 41

Solution.
Rewrite the composition f = f 2 ◦ f 1 , we find the standard matrix
A f for f , we have A f = A f 2 · A f 1 .
à p ! ¶−1
1 3 µ ¶µ
p2
− 2 ,A
1 −1 1 1
A f1 = f2 = , A f = A f2 A f1 .
3 1 1 1 1 −1
2 2
Let A 1 B 1C 1 D 1 E 1 be vertices of the image, then we have
h−−→ −−→ −−→ −−−→ −−→i h−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→i
O A 1 ; OB 1 ; OC 1 ; OD 1 ; OE 1 = A f O A; OB ; OC ; OD; OE
µ ¶
−2 −1 0 3 −2
= Af .
1 3 1 1 −1

Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 38 / 41

E XAMPLE 4.7
Given the box with vertices:
V1 = (0, 0, 0), V2 = (1, 0, 0), V3 = (1, 2, 0), V4 = (0, 2, 0),
V5 = (0, 0, 3), V6 = (1, 0, 3), V7 = (1, 2, 3), V8 = (0, 2, 3).

Rotate the box about Oz in

counterclockwise direction an
angle π3 . Find the new vertices
after rotating.

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Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 40 / 41
 THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

Hoang Hai Ha LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS June 22, 2023 41 / 41