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Chapter Six - ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

• Electricity and magnetism were considered separate phenomena until the early 19th century when experiments
conducted by Oersted, Ampere, and others established their interrelation.

• Moving electric charges produce magnetic fields, as demonstrated by experiments with electric currents and
magnetic compasses.

• Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry's experiments in the 1830s conclusively proved that changing magnetic fields
induce electric currents in closed coils.

• Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction has led to the development of modern generators and
transformers.

• Electromagnetic induction is not only of theoretical interest but also of practical utility in generating electricity.

• Faraday and Henry conducted a series of experiments to understand electromagnetic induction.

• Experiment 6.1 shows that pushing or pulling a bar magnet towards or away from a coil produces deflections in a
galvanometer, indicating the presence of electric current.

• Reversal of current's direction and deflections in the galvanometer occur when the magnet's pole is changed.

• Faster motion of the magnet results in larger deflections and current.

• Similar effects are observed when the coil is moved towards or away from a fixed magnet.

Magnetic Flux and Electromagnetic Induction

• It shows that the relative motion between the magnet and the coil induces electric current in the coil. (Experiment
6.2)

• When a second coil is moved towards the first coil, the galvanometer deflects, indicating induced electric current.
(Fig. 6.2)

• The deflection direction changes when the second coil is moved away from the first coil. (Experiment 6.2)

• Faraday showed that relative motion between coils is not always necessary for electric current induction.
(Experiment 6.3)

• The galvanometer shows a momentary deflection when the tapping key is pressed and released. (Experiment 6.3)

• An iron rod increases the deflection of the galvanometer when inserted into the coils. (Experiment 6.3)

• Magnetic flux is defined as the product of magnetic field and area, Φ = B . A = BA cos θ. (Magnetic Lux, 6.3)
Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction

• Faraday arrived at the conclusion that an emf is induced in a coil when magnetic flux through the coil changes
with time.

• The motion of a magnet towards or away from a coil, or the motion of a current-carrying coil towards or away from
another coil, changes the magnetic flux and induces an emf in the coil.

• When the current in a coil rises or falls, the magnetic flux through the neighboring coil increases or decreases,
respectively, inducing an electric current in the coil.

• Faraday stated his experimental observations in Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, which states that the
magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit.

• The induced emf can be increased by increasing the number of turns of a closed coil.

Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday's Experiments

• In experiments 6.1 and 6.2, the flux can be changed by varying B, A, and θ.

• Flux can also be altered by changing the shape of a coil or rotating a coil in a magnetic field.

• To obtain a large deflection of the galvanometer, steps like using a soft iron rod inside the coil, connecting the coil
to a powerful battery, or moving the arrangement rapidly towards the test coil can be taken.

• In the absence of a galvanometer, a small bulb can be used to demonstrate the presence of an induced current.

• Michael Faraday was renowned for his innovative skills in experimental physics.

• Example 6.2 calculates the magnitudes of induced emf and current during a change in magnetic field.

• The initial and final flux, as well as the change in flux, are determined using relevant equations.

• Example 6.3 estimates the emf and current induced in a rotated circular coil.

Lenz's Law and Conservation of Energy

• Horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field is 3.0 × 10–5 T.

• Initial flux through the coil, Φ = BA cos θ, is 3π × 10–7 Wb.

• Final flux after rotation is -3π × 10–7 Wb.

• Estimated value of induced emf is 3.8 × 10–3 V.

• ε (induced emf) = 1.9 × 10–3 A.

• Magnitudes of ε and I (current) are estimated values.

• German physicist Heinrich Friedrich Lenz deduced Lenz's law.

• Induced current in the coil opposes the increase in flux.

• Induced current in the coil flows in clockwise direction when the magnet is withdrawn.

• Open circuit also induces emf across the open ends.

• The direction of induced emf can be determined using Lenz's law.

• Lenz's law ensures conservation of energy by preventing perpetual motion machines.

Electromagnetic Induction and Induced Currents

• In Figure 6.6(a), an illustration of a bar magnet shows a repulsive force acting on it due to the induced current
according to Lenz's law.

• The energy spent by a person in moving a magnet is dissipated as Joule heating produced by the induced
current.

• Figure 6.7 demonstrates planar loops moving into or out of a magnetic field, with the direction of induced current
in each loop determined using Lenz's law.

• In Example 6.4, induced current opposes the increasing magnetic flux in a rectangular loop and opposes the
decreasing magnetic flux in a triangular and irregularly shaped loop.

• Induced current does not exist when loops are completely inside or outside the magnetic field.

• Example 6.5 explores the possibility of generating current in a closed loop held in a magnetic field by strong
magnets and in a loop moving in an electric field between capacitor plates.

• In Example 6.5(c), the induced emf is expected to be constant only in the case of the rectangular loop, while in the
circular loop, the induced emf will vary.

• Figure 6.8 shows a rectangular and circular loop moving out of a magnetic field, with the induced emf expected to
be constant only in the rectangular loop.

• The polarity of the capacitor plates is predicted to be positive on plate 'A' with respect to plate 'B' in the situation
described in Figure 6.9.

• In the case of a straight conductor moving in a uniform and time-independent magnetic field, a rectangular
conductor is shown in Figure 6.10, with conductor PQ being free to move.

Electromagnetic Induction and Motional EMF

• The rod PQ is moved towards the left at a constant velocity v, enclosed by the closed circuit PQRS.

• The circuit is placed in a uniform magnetic field B, perpendicular to the plane of the system.
• The magnetic flux Φ enclosed by the loop PQRSB is given by Φ = Blx.

• The rate of change of flux induces an emf ε = –dΦ/dt = –d (Blx)/dt = Blv.

• The induced emf Blv is called motional EMF and can be produced by moving a conductor instead of varying the
magnetic field.

• The Lorentz force acting on charge carriers in conductor PQ can be explained as qvB.

• The work done in moving a charge from P to Q is W = qvBl, and the emf is given by ε = Blv.

• In the case of a stationary conductor and changing magnetic field, the force on charges is given by F = q (E + v ×
B) = qE.

• To explain induced emf or current in a stationary conductor, we assume that a time-varying magnetic field
generates an electric field.

• The fundamental significance of Faraday's discovery is that electricity and magnetism are related.

• A metallic rod of 1 m length is rotated at a frequency of 50 rev/s, with one end hinged at the center and the other
end at the circumference of a circular metallic ring of radius 1 m. A constant magnetic field of 1 T parallel to the axis
is present everywhere. The question asks for the emf between the center and the metallic ring.

• Method I: As the rod rotates, free electrons move towards the outer end due to Lorentz force and get distributed
over the ring. This separation of charges produces an emf across the ends of the rod. Using the equation Bvdr, the
magnitude of the emf generated across a length dr of the rod is given by ε = ∫Bvdr = ∫Bωrdr = 20V.

• Method II: To calculate the emf, a closed loop OPQ is imagined, where O and P are connected with a resistor R
and OQ is the rotating rod. The potential difference across the resistor is equal to the induced emf and equals B ×
(rate of change of area of the loop). The induced emf is ε = B × (R^2θ)/2 = 6V.

• Both methods give the same value of emf, ε = 20V.

• Example 6.7: A wheel with 10 metallic spokes, each 0.5 m long, is rotated at a speed of 120 rev/min in a plane
normal to the horizontal component of Earth's magnetic field H. H = 0.4 G at the place. The question asks for the
induced emf between the axle and the rim of the wheel.

• The induced emf is ε = (1/2) ω B R^2 = 6.28 × 10^–5V. The number of spokes is immaterial because the emf's
across the spokes are in parallel.

• Section 6.7: A quantitative study on the energy consideration of Lenz's law and the law of conservation of energy.

Induced Currents and Energy Conversion in a Rectangular Loop

• The overall resistance of the rectangular loop is unchanged as the arm PQ is moved.

• The presence of a magnetic field results in a force on the arm PQ, directed outwards and opposite to the velocity
of the rod.

• The force arises due to drift velocity of charges along the rod and the Lorentz force acting on them.
• The power required to move the arm at a constant speed is dissipated as Joule heat.

• The mechanical energy used to move the arm is converted into electrical energy (induced emf) and then to
thermal energy.

• There is a relationship between the charge flow through the circuit and the change in the magnetic flux.

• Expressions for flux, induced emf, force, and power dissipation are obtained for a specific situation of moving the
arm PQ.

• Similar expressions are obtained for the inward motion of the arm.

• The whole process is illustrated in a sketch of various quantities displayed in Fig. 6.12(b).

• Induced currents can also be produced in bulk pieces of conductors, resembling swirling eddies in water.

Effects of Eddy Currents and their Applications

• Physicist Foucault discovered eddy currents in the 19th century.

• A copper plate swinging in a magnetic field experiences damping due to the induction of eddy currents.

• The direction of eddy currents changes as the plate moves in and out of the magnetic field region.

• Rectangular slots in the copper plate reduce the area available for eddy currents, resulting in reduced damping.

• Eddy currents can be minimized by using laminations of metal separated by insulating material in transformers
and electric motors.

• Eddy currents are undesirable as they dissipate electrical energy in the form of heat.

• Eddy currents can be advantageous in applications such as magnetic braking in trains and electromagnetic
damping in galvanometers.

• Induction furnaces use eddy currents to generate high temperatures for melting metals.

• Electric power meters utilize eddy currents to rotate a shiny metal disc, indicating the consumption of electric
power.

Eddy Currents and Inductance

• Two hollow cylindrical pipes, one made of aluminium and the other made of PVC, are fixed vertically with clamps
on retort stands.

• A small cylindrical magnet is dropped through each pipe, with the magnet not touching the sides of the pipes.

• The magnet dropped through the PVC pipe takes the same time to come out as it would without the pipe.

• The magnet takes longer to come out of the aluminum pipe due to the generation of eddy currents, which oppose
the motion of the magnet.

• Eddy currents are not generated in the PVC pipe because it is an insulator, while aluminum is a conductor.

• Inductance is a scalar quantity that depends on the geometry of the coil and intrinsic material properties.

• The dimensions of inductance are [M L2 T–2 A–2], and its SI unit is the henry (H).

• Inductance is named after Joseph Henry, who discovered electromagnetic induction independently of Faraday.

Mutual Inductance between Co-Axial Solenoids

• A current (I) through solenoid S sets up a magnetic flux (Φ) through solenoid S. The flux linkage with solenoid S is
denoted as M.

• M is the mutual inductance of solenoid S with respect to solenoid S, also known as the coefficient of mutual
induction.

• For co-axial solenoids, M can be calculated using the equation M = µnπr^2l.

• The calculation assumes a uniform magnetic field and neglects edge effects.

• Conversely, when a current (I) passes through solenoid S, the flux linkage with solenoid S is given by NΦ = MI.

• The mutual inductance equations for both scenarios are equal: M = M.

• The general relation holds true for solenoids of any length and separation.

• The mutual inductance is affected by the medium's relative permeability (µ) and the separation and orientation of
the coils.

Electromagnetic Induction

• Two concentric circular coils, one of small radius r and the other of large radius R, are placed co-axially.

• The mutual inductance (M) of the arrangement can be obtained by calculating the flux (Φ) through the coils.

• The magnetic field at the center of the outer coil is B = µI/(2R).

• Assuming the magnetic field is constant over the cross-sectional area of the inner coil (with radius r), Φ = πr^2B.

• Therefore, M = (µπr^2/2R)I.

• Induced emf can be observed in a coil due to changes in current or flux through the coil.

• The magnitude of the induced emf depends on the rate of current change and mutual inductance.

• Self-induction occurs when emf is induced in a single isolated coil due to changes in flux through the coil.

• The flux linkage is proportional to the current through the coil (NΦ ∝ IB) and is expressed as NΦ = LI.
• The induced emf in a coil due to self-induction is given by (ε = -dΦ/dt) = -L (dI/dt).

• The self-induced emf always opposes any change in current in the coil.

• Self-inductance (L) can be calculated for circuits with simple geometries.

• Self-inductance of a long solenoid is given by L = µn^2 Al, where n is the number of turns per unit length, A is the
cross-sectional area, l is the length of the solenoid.

Notes on Electromagnetic Induction and AC Generator

• In a solenoid filled with a material of relative permeability µ, the self-inductance L is given by L = µµn^2Al. (6.17)

• The self-inductance of a coil depends on its geometry and the permeability of the medium. It opposes any change
in the current and acts as electromagnetic inertia. (6.18)

• Work needs to be done against the back emf (ε) to establish the current, which is stored as magnetic potential
energy. The rate of work done is given by dW= εIdt. (6.18)

• The total work done in establishing the current is IW = ∫LIdI. (6.18)

• The energy required to build up the current is given by W = LI^2. (6.19)

• For currents flowing in two nearby coils, the flux linked with one coil is the sum of two fluxes independently. (6.19)

• The expression for the magnetic energy stored in a solenoid is U = LI^2B^2Al^2µ0. (Example 6.10)

• The magnetic energy per unit volume in a solenoid is U = B^2Al^2µ0. (Example 6.10)

• The magnetic and electrostatic energies are proportional to the square of the field strength. (Example 6.10)

• AC generators use electromagnetic induction to produce alternating currents. (6.10)

Basic principles of AC generator and electromagnetic induction

• Nikola Tesla credited with developing the AC generator (224 machine)

• Inducing an EMF or current through changes in loop's orientation or effective area

• Basic elements of an AC generator shown in Fig. 6.16

• Coil (armature) mechanically rotated in uniform magnetic field

• Magnetic flux change induces EMF in coil

• Coil connected to external circuit via slip rings and brushes

• Effective area of coil changes with time, resulting in varying flux

• Polarity of EMF changes with time, resulting in alternating current (AC)

• Commercial generators use mechanical energy from sources such as falling water or steam for rotation.

Introduction to Thermal and Nuclear Power Generators

• These generators are powered by nuclear fuel instead of coal.

• Modern-day generators can produce electric power as high as 500 MW.

• In most generators, the coils are stationary while the electromagnets rotate.

• The frequency of rotation is 50 Hz in India and 60 Hz in some countries like the USA.

Notes on Electromagnetic Induction and Lenz's Law

• Lenz's law states that the induced emf in a circuit opposes the change in magnetic flux that produces it.

• Faraday's law expresses this fact by using a negative sign in the equation.

• When a metal rod is moved across a magnetic field, it experiences an induced emf called motional emf.

• Changing magnetic fields can create eddy currents in nearby conductors, which dissipate electrical energy as
heat.

• Inductance is the ratio of flux-linkage to current and is equal to NΦ/I.

• A changing current in one coil can induce an emf in a nearby coil, as described by the relation ε = -M12(dI/dt).

• The self-induced emf in a coil is given by ε = -L(dI/dt), where L is the self-inductance of the coil.

• The self-inductance of a solenoid with a magnetic core is given by L = µµ0n^2A/l.

• In an AC generator, mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy through electromagnetic induction.

• Points to ponder: the relationship between electricity and magnetism, the opposition of electric currents to
magnetic flux changes, and the motional emf derived from Faraday's law.

Electromagnetic Induction and Faraday's Law

• Even if charges are stationary, an emf is induced in the presence of a time-varying magnetic field, suggesting
symmetry between moving charges in a static field and static charges in a time-varying field for Faraday's law.

• The motion of a copper plate is damped when oscillating between magnetic pole-pieces due to eddy currents.

• Exercise 6.1: Predict the direction of induced current in different situations described by Figures 6.18(a) to (f).

• Exercise 6.2: Use Lenz's law to determine the direction of induced current in scenarios described by Figure 6.19.
• Exercise 6.3: Calculate the induced emf in a loop placed inside a solenoid when the solenoid's current changes.

• Exercise 6.4: Determine the emf developed across a cut in a rectangular wire loop moving out of a magnetic field.

• Exercise 6.5: Calculate the emf developed between the center and a ring when a metallic rod rotates in a
magnetic field.

• Exercise 6.6: Obtain the maximum and average emf induced in a rotating circular coil and calculate the maximum
value of current in the coil.

• Exercise 6.7: Determine the instantaneous value and direction of the emf induced in a falling wire in a magnetic
field.

• Exercise 6.8: Estimate the self-inductance of a circuit based on the change in current and average induced emf.

• Exercise 6.9: Incomplete information provided.

Electromagnetic Induction and Magnetic Fields

• A pair of adjacent coils has a mutual inductance of 1.5 H. The change of flux linkage with one coil when the
current in the other coil changes from 0 to 20 A in 0.5 s is unknown.

• The voltage difference developed between the ends of a wing with a span of 25 m, traveling at a speed of 1800
km/h towards west in the Earth's magnetic field with a magnitude of 5 × 10–4 T and a dip angle of 30° is unknown.

• If the current feeding the electromagnet gradually reduces from its initial value of 0.3 T at the rate of 0.02 T s–1
and the loop has a resistance of 1.6 Ω, the amount of power dissipated by the loop as heat and its source is
unknown.

• In an environment with a magnetic field in the positive z-direction, a square loop of side 12 cm moves with a
velocity of 8 cm/s in the positive x-direction. The direction and magnitude of the induced current in the loop, with a
resistance of 4.50 mΩ, is unknown.

• The field strength of a powerful loud speaker magnet is estimated by measuring the total charge flown in a small
flat search coil of area 2 cm2 with 25 closely wound turns, positioned normal to the field direction, and quickly
snatched out of the field region. The combined resistance of the coil and the galvanometer is 0.50 Ω and the total
charge measured is 7.5 mC.

• For a metal rod resting on smooth rails and positioned between the poles of a permanent magnet, the induced
emf, presence of excess charge at the ends of the rod with an open or closed switch, explanation of the absence of
net force on electrons in the rod when moving uniformly with an open switch, retarding force on the rod with a
closed switch, and the amount of power required by an external agent are unknown.

Electrical and Magnetic Phenomena

• How to keep the rod moving at the same speed (=12cm s–1) when K is closed?

• How much power is required when K is open?

• What is the source of this power?

• What is the induced emf in the moving rod if the magnetic field is parallel to the rails instead of being
perpendicular?

• How much is the average back emf induced across the ends of the open switch in the circuit?

• Obtain an expression for the mutual inductance between a long straight wire and a square loop of side a.

• Calculate the induced emf in the loop at the instant when x = 0.2 m.

• A line charge λ per unit length is lodged uniformly onto the rim of a wheel of mass M and radius R.

• What type of magnetic field extends over a circular region within the rim?

• What are the values for B and 0 in the given region?