CHAPTER 2

Sequences and Series

Contents:

2.1 Sequences
2.1.1 Explicit Formula and Recursive Formula
2.1.2 Convergent Sequence and Divergent Sequence

2.2 Series
2.2.1 Sigma Notation, ∑
2.2.2 Arithmetic Progression and Geometric Progression
2.2.3 Summation of Finite Series – Method of Differences

2.3 Binomial Expansion

2.3.1 Binomial Theorem
2.3.2 Expansion of (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 where 𝑛 is a Positive Integer
2.3.3 Expansion of (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 where 𝑛 is a Rational Number
2.3.4 Specific Term of an Expansion

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2.1 Sequences
• A sequence is a list of numbers, stated in a particular order, such that each number can be
derived from the previous according to a certain rule. Each number of a sequence is called a
term.
• A sequence is infinite if it continuous indefinitely
• A sequence is finite if it ends upon reaching a certain number.
• Example:
Infinite Sequence Finite Sequence

2.1.1 Explicit Formula and Recursive Formula

• Explicit Formula – in term of 𝑛
• Recursive Formula – in term of 𝑈𝑛
• Example:
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, … (a sequence of odd numbers)
Explicit Formula Recursive Formula

Example 1:
A sequence is defined by 𝑢𝑛+1 = 3𝑢𝑛 − 1, where the first term is 𝑢1 = 4.
Write down the first four terms of the sequence.

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Example 2:

Write down the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term of the sequence 4, 9, 14, 19, … , in terms of 𝑛.

2.1.2 Convergent Sequence and Divergent Sequence

• A sequence is convergent if the terms approach a single value as 𝑛 increases. This value is
known as the limit of the sequence.
1 1 1 1 𝑛
• Example: 1 + 2 , 1 + 4 , 1 + 8 , … , 1 + (2) , …

• A sequence is divergent if the terms do not converge to a single value.

• Example: 1 + 1 , 1 + 2 , 1 + 3, … , 1 + 𝑛, …

Note that:
(a) if |𝑟| < 1, 𝑟 𝑛 → 0 as 𝑛 → ∞
(b) if |𝑟| > 1, 𝑟 𝑛 → ∞ as 𝑛 → ∞

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Example 3:
Evaluate each of the following:
(a) lim 𝑛
𝑛→∞

(b) lim (𝑛 + 3)
𝑛→∞

(c) lim (2𝑛 − 5)

𝑛→∞

(d) lim 𝑛2
𝑛→∞

(e) lim (3 − 𝑛2 )
𝑛→∞

1
(f) lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑛

1
(g) lim ( )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+20

5
(h) lim ( )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛−10

1
(i) lim (𝑛2 )
𝑛→∞

1
(j) lim (𝑛2 −2)
𝑛→∞

𝑛−1
(k) lim ( )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛2

𝑛+3
(l) lim (𝑛+1)
𝑛→∞

𝑛2 −1
(m) lim (𝑛2 +1)
𝑛→∞

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Example 4:
2𝑛
The 𝑛𝑡ℎ term of a sequence, 𝑢𝑛 , is given by 𝑢𝑛 = for 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑛 ≥ 1. Show that this sequence is
𝑛+1
convergent and find its limiting value.

Example 5:
Show that the sequence whose 𝑛𝑡ℎ term given by 𝑢𝑛 = 2 − 3𝑛 is divergent.

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2.2 Series
• A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence.

• Finite Series:
• Infinite series:

2.2.1 Sigma (∑) Notation

3

∑𝑟 =
𝑟=1

∑(𝑟 2 + 2) =
𝑟=2

𝑛
1
∑( )=
𝑟(𝑟 + 2)
𝑟=1

1. ∑ 𝑐𝑢𝑟 =
𝑟=𝑚

2. ∑ (𝑢𝑟 ± 𝑣𝑟 ) =
𝑟=𝑚

3. ∑ 𝑐 =
𝑟=𝑚

4. ∑ (𝑢𝑟 + 𝑐) =
𝑟=𝑚

5. ∑ 𝑢𝑟 =
𝑟=𝑚

6. ∑ 𝑟 =
𝑟=1

7. ∑ 𝑟 2 =
𝑟=1

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 𝑛

8. ∑ 𝑟 3 =
𝑟=1

Example 7
Evaluate each of the following:
4

(𝑎) ∑ 𝑟 =
𝑟=1
6

(𝑏) ∑ 2𝑟 2 =
𝑟=1
50
(𝑐) ∑(2𝑟 + 3) =
𝑟=1
100
(𝑑) ∑ 2 =
𝑟=50

12
(𝑒) ∑ 𝑟 3 =
𝑟=3

(𝑓) ∑ 𝑟 where 0 < 𝑘 < 𝑛

𝑟=𝑘

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2.2.2 Arithmetic Progression and Geometric Progression
Arithmetic Progression Geometric Progression

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑇𝑛 =

The sum of the first 𝑛𝑡ℎ terms: The sum of the first 𝑛𝑡ℎ terms:

The sum of infinity:

Convergent Series:

Divergent Series:

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 Exercise 2.2A
1. If the sum of the first 4 terms of an A.P. is 𝑥, the sum of the first 8 terms is 𝑦 and the sum
of the first 12 terms is 𝑧, show that 3𝑥 + 𝑧 = 3𝑦.

2. The sum of the first six terms of an A.P. is 96, and the sum of the first 20 terms of the
same A.P. is three times the sum of the first 10 terms. Find the first term and the tenth
term.

3. (a) Without using any tables or calculators, show that lg 2, lg 18 and lg 162 are an A.P.
(b)If lg 𝑥, lg (𝑥 + 2) and lg (𝑥 + 16) are three consecutive terms of an A.P., find the value
of 𝑥.

4. The sum of the first 8 terms of an A.P. is 24, and the sum of the first 18 terms is 90. Find
the value of seventh term.

5. There are 20 terms in an A.P.. Given that the 8th term is 26 and the sum of the last 8 terms
is 412, calculate the sum of the first 8 terms.

6. Given that the first term of a G.P. is 8 and sum of the first three terms is 104, find the
possible values of the common ratio. In each case, write down the corresponding first
three terms of the series.

7. Find the sum of the first eight terms if the sum of the 1st and 4th term of a G.P. is 52, and
the sum of the 2nd and 5th terms of the same G.P. is -156.

8. The 1st term of a G.P. exceeds the second term by 1 and the sum of the first three terms is
3
2 . If there are positive as well as negative terms in G.P., find the sum of the first five
5
terms.

9. In an G.P. in which the terms are decreasing, the difference between 3rd and 2nd terms is 6
and the difference between the 2nd and the 1st terms is 9. Find the sum of the first four
terms.

10. Prove that 3𝑥 , 3𝑦 and 3 𝑧 are successive terms of a G.P., if 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 are successive terms
of an A.P.

11. If the 𝑝th, 𝑞th and 𝑟th terms of a G.P. are in geometric progression, show that 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟
are successive terms of an A.P.

12. The population of a colony of insects increases in such a way that if it is 𝑁 at the beginning
of the week, then at the end of the week it is 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑁, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants and
0 < 𝑏 < 1.
Starting from the beginning of the week when the population is 𝑁, write down an
expression for the population at the end of 2 weeks. Show that at the end of 𝑐
1−𝑏𝑐
consecutive weeks the population is 𝑎 ( ) + 𝑏 𝑐 𝑁.
1−𝑏
When 𝑎 = 2000 and 𝑏 = 0.2, it is known that the population takes about 4 weeks to
increase from 𝑁 to 2𝑁. Estimate a value for 𝑁 from this information.

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 13. A line 𝑋𝑌 is 48 cm long. A point 𝑃 moving along the line from 𝑋 to 𝑌 covers distances of
2 1
16 cm, 10 3 cm, 79 cm, …, in successive seconds, the distances forming a geometric
progression. Find how far 𝑃 is from 𝑌 after 10 seconds, giving your answer to one decimal
place.

14. Tin ore is extruded from a certain mine. During the first year of production, a yield of 8000
kg of tin ore was obtained. With the increasing difficulty of mining, the production of tin
ore in each subsequent year show a decrease of 10% on the previous years production.
Assuming that mining continues in the same way for an indefinite of time, calculate the
maximum amount of tin ore which could be probably extracted.
For economic reasons, mining is abandoned once the annual output of tin ore falls below
1000 kg. Calculate
(a) the number of years the mine is in operation,
(b) the total production of tin ore during this time,
(c) the percentage of tin ore not extracted from this mine.

2.2.3 Summation of Finite Series – Method of Differences

• The method of differences can be used to determine the sums of certain series, if the 𝑟th
term, 𝑢𝑟 , can be written as 𝑢𝑟 = 𝑓(𝑟) − 𝑓(𝑟 − 1), then ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑢𝑟 = 𝑓(𝑛) − 𝑓(0)
𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝑢𝑟 = ∑ 𝑓(𝑟) − 𝑓(𝑟 − 1)
𝑟=1 𝑟=1

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Example 7:
1 1
Find ∑𝑛𝑟=1 [𝑟 − 𝑟+1]

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Example 8: S229O143
𝑥+4
Express in partial fractions.
𝑥(𝑥+1)(𝑥+2)

Hence, find the sum of the series

5 6 7 𝑛+4
+ + + ⋯+ .
1×2×3 2×3×4 3×4×5 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)
Show that the series is convergent and state the sum to infinity.

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Example 9: S228O142
2
Express in partial fractions.
(2𝑥−1)(2𝑥+1)

2 2𝑛
Show that ∑𝑛𝑟=1 (2𝑟−1)(2𝑟+1) = 2𝑛+1 and state whether or not the series is convergent.

Example 10:

Verify that (𝑟 + 1)! − 𝑟! = 𝑟 × 𝑟!

Hence, find the sum of the first 2𝑛 terms of the series

1 × 1! + 2 × 2! + 3 × 3! + 4 × 4! + ⋯

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 Exercise 2.2B
1 1 2
1. Show that (𝑟+1)(𝑟+2)
− 𝑟(𝑟+1) = − 𝑟(𝑟+1)(𝑟+2).
1
Using the method of differences, find ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟(𝑟+1)(𝑟+2).

2. Find the 𝑟th terms, 𝑢𝑟 , of the series 2 ∙ 1! + 5 ∙ 2! + 10 ∙ 3! + 17 ∙ 4! + ⋯ + (𝑛2 + 1) ∙ 𝑛!

By expressing 𝑢𝑟 as the difference of two functions of 𝑟, find the sum of the above series.

1 𝑟
3. If 𝑓(𝑟) = , simplify 𝑓(𝑟) − 𝑓(𝑟 + 1). Hence, find ∑𝑛𝑟=1
𝑟! (𝑟+1)!

4. If ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑢𝑟 = 3𝑛2 + 2𝑛, find 𝑢𝑟 . Hence, find ∑2𝑛

𝑟=𝑛+1 𝑢𝑟 .

1
5. If 𝑓(𝑟) = 𝑟2 , simplify 𝑓(𝑟) − 𝑓(𝑟 + 1). Hence, find the sum of the first 𝑛 terms of the
series
3 5 7
2 2
+ 2 2+ 2 2+⋯
1 ∙2 2 ∙3 3 ∙4

6. Find the numbers 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 such that 1 + 𝑟 2 ≡ 𝐴(𝑟 + 2)(𝑟 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑟 + 1) + 𝐶 for all
values of 𝑟.
Hence, prove that
𝑛

∑(1 + 𝑟 2 )𝑟! = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)!

𝑟=1

1
7. (a) Express (3𝑟−1)(3𝑟+2) in partial fractions.
1
(b) Hence, obtain an expression for 𝑆𝑛 = ∑𝑛𝑟=1 (3𝑟−1)(3𝑟+2) .
(c) Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑆𝑛 .
𝑛→∞

1
8. (a) Express (4𝑟+1)(4𝑟−3) in partial fractions.
1 1 1
(b) Hence, show that ∑𝑛𝑟=1 (4𝑟+1)(4𝑟−3) = 4 (1 − 4𝑛+1).

2.3 Binomial Expansions

• The 𝑛! notation

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 𝑛
• The ( ) notation
𝑟

Example 11:
𝑛 𝑛
Show that ( ) = ( )
𝑟 𝑛−𝑟

Example 12:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+1
Show that ( ) + ( )=( )
𝑟 𝑟+1 𝑟+1

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Example 13:
Evaluate
7
(a) ( )
3

15 15
(b) ( ) + ( )
4 5

Example 14:
Rewrite in factorial form
(a) 45 × 44 × 43 × 42 × 41

10×9×8
(b)
5×4×3

𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)
(c)
3×2×1

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2.3.1 The Binomial Theorem

𝑛
𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏) = ∑ ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟
𝑛
𝑟
𝑟=0

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Example 15:

Expand (3𝑥 + 4𝑦)4 .

Example 16:

Expand (2𝑥 − 3)4 .

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2.3.2 Expansion of (1 + 𝑥 )𝑛 where 𝑛 is a Positive Integers, ℤ+

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + ( ) 𝑥 + ( ) 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑥 𝑟 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑥 𝑛
1 2 𝑟 𝑛−1

𝑛𝑥 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) … (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1) 𝑟
=1+ + 𝑥 +⋯+ 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑥 𝑛
1! 2! 𝑟!
Example 17:

Expand (1 + 𝑥)7 .

Example 18: (Compare with Example 15)

Expand (3𝑥 + 4𝑦)4 .

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Example 19:

Expand (1 + 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 )7 up to the term in 𝑥 3 .

Example 20:

Expand (𝑥 − 3)9 in ascending powers of 𝑥, up to and including the fourth term.

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Example 21:
6 6
Use binomial expansion to evaluate (√5 + 2) + (√5 − 2) .
6
Hence, show that 5777 < (√5 + 2) < 5778.

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2.3.3 Expansion of (1 + 𝑥 )𝑛 where 𝑛 is a Rational Numbers, ℚ

𝑛𝑥 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) … (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1) 𝑟
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + + 𝑥 +⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯
1! 2! 𝑟!
for all 𝑛 ∈ ℚ , provided |𝑥| < 1.

Example 22:
Obtain the first four terms in the binomial expansion, in ascending powers of 𝑥, of each of the
following, and state the range of values of 𝑥 for which each is valid.
1
(a) (1 + 𝑥)2
(b) (1 − 2𝑥)−3
(c) (3 − 2𝑥)−2

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Example 23:
3
Using the binomial theorem. find √8.72 correct to four decimal places.

Example 24:
(1+𝑥)4
Expand (3−𝑥)
as a series of ascending powers of 𝑥, up to and including the terms in 𝑥 3 , expressing
the coefficients in their simplest form.

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 Exercise 2.3A
1. Expand (1 + 𝑥) up to and including the term in 𝑥 3 . Hence, obtain an approximation for
10

(1.01)10 and (0.99)10.

1+2𝑥
2. Expand √1−2𝑥 as a series in ascending powers of 𝑥, up to the term in 𝑥 2 . By substitution
1
𝑥 = 100 , find an approximation for √51 , stating the number of significant figures your
result is accurate to.
1
3. Expand (1 + 𝑥)−4 in ascending powers of 𝑥 up to the term in 𝑥 2 . Prove that
1 1
3 1
(1 + )−4 = 54 .
2 80
1 1
1
Using your expansion for (1 + 𝑥)−4 and 𝑥 = 80 , find an approximation for 54 , giving your
answer correct to five decimal places.

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2.3.4 Specific Term of an Expansion

The (𝑟 + 1)𝑡ℎ term of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 is

𝑛
𝑢𝑟+1 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟
𝑟

Example 25:

Find the term indicates in the binomial expansions of the following functions.

(a) (3𝑢 + 4𝑣)7 , 4th term.

(b) (𝑝 + 𝑞)8 , term containing 𝑝3 .

8
(c) (√𝑥 + 4√𝑥 ) , middle term.

1 12
(d) (2𝑥 3 − 𝑥) , term independent of 𝑥.

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Example 26:

Find the coefficient of 𝑥 3 in the expansion of (4 − 3𝑥 3 )(2 + 3𝑥)4 .

Example 27:
The coefficient of 𝑥 4 and 𝑥 6 in the expansion of (1 + 𝑘𝑥 2 )5 are 90 and 270 respectively. Find the
value of 𝑘 and the coefficient of 𝑥 8 .

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Revision Exercise:

1+𝑦
1. Expand √ in ascending powers of 𝑦 up to and including the term in 𝑦 3 . Determine the
1−2𝑦

values of 𝑦 for which the expansion is valid. Hence, by substituting 𝑦 = 0.2 in your result,

find the value of √2 correct to four decimal places.

2. If 𝑓(𝑟) ≡ 𝑟(𝑟 + 1)! , simplify 𝑓(𝑟) − 𝑓(𝑟 − 1) and hence, find the sum of the series

5 ∙ 2! + 10 ∙ 3! + 17 ∙ 4! + ⋯ + (𝑛2 + 1)𝑛!

1 3
3. If 𝑔(𝑟) = (𝑟 − ) , simplify 𝑔(𝑟 + 1) − 𝑔(𝑟).Hence, find ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟 2 .
2

2+5𝑥
4. Expand as a series of ascending powers of 𝑥 up to and including the term in 𝑥 3 . By
√1+𝑥

2
substituting 𝑥 = in your result, obtain a value of √3 by giving your answer correct to four
25

significant figures.

1
5. Express 4𝑘2 −1 as partial fractions.

1
Hence, find a simple expression for 𝑆𝑛 = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 and find lim 𝑆𝑛 .
4𝑘 2 −1 𝑛→∞

𝑝
(1+𝑥 2 )
6. Find the expansion of (1−𝑥)𝑞
in ascending powers of 𝑥 until the term in 𝑥 3 .

1 13
(a) If 𝑝 = 𝑞 = , suggest one value of 𝑥 that enables √ to be estimated using the above
2 10

expansion.

13
Hence, estimate √10 and give your answer correct to four decimal places.

1
(b) If 𝑝 = − 3 and 𝑞 lies in the interval [0,9], find the largest possible coefficient of 𝑥 3 .

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