The Brain

The Brain: What is the brain made of?

The adult human brain weighs about three pounds. It is made up chiefly of water
(78 percent), fat (10 percent), and protein (8 percent).
The brain is about 2 percent of an adult's body weight, but it consumes about 20
percent of the body's energy.
Our brains contain about 100 billion nerve cells, or neurons, and 1 trillion
supporting cells, the glia. Together, the nerve cells of the brain make 1,000 trillion
synaptic connect points with each other.
 What is the gray matter and white matter?
The brain itself is a not a muscle. It contains blood vessels and nerves,
including neurons and glial cells. Gray and white matter are two different regions of
the central nervous system. In the brain, gray matter refers to the darker, outer
portion, while white matter describes the lighter, inner section underneath.
 What is the gray matter and white matter?
In the spinal cord, this order is reversed: The white matter is on the
outside, and the gray matter sits within.
Gray matter is primarily composed of neuron somas (the round central
cell bodies), and white matter is mostly made of axons (the long stems that
connects neurons together) wrapped in myelin (a protective coating). The
different composition of neuron parts is why the two appear as separate shades
on certain scans.
 Each region serves a different role. Gray matter is primarily responsible for
processing and interpreting information, while white matter transmits that
information to other parts of the nervous system.
 How does the brain work?
The brain sends and receives chemical and electrical signals throughout the
body. Different signals control different processes, and your brain interprets each.
Some make you feel tired, for example, while others make you feel pain.
Some messages are kept within the brain, while others are relayed through the
spine and across the body’s vast network of nerves to distant extremities. To do this,
the central nervous system relies on billions of neurons (nerve cells).
 Main Parts of the Brain and Their Functions
Intelligence, creativity, emotion, and memory are a few of the many things
governed by the brain. Protected within the skull, the brain is composed of the
cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.
The brain receives information through our five senses: sight, smell, touch,
taste, and hearing - often many at one time. It assembles the messages in a way
that has meaning for us, and can store that information in our memory. The brain
controls our thoughts, memory and speech, movement of the arms and legs, and the
function of many organs within our body. The brain has three main parts: the
Cerebrum, Cerebellum, and Brainstem.
 (1) Cerebrum (front of brain): is the largest part of the brain. It comprises gray
matter (the cerebral cortex) and white matter at its center. The cerebrum initiates and
coordinates movement and regulates temperature. Other areas of the cerebrum enable
speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and learning.
Other functions relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.
 Does a bigger brain make you smarter?
Whales Elephants
Most neuroscientists now believe that the complexity of cellular and
molecular organization of neural connections, or synapses, is what truly
determines a brain’s computational capacity. This view is supported by
findings that intelligence is more correlated with frontal lobe volume and
volume of gray matter, which is dense in neural cell bodies and synapses,
than sheer brain size.
 (2) Cerebellum (“little brain”): is located under the cerebrum. Its function is
to coordinate voluntary muscle movements and to maintain posture, balance and
equilibrium. New studies are exploring the cerebellum’s roles in thought, emotions
and social behavior, as well as its possible involvement in addiction, autism and
schizophrenia. This is the reason why the offender or criminal must attack at the
cerebellum area.
 (3) Brainstem (the middle of brain): acts as a relay center connecting the
cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. It performs many automatic
functions such as breathing, heart rate, body temperature, wake and sleep
cycles, digestion, sneezing, coughing, vomiting, and swallowing.
Abnormal movement of neck bones or pieces of bone can cause a spinal
cord injury resulting in loss of sensation, paralysis, or usually instant death.
Broken neck car accident death. Thus, the bones of the neck get stretched
and pulled apart and damage or sever (ตัดขาด = separate) the spinal cord. The
broken bones of the neck do not cause death.
Cervical Fracture, Broken Neck
 The brainstem includes the midbrain, the pons and the medulla.
(1) Midbrain: is a very complex structure with a range of different neuron clusters,
neural pathways and other structures. These features facilitate various functions, from
hearing and movement to calculating responses and environmental changes. The midbrain
also contains the substantia nigra, an area affected by Parkinson’s disease.
(2) Pons: is the origin nerves which enable a range of activities such as tear
production, chewing, blinking, focusing vision, balance, hearing and facial expression.
(3) Medulla: The medulla is where the brain meets the spinal cord. The medulla is
essential to survival. Functions of the medulla regulate many bodily activities, including
heart rhythm, breathing, blood flow, and oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. The medulla
produces reflexive activities such as sneezing, vomiting, coughing and swallowing.
 Right Brain – Left Brain
The cerebrum is divided into two halves: the right and left hemispheres. They
are joined by a bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum that transmits messages
from one side to the other. Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.
If a stroke occurs on the right side of the brain, your left arm or leg may be weak or
paralyzed.
Not all functions of the hemispheres are shared. In general, the left hemisphere
controls speech, comprehension, arithmetic, and writing. The right hemisphere
controls creativity, spatial ability, artistic, and musical skills. The left hemisphere is
dominant in hand use and language.
 Right Brain – Left Brain

The cerebrum is divided into left and right hemispheres. The two sides are
connected by the nerve fibers corpus callosum.
Right Brain – Left Brain
 Lobes of the Brain and What They Control
Each brain hemisphere (parts of the cerebrum) has four sections, called lobes.
These four lobes are frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. Although we now know
that most brain functions rely on many different regions across the entire brain
working in conjunction, it is still true that each lobe carries out the bulk of certain
functions.
 Lobes of the Brain
(1) The occipital lobe, located in the middle back of the brain, is primarily responsible for vision.
(2) The frontal lobe, the area around the forehead, is involved in personality characteristics,
decision-making, creativity, problem solving, and planning. It is called “higher order thinking”
The frontal lobe contains Broca’s area, which is associated with speech ability.
(3) The parietal lobe is in the top back area of the brain. Its duties include higher sensory and
language functions. The parietal lobe is also involved in interpreting pain and touch in the body. The
parietal lobe houses Wernicke’s area, which helps the brain understand spoken language.
(4) The temporal lobes, on the left and right sides of the brain, are primarily responsible for
hearing, memory, meaning, and language. There are some overlaps in the functions of the various
lobes. The sides of the brain, temporal lobes are involved in short-term memory, speech, musical
rhythm and some degree of smell recognition.
 Maclean’ s Triune Brain Model
Paul MacLean introduced the concept of a triune brain in the 1960s. This model
of brain structure and function is based on three specific regions of the human brain:
(1) The reptilian brain, at the core, is responsible for arousal, homeostasis, and
reproduction.
(2) The paleomammalian (“old-mammal”) brain surrounding it is involved with
learning, memory, and emotion.
(3) The neomammalian (“new-mammal”) brain, required for conscious thought and
self-awareness, sits atop the other two.
These triune brain parts roughly conform to the common distinction of brain
stem, limbic brain, and neocortex.
Maclean’ s Triune Brain Model
Reptilian brain Mammalian brain (Limbic System)
 In Mammalian Brain, what does attachment mean ?

Research suggests that humans can form strong attachments to their

pets, and at least some pets display attachment behaviors toward their human
caretakers. In some cases, these bonds have been found to support or
enhance the physical and emotional well-being of both species.
 What are neurons?
Neurons are information messengers. They use electrical impulses and
chemical signals to transmit information between different areas of the brain, and
between the brain and the rest of the nervous system. Neurons have three basic
parts: a cell body and two extensions called an axon and a dendrite.
 Myelin Sheath
Myelin sheath is the protective layer that wraps around the axons of neurons
to aid in insulating the neurons, and to increase the number of electrical signals
being transferred, allowing all actions to be conducted quickly. Myelin sheath
consists of lipids and proteins which make up a fatty substance and is white in
appearance. This forms the protective sleeve that wraps around the axon of
neurons.
 (1) Cell body: Also known as a soma, the cell body is the neuron's core. The
cell body carries genetic information, maintains the neuron's structure, and provides
energy to drive activities. Like other cell bodies, a neuron's soma contains a nucleus
and specialized organelles.
(2) Axon: Each neuron in your brain has one long cable that snakes away
from the main part of the cell. This cable, several times thinner than a human hair, is
called an axon, and it is where electrical impulses from the neuron travel away to be
received by other neurons.
(3) Dendrite: Dendrites are appendages that are designed to receive
communications from other cells. They resemble a tree-like structure, forming
projections that become stimulated by other neurons and conduct the electrochemical
charge to the cell body (or, more rarely, directly to the axons).
 How does learning happen in neurons?
In 1949 psychologist Donald Hebb adapted Pavlov's “associative learning
rule” to explain how brain cells might acquire knowledge. Hebb proposed that when
two neurons fire together, sending off impulses simultaneously, the connections
between them—the synapses—grow stronger. When this happens, learning has
taken place.
When you are learning, important changes take place in your brain, including
the creation of new connections between your neurons. This is very similar to what
happens in your brain—when you stop practicing something, the connections
between your neurons weaken and can ultimately be dismantled or pruned.
 Neurotransmitter
A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that carries, boosts, and
balances signals between neurons (also known as nerve cells) and target cells
throughout the body. Billions of neurotransmitter molecules work constantly to keep
our brains functioning, managing everything from our breathing to our heartbeat to
our learning and concentration levels. They can also affect a variety of psychological
functions such as fear, mood, pleasure, and joy.
Classification of Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitters play a major role in everyday life and functioning.
Neurotransmitters can be classified by their functions: (1) Excitatory
neurotransmitters (2) Inhibitory neurotransmitters.
 Classification of Neurotransmitter

(1) Excitatory neurotransmitters: These types of neurotransmitters have

excitatory effects on the neuron, meaning they increase the likelihood that the
neuron will fire an action potential. Some of the major excitatory neurotransmitters
include Histamine, Dopamine, Norepinephrine also known as noradrenaline,
Epinephrine also known as adrenaline.
(2) Inhibitory neurotransmitters: These types of neurotransmitters have
inhibitory effects on the neuron; they decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire
an action potential. Some of the major inhibitory neurotransmitters include serotonin
and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). For example, Morphine can decrease pain.
 Ways to Maintain Brain Health
 (1) Eat brain-healthy foods: a diet based around fruits, vegetables, whole
grains, healthy fats and quality proteins can be beneficial to brain health. “Nutrition
is extremely important to brain heath,”
(2) Rest your brain: Sleep is restorative. While you’re asleep, your brain is not
inactive. Good sleep hygiene is key.
(3) Manage your overall health: Lifestyle choices (lack of exercise and
smoking can harm your heart, lungs, kidneys and other parts of the body. These
impact your body can also affect your brain.
(4) Play brain games: Learning new things can prompt your brain to sprout new
neurons. Social interaction, new relationships and stimulating conversations are
integral to brain health too.
 Ways to Maintain Brain Health
(5) Stay active: Get at least 30 minutes of exercise three times a week.
Exercise increases oxygen to the brain, boosts brain waste disposal and stimulates
your motor and sensory systems. “If you’re exercising, you’re exercising your brain,”
(6) Reduce or manage stress: Stress and its associated hormone cortisol
can, over time, cause an inflammatory response that leads to the formation of free
radicals that may damage normal brain functions. Develop tools to get through
stressful moments, like breathing exercises, journaling or yoga.
 Benefits of Water for Brain
Your brain is 78% water. Drink up for better cognition, improved memory
and more robust brain health.
Water helps your brain cells communicate with each other, clears out toxins
and waste that impairs brain function, and carries nutrients to your brain. Water
helps to maintain proper blood circulation, and transport vitamins, minerals and
oxygen to your brain. This all falls apart if your fluid levels drop. Staying hydrated
has been linked to: Faster decision making and improved performance on cognitive
tests.
This is why dehydration is so closely correlated with poor brain health, and
why neuroscientists and brain health experts recommend increasing your fluid intake
to support and enhance your learning, thinking, focus and more.
 Brain-based learning in the classroom
As the brain matures, more and more fibers grow and the brain becomes increasingly
interconnected. These interconnected networks of neurons are very important to the formation of
memories and the connection of new learning to previous learning. As neural networks form, the child
learns both academically and socially.
There are tips and tricks teachers use to help promote natural learning
(1) Teachers must make use of the classroom space to arouse all senses. For example, build a
rainforest simulation in the classroom while studying the environment of Africa. By placing stuffed
animals around the forest, children automatically associate certain species with this theme. Students
can go on safari during a class to learn more about the rainforest.
(2) Brain-based learning helps students relax in order to improve alertness. School is a
challenging environment that often produces a stress response that can interfere with learning.
Teaches play music, introduce soft scents and dim lighting to promote a stress free learning arena.
 Brain-based learning in the classroom
(3) Stimulate social skills to improve the experience. People retain better understanding of a concept when they
utilize their social skills. Set up work groups around the room for discussion. The seating should be comfortable with soft
chairs and even couches. The bulletin boards and wall decorations in this area should reflect the topic for total immersion. If
learning about the rainforest, place cardboard trees and vines on the walls. Play the sound of rain falling in the background to
add to the lesson.
(4) Make study challenging. The more complex and hands-on a teaching assignment is, the better the cognitive
stimulation.
(5) Teachers need to introduce art and music into lessons. Artistic endeavors trigger images in the brain that reinforce
complex ideas. If teaching students about the light bulb, drawing the individual components and labeling them helps instill the
basic design. The use of color adds to the images. One bulb with a cool filament drawn in blue next to a bulb with a red-hot
filament tells a story.
(6) Set up a learning folder for each child. Maintaining past work assignments provides tools for reflection. This is where
kids store artwork, past tests and other elements of the learning process. They can look through the folders to self-assess
their progress on a subject by comparing quizzes to see the improvement.
Physically active, healthy kids learn better