Physics IED

•
Electric Charge scalar quantity -

,
C -
insulators : charges do not more ; can be charged by rubbing
smallest unit of
charge : Ceti 602×10 .
- '"
C
'

conductors : "

some
"

charges more freely

net
charge is conserved in an isolated system
'

semiconductors electrical properties: between ins .

and cond .

Coulomb 's Law the force inversely proportional to the

square of distance between particles directed the line them F-
'
is
joining
'
on r

the force Fiz

is proportional to the product of the charges on the 2 particles Fxqgz ,
r
> BBB

94
'
9'
electric force is a conservative force only -
"
start and end
" " "
matter not the path
BBB s Fiz -
-
Ke r
where risa unit vector parallel for
,
[21 Gl f dimensionless
* when drawing FBD ,
include Fe i. Fira !!: rn and Fiz - -

Fa , and Ke
-

- hit Eo
'

it is not possible to determine if a single , charged body iftar

like charges repulsive freely and is shared equally * Eof t

when conductors touch charge Ff repulsive straight wire a
: o F > moves is
gig . :
,
i.

unlike charges :
gig . o : attractive F

Electric Fields two charges at rest exert electric force on eachother ; vector NIC ,

theist particle creates a force field around itself and it field which interacts with the 2nd field needs established
Faraday : is that directly particle ; the force time to be

E -
-

II '
E- exists before test
charge is introduced and is produced by other charges ; not
go go is very small ' the field pushes on
''

test
"

charge q
'

E' is produced by +
charges
'
E - Ke rok r is the field of a +
point charge q
'

E- decreases in
strength with rand E terminates at

"'
ilq O
ecrz , 9 °
Ecru "

B
rz

Ein ,
E points away from l
B
rz

Ecr . ,
E- points towards for L
charges : F= Ke Fk t
and E =
ke drip ri
r. r, ;

* note : if q O , F- is in the direction of E ,

if q O , F- is in the opposite direction of E * closer lines -_
stronger field

Parallel Charged Plates

Dipole a pair of equal and opposite charges placed a shorted apart Eats + i
t t t t t t t t t t
charge
= i uniform
dipole moment
area
-

p p=qd * direction of p is taken from the

charge to the l
charge - - - - - - - - -

-
O
* Eu uniform I to
plates but the ends
'

dipoles can feel at near

E by
i

roduced a Continuous Charge Distribution

Q
'

divide source into small charges dq linear charge density : A -

-

each dq produces : de -
-
ke dryer mldEI=dr9

add up contributions of all dq Ede Erie IK Ike

} Ex =fdEx=fkedr4
-

: E- -
-
r -
-
r coso
source

{ k£1 dxc
"

*
uniformly charged rod E- Ybetfb i
is =L =g¢Ey= fried! Sino
-

: -

Uniformly charged semicircle

-

"
Ex will cancel ; netty add in -

j direction

"

dq in terms of do : ds -

Rolo and dq ads -

- R down> dE= kelp
'i
Own>
Ey =
-

[ "

60
Yzinodo
'

kept [ since do

!
'
'

for an arc : use k circle process but make equilateral triangle and
.

for uniformly charged ring : E -

- f Ex free -
- Rfi "
da =

variates
Q

t-x-kexoo.fi?r2tx4-Hdlr4=2tkeo1-p7txzA=rtr2dA--2trdr
!
no

'

for uniformly charged disc : dq=odA=o Zrrdr ) -

- tutor drum> dEx=cr 'r ( Lrtordr ) →

"A
:
dr =2tr

Motion of
•

a
Charged Particle F=qE
-
-
ma if E- is uniform ,
a is constant but E- usually isn't so check !
 Gauss 's Law for surface the its surface of the normal component of the electric field
•

that interior to the surface

any
closed ,
integral over is equal to 4tkeo.in and the charge is

JE.cl/t4tkeQin

Electric Flux E
"

flows out of
"
a closed surface containing a net IQ and into a closed surface containing a net Q or
''
flows
"

through a closed surface containing zero net charge

flux is the product of the magnitude of E- and surface area, A ,
to the field scalar N m2 C
,
-

'

proportional to # of E lines
penetrating some surface S ,

small surface whole surface

-

for uniform E : Ettcoso ,

non -
uniform E :D e
.
E. DA e fE°dA JE cosodtt

the flux
through any closed surface is e 4#
req
-
- Geo independent of r
-

fora uniform at charged sphere :

for i' a' Iot: for

I
! ra 's in
general R Eirene'm
'
Qtotal
t.pe all enclosed
e ra : : r :
r ra :
.

Qtot Qr
a
iii ) E=4tQeor2=krQ% .
4 # oa 's
r
r R : Eir ) =
4*0133

'

for hollow spherical shell :

total charge Q
+

?
!!,÷ !!
t

for outsider :E= ref

"
= ate '

¥
, a . r

for insider , a :E=O

for infinite line of charge :

.ir#fgpgpfqaaugm fE°dA Yo EY
"

,
it e iii , Qenc - al : 2rrL Eir ,
-
→
E=z¥reo= ' " "
re
Toot

in e Ot Ot 2rrL Ecr , Ed t

uniformly charged thin n n

sheet
t

29=2 Theo
t t t
+
it El sheet : LEI -
same on both sides iii Qenc OH , i. E -
-

+ +
+ at
+
tt t t
Ii ) I
"* ,
i t t
* Eis constant above and below
ti t
gaussian surface n** 32 i Etty E surface
z Eltz Etty
z OE side

tot ZEA ,

Conductors in Equilibrium charges move and end up evenly distributed around the surface , leaving the interior "

empty
"
of excess charge
→

E O inside a closed hallow conductor ; all the

, charge is on the outside surface

E surface just outside a conductor and

charges accumulate more at sharp corners

r
7

<
DAI
7
it flux
-

through top : d =EdAi ind -

EDA

Ido
"

it
influx
through bottom :D 2=0 E -
- o n
charge enclosed : DQ -
Oday >
using Gauss 's Law : = Qeeo
"
'
EdA=
q
-

+ ,

F-
A DAZ
t
E normal to surface on
+
IE
iii.flux
through curved side :D 3=0 surface field just outside surface
t i.
E- 0 inside Ell =
Eo =4tKeO ,

for infinite sheet of charge : IE = 250

for pair of oppositely charged plates :

'

surface density of charge is o ; field strength from each one ist E 2%

'

E -
- Yo -
-
hiker between plates

Electric Potential Energy

•

conservative , Ue gear
work done by E -
amount of q dW=qEd5 or W=q Eads WA→B= Ua UB = -
DU or Were = -
Dude .
-_ -

Uf Ui -
when E does work on
testy ,
DUE is converted to other forms of energy

done DU
work on at
charge by E-
changes
NOTE : DK -
-
AU
 * force 1- field +
energy
* Gauss's law 1- field t
potential

Electric Potential scalar field ish

•

Flection Volt eV a unit of Not potential

,
energy
V= Y ,
Vis measured by other charges Q TeV 1.609×10
""
and 15=6.2×10 '8eV

[ lines always point in the direction of TV

f

Y
"

potential difference : DV -
-
VB -

Va = =
-

f, i
ads and
sU=qsV=q VB VA
-
* bV=vc -
Vcs -

to
•
Electric Potential of a Point Charge dependent on
g. randi

'
Dvin uniform E :
ke I ate '

I * V na O attractive q o: repulsive
q
r
-

r →
. , ,

•
B
E it W=q Va VB -
-
- F s -
* Ex =
-

dd! >
IN C = IV m
+
4•• o F i . -

go = F. s more than one charge :

DV Escoso distance I field

Yi
-

A. "
discrete
charge distribution
'

Ke
,

DV in non - uniform E :
dW=qEds= -

qd i. in
general for non -
uniform E : DV -
- E. ds '

continuous charge distribution

-
Ike DY
Kqictj
for uniformly charged rod Ue due to
charges Ue=i ,
y

system of point
-

:
p ..
ri ;
i
Q
4th
ht
.
.

In
,

V= ke "
-

'
d
:
: !
Q Q y d.
Gy
i

" "" "

In
.

q
E, pppmtgtf-EET.SE#Eg
-

ke ke
-

=
y L2ty2tLyztL2 x
X dx

partial derivative

for uniformly charged ring :

i vatpi.v-fr.edf-r.es?.!. =.Ye.fdq=I:9.KeQii VatO:Vo=

"!

i ÷
;
.

a * Vcs -_ 0

uniformly charged semicircle :

V=r .
fat centre

Equipotential uniform
•
-

or constant

equipotential surfaces are to E- lines

conductors are
always equipotential in the absence of current

equipotential surfaces are closely spaced where Elis

large and widely spaced where E is weak

on an
equipotential surface :

* equipotential surfaces
-
all points have the same potential planes parallel to plates -

DV VB VA O between any 2 points

-
- - -
-

'

no Welec is required to more a

charge between 2. points

Eis always equipotential

'
 Physics 1E03.
Table of Contents
Capacitance (C) ......................................................................................................................................................................................2
• Finding C for Symmetrical Qs ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2

• Important Notes on Capacitance ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2

• Cylindrical Capacitor, Concentric Cylinders: ................................................................................................................................................................. 3

Capacitance with Dielectric ...............................................................................................................................................................3

• Important Notes on Dielectrics............................................................................................................................................................................................. 4

• Vmax of Coaxial Cable .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4

Energy Stored in a Capacitor ........................................................................................................................................................... 4

Capacitors in Circuits ...........................................................................................................................................................................5
Current (I) .................................................................................................................................................................................................5
• Electron Velocities ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6

Current Density ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 6

• Ohm’s Law .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6

Resistivity ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6
Resistance ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Electrical Power & Work...................................................................................................................................................................... 7
DC Circuits ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Electromotive Force ............................................................................................................................................................................. 7
“Real” Battery & Internal Resistance ............................................................................................................................................. 7
Kirchhoff’s Circuit Rules..................................................................................................................................................................... 8
RC Circuits ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
• Charging a Capacitor .........................................................................................................................................................................8
• Discharging a Capacitor....................................................................................................................................................................9
• Potential Across a Capacitor ...........................................................................................................................................................9
• RC Circuit & Time Constant ..............................................................................................................................................................9
Unit Conversions .................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Capacitance (C) – property of conductors and insulators to store electric charge (in Farads)
• Capacitor – an electronic component that has the ability to store charge
o when the capacitor is charged, the plates carry equal and opposite charges, creating a
potential difference
o equilibrium is reached, ∆V no longer exists ⸫ no E, electrons stop moving and the plate no
carries a (-) charge, the same happens at the other plate where electrons move from the
plate to the wire, leaving a (+) charge on the plate

𝑸⁄
• 𝑪= 𝑽 V = ∆V create when charge + Q is on one conductor and – Q is on the other
• Finding C for Symmetrical Qs:
1. Find electric field, E(r), using Gauss’s Law
2. Choose path along a field line: potential change with each small change dr in distance is:
𝒅𝒗 = − 𝑬(𝒓) 𝒅𝒓
3. Integrate from start to end of the field line to find ∆V: ∆𝑽 = − ∫ ⃑𝑬 ∙ 𝒅𝒓
⃑
𝑸
4. 𝑪 = ⁄|∆𝑽|

• ⃑ | = 𝝈⁄𝝐 = 𝑸⁄
Recall that |𝑬 𝟎 𝝐𝟎 𝑨 (between plates) σ = surface charge density
→ 𝑽 = 𝑬𝒅 = 𝑸𝒅⁄𝝐 𝑨 (uniform 𝑬 ⃑ ) ⸫ 𝑪 = 𝑸⁄ = 𝝐𝟎 𝑨⁄
𝟎 𝑽 𝒅

Important Notes on Capacitance:

• C is ALWAYS (+) and Q & V are expressed as (+) quantities
• C does not depend on Q or V, only dependent on d, A and ε
o C ∝ A and C ∝ 1/d
• ↑ distance between plates = ↑∆V = ↓C = ↓E = ↓Q
• ↑ area of plates = ↑C (↑ charge storage)
• Q ∝ V; proportionality constant depends on shape and separation of conductors
• When ∆V = Vbattery , flow of charges stops

• Finding C for Conc entr ic Spheres :

𝑄 1 1 1 −1 𝑄 1 1 −1
𝐶= = ( − ) or 𝐶 = = 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 ( − )
𝑉 𝐾𝑒 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑉 𝑅1 𝑅2

• C of isolated, charged sphere ∝ radius (R) and is INDEPENDENT of Q and V

 • Cylindrical Capacitor, Concentric Cylinders:

Capacitance with Dielectric

• Dielectric – non-conducting material that increases capacitance when placed between the plates of
a capacitor
• Capacitance becomes 𝑪 = 𝜿 𝑪𝒐 ⸫ capacitance is increased by a factor of κ when the dielectric
completely fills the region between the plates (κ is the dielectric constant)

𝜎
⸫𝐶 = 𝜅𝜀𝑜

• If the capacitor stays connected to a battery, V remains the same across the capacitor
If disconnected, the capacitor is an isolated system and Q remains the same
• Why Use Dielectrics?
o dielectric gives mechanical strength (holds conductors apart)
o the plate seperation can be smaller (↑ Capacitance)
o dielectric strength (max E) before conduction starts can be higher than for air, allowing
higher volatge ratings
 Important Notes on Dielectrics:

• The lowest value of d is limited by the electric discharge that may occur through
the dielectric separating the plates
• ∆Vmax between any two plates without causing a discharge depends on the
dielectric strength (max E) of the dielectric
• If |E| in the dielectric exceeds the dielectric strength, the dielectric begins to
conduct (insulating properties begin to break down)

Fixed Q - ∆V can change (↓∆V = ↓E), no battery Fixed ∆V - Q can change, E is also fixed
Inserting dielectric: C & ∆V stay the same ⸫ ↑Q
Two oppositely charged spheres are suspended distance d apart in water.
𝐸
The force between them is smaller than in air: 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸 and 𝐸 = 𝑜⁄𝜅 ⸫ E↓ = F↓

Vmax of Coaxial Cable

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

* Remove dq from lower plate
+q and add to upper
dq plate: 𝑞
Increase in P.E : 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑉𝑑𝑞 = ⁄𝐶 𝑑𝑞
-q 𝑄 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑄2
Start at q = 0, finish at q = Q: 𝑈 = ∫0 =
𝐶 2𝐶

1 𝑄2 1 1
𝑈= = 𝑄𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉 2
2 𝐶 2 2 * Energy stored in capacitor does not change when connected to a battery

* ↑W = ↑V as charges are transferred from one plate to the other

* ↑V = ↑Q and ↑V

* for max possible energy stored, connect capacitors in parallel

Energy Density – think of this energy as stored in the electric set up when the capacitor is charged
𝜀𝑜 𝐴⁄
• Parallel-Plate Capacitor (PPC): 𝐶 = 𝑑 and 𝑉 = 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑
𝟏 𝟏
o 𝑼= 𝑪𝑽𝟐 = 𝜺𝒐 𝑬𝟐 ∙ (𝑨𝒅) * Ad = volume between plates
𝟐 𝟐
𝑼 𝟏
• “Energy Density” : 𝒖𝑬 = = 𝜺𝒐 |𝑬|𝟐 (units: J/m 3), this applies to any electric field
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝟐
• UE ∝ |E|2 at any point

charge transferred
Capacitors in Circuits - 𝐶𝑒𝑓𝑓 = voltage produced

• Parallel

• Voltages are the same

• Charges add
𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 + ⋯
o 𝐶𝑒𝑓𝑓 = V
• But 𝐶𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + ⋯

• Series • Voltages add

o 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + ⋯ = 𝑉
• Charges are equal
1 1
• 𝐶𝑒𝑓𝑓 = + + ⋯
𝐶1 𝐶2
* Note: when a switch is open, IGNORE THE LOOP

* If we want the smallest equivalent capacitance, connect in series, for largest, connect in parallel

Current (I) – the rate at which charge flows through a surface ⟂ to its area, does not depend on cross
section: a river is wider at some points, but the current is always the same!

• 𝐼 = 𝑑𝑄⁄𝑑𝑡 if charge dQ flows past in time dt (measured in A = C/s)

• 𝑰 ∝ V and depends on material through which charges flow
• Current is in the direction of movement of (+) charge ⸫ opposite direction than (-)
o Current flows from (+) terminal to (-) ⸫ from high potential to low
• More charges = larger current
• Note: to have a current, E ≠ 0 inside the conductor

𝑉𝑑 is the average (“drift”) velocity of each charge

𝐼 = 𝑛𝑞𝐴𝑉𝑑
n is the # of charge carriers per unit volume
Electron Velocities
• Random velocities of electrons are large (~ 106 m/s)
• Drift velocity is a slow, average motion parallel to E
o vd ∝ E and I ∝ vd
𝑒𝐸⃑
o 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑚 𝜏
𝑒
▪
Τ (collision time parameter) ≈ 2 x 10 -14 s
o e travels a short ℓ between collisions, ℓ = v avg τ ≈ 2 x 10 -8 m
-

Current Density (J) – a vector that is defined as the current per unit area in a conductor
• 𝐽 = 𝐼⁄𝐴 where A is the area ⟂ to current flow, measure in A/m 2
• Note: “current through a surface” is the flux current density through that surface
• 𝐽 = 𝑛𝑞𝑣𝑑 but only if J is uniform and the surface are is ⟂ to the direction of current
o In normal conductors, J is caused by an E in the conductor (not in ⇌)
• Since 𝑣𝑑 is proportional to E: 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸⃑ where σ is material conductivity (in 1/Ω∙m)

* J and E are both established in a conductor due to ∆V across the conductor

* direction of 𝑣𝑑 is opposite of E

Ohm’s Law
• current ∝ potential difference: 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼

Resistivity (ρ) – inverse of conductivity

• 𝜌 = 1⁄𝜎
𝐿
• Since 𝑉 = (𝐴𝜎) × 𝐼 = 𝑅 × 𝐼 :
𝐿
o 𝑅 = 𝜌𝐴 (uniform wire, length L, cross-section A)

• R only depends on the material’s thickness

• ρ and σ depend on the type of material, ρ is also dependent on geometry
• every ohmic material has a characteristic resistivity

Resistance
• Resistance of a wire:
o If length (ℓ) and r are doubles, R decreases
o If Vapplied ↑, R↓
• Note: the I vs V graph in the linear region yields a value for 1/R in ohmic materials
𝜌𝐿⁄
• 𝑅= 𝐴
Electrical Power & Work
Note:

• rate at which ∆U decreases as Q passes through the resistor =

rate at which system gains internal U in the resistor
• ∆U = U2 – U1 = Q (V2 – V1)
o Electrical energy is converted into other forms
o If potential energy is steadily lost, what happens to the
kinetic energy of the moving charge?
▪ It DOES NOT increase nor decrease steadily
• Positive charge carriers – ↓potential energy with time. What if
𝑷 = 𝑸∆𝑽⁄∆𝒕 the current was carried by negative charges?
▪ Potential still DECREASES

DC Circuits – current flows in one direction, current is a constant in time, resistors and emfs
• Resistors in Series: 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + …
1 1 1 1
• Resistors in Parallel: = +𝑅 +𝑅 + …
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑅1 2 3

* to maximize total power output, connect resistors in parallel

• Current chooses path with the least amount of resistance

Electromotive Force – the max possible voltage that a battery can provide between its terminals
• ε = ∆Vbattery terminal

“Real” Battery & Internal Resistance

𝜀
𝜀 = 𝐼𝑟 + 𝐼𝑅 𝐼=
𝑟+𝑅

* P transferred is maximized when r = R

𝑃𝜀 = 𝑃𝑟 + 𝑃𝑅
Kirchhoff’s Circuit Rules
• Junction Rule: 𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 at any junction in the circuit

* Direction of I is arbitrary – if it turns out to be (-), it

.. means the current in is the opposite direction

• Loop Rule: ∑ ∆𝑉 around any closed loop = 0

RC Circuits
• Charging a Capacitor
• Capacitor is initially uncharged, and the switch is closed at t = 0
o After a long time, the capacitor will have charge Qf
𝑡
o Time dependence of the charge is: 𝑞(𝑡) = 𝑄𝑓 (1 − 𝑒 −𝜏 ) where τ = RC and Qf = εC
• ∆V between plates of capacitor with charge +Q and -Q is ∆V = Q/C
o At t = 0, Q = 0 because we have an open circuit
o At t > 0, current causes a buildup of +Q and -Q causing a ∆V to develop
• Discharging a Capacitor

• Potential Across a Capacitor

• RC Circuit & Time Constant

Unit Conversions
Unit Equivalence
F (farad) C/V
Ω (Ohm) V/A
A (amps) C/s
W (watt) J/s
Magnetic Fields (B) – measured in T (tesla: N/ C m/s or N/ A m)
• Magnetic Force – only acts on moving
• F ∝ q of the particle
• F ∝ B (field)
• F ∝ v (speed) of the particle
• F on a (-) charge is directed opposite to the force on a (+) charge moving in the same direction
• When a charged particle moves in a direction NOT parallel to B, F acts in a direction ⟂ to v and B
o In the charge moves in a direction parallel, F = 0
o Fmax when θ = 90˚ ⸫ sin θ = 1
• The KE of a particle cannot be altered by B, the field can only change the direction of the particle
• If F is always ⟂ v, the path is a circle – CCW for (+) charge, CW for (-) charge
Electric charge ( coulombs ] Charge Densities

elementary charge ( smallest unit ) :

1.6×10-19 C linear :
volume :
e :

a :L Q
L p= volume
free
conductors :
moving q
-

→ ( only insulators )
in ea 'm g on surface surface :
,

→
9 distributed evenly between o : I
identical conductors A
, touching
call surface )
q on

insulators :
q carried ,
but can't move

neutral conductor neutral insulator

Polarization : neutral objects attract
t
BOTH t 've 4 -
'
rely charged objects
- - t - t
t
-

t
-
t -

→ for neutral conductors t I t

mainly t
-
t t
t
-
-

→ neutral insulators too , but V. Weak

charge in conductor in Cavities : Coulomb 's constant

outer surface I 8.99×109

'
K = = NM
Qin Q
-
-

= -

inner surface s cavity 4 # E C

,

MAD cavity
Qouts -

-
Q conductor +
Qin cavity Eo permittivity constant

ta → F and E same direction

Electric Force CN )
-

ASE and E Opp direction

Coulomb 's ( force
.

Law btwn 2 gig )

iii. Kaa
r
'
.
-
i
t direction vector
¥iI¥ ¥Io¥
away towards t 've → -
'
ve

Electric Field lines :

closer together t strong

Electric Fields [ NIC ] Due to a Point charge :

T # of lines bigger q
-

E- =
KI F -

lines NEVER cross

f- ✓
E Eg
=

Ea
-

- → F :
-
re
d →
use vector addition
Line of Charge
E- =D
Isin
Ey
conductor
Ex Ecoso
in a
-

-
-

- -0
E -

- 2kt = R
r 21T Eor

zero electric field ( Eco ) :

O'
ly far away or when field out
-

cancels

-
in line in both centers Due to Single charged Plate I

same btwn 2
close to charged Insulating surface
sign → points
-

app sign outside of ( weaker side )

-

→ pair 9
E
.

O
= →
charge density
→
app .
sign & same
sign : E doesn't =D ! Teo
o
-

-
E
-

I always t

A
Between 2 Plates l
-

distance doesn't matter

E o
t
=
-

t t doesn't D
Near conducting surface : Eo -

strength
t t t t

t t t
-

E finite plate cos plate

 Electric Electric dipole moment ( por u ) : In an electric field
Dipole :
-

Z in E
as same
Mag .
, app .
sign ,

D= q d d t a -
Fe
>

Y f Fec -

a
>
← t # -
K -

ive → t 've

xxx
EF =
Ft t F
.
=D

→
exerts turning torque !
Gauss 's law Electric Flux :

Area
A vector
→

oIe=§EidA= Gene TOE E EA O ?

-

A cos
- -

7
- -

→ =

Eo → so } t

( positive flux OUT of surface ) ly y

O → btwn field & area vector j
0--90 -
f
→ I to surface

Gaussian surface → closed shape

E inside or conducting sphere

charged Insulating Sphere I
E inside E -

- O
l l

Q l
p
: = '
l

'T
idea
volume
Izitrs l l
ideal
l l

l r l
Gaussian
Gaussian l l r
surface
a
c
r+ surface R ' R
r let a
t
t t f
t t t

+
+
t
Sphere in
cavity → radius R and cavity radius a
+

= a cr CR
-
K Qr
( ¥)
t
-

E KQ Q
-

- -

E r
-

as
= -

✓
2 4 # E. ( Rs -
as )

Electric Potential CV ]
For ta high to low potential
point charge ;
-

✓ electrical a low to high potential

U
-

= c -

potential E- her 94
-

✓ = K 9
9 BOTH move to lower potential energy
-

y
-

V -

- D @ A distance away ( re -
)

Equipotential S :
always I to electric field lines Spherical conductor @ Eam

→
field
-

same as V @ surface
lines point to lower potential
have @ all concentrated @ middle
potential a
-

* connected conductors same eqm

✓ =
KQ
-

Potential due to constant electric field : R

to
DV = -
E -

d = -
Ed cos O -

ti are directions
t t
-

+ + t
✓ = 60 V

d 910^9
-

moving in field -7 t 'Ve de

← u = you
AV = -

Ede field E v u it de
moving against
'
v v
-

→ -
ve
✓ = 20 V

✓ = o v
-

moving t to field

→
Distributions equipotential
-

Potential
-

to
charge
- -
-

due -

O
-

v= O @ -
ive plate
✓ = Jd V=fkd9r

Differentiating Potential to find Electric Field component of the Field

DI
de
(↳ ) Ex =
→
ddvy-jtddz.LK
E E= it
-

= -
-

dr DX
Integrating Electric Field to find Potential * pushing against E field
"

uphill
"

DV = -

JE -
d s DV =
Vrs -

Va = -

J! E. ds : -

§ !E×dx tfn.BEydytfat-z.dz)
gives difference btwn 2 points
-

us

@ ( push away )
@ O in from
→ one point start Vas Aly far
-

Electric Potential Energy ( J ] for 2 charges

1.6×10-19
91,92 ft
U = K
U - AV electron volts : EV = J or -

t
Multiple charges pushing charges together
-

→ add up all
-
-

pulling them apart

✓
total
=
Viz t
013 t
023 t
.
. .
the pairs of

charges

in Field Conservation of
Energy
Potential Energy a

@ rest → K O
Ef
-

Ei
-

U =
a Edel v. far apart → V -

- O

ki t
Vi =
Kf t
Uf

capacitance IF ]

building using connected to battery disconnected from battery

constant voltage charge stays constant
- -

[ = E. A C= Q
-
-
O in C D in Q - D in C and S in V
d DV ,

# Dvd
parallel plate capacitor :
O = E : E -

capacitance of other Shapes

2
2 concentric cylinders :
sphere :
concentric spheres :

t
2 ITE L
-

( K C

ftp. Rt )
= =
.

J c 41T E.
- -

in
( Ry)

Dielectrics in series in Parallel

( KE . A → C K Cair
= -

÷
' t
-

÷
+
Cp C Cz t
=
.
= t
d
- . .
. .

c
,
K dielectric constant

of material
minimizes C maximizes c
Stacked Dielectrics

Energy stored in a capacitor : Energy Density :

Wyk
}
,

¥11 " " " z z U : U = U

11/11/1/1 k U Q → U ICV
- -

, volume Ad
- -

2C 2

→ M
-

f- E. EYE btwn
2 Opp .

Charged plates
 Density ( Alm ]
'
CA ) current
current conductivity
d

EIf t
ha Vd J = = J = to =
I =
I -
t 've charge flows from
resistivity P -

high → low potential

Drift Velocity Divider

current Divider Voltage
Vd c actual velocity
carrier z
Ii
V I
charge per cross sectional =
-
-

area of conductor Vi =
Ri ( V
total )
A Ri
nqvd =

R total
[ # density of
current
specific
@
resistor
a

charge carriers
short circuit : A path hi no resistance
( r) → other paths
Resistance can
ignore any

R =
→ PL ← conductor OHM 'S LAW :
stretching & Squeezing

resistivity
length
A
V= IR
tcross -
sectional Volume = AL = mass

area ( using equation ) density

* building equation # → physical quantities

Resistors in series Resistors in Parallel

t identical R in parallel
÷ Rt LT
= +
Rs R R
t t
Rzt
= ' ' '

, , . . .

→
,
Rnp
=
Re
N
maximizes R
minimizes R

Power & Energy in circuits

revolt age
-

power CW ] rate @ which energy is used Energy DU QDV

-

: : -

I
charge passing
IV I' R I thru
Ey
P = =
-
-
-

* 1kWh =
( 1.0×103 W ) ( 3600 s ) = 3.6×106 j
→ brightness of lightbulb
→ a to power !

EMF and Terminal Voltage

Kirchoff 's circuit Rules
Vt terminal
( E ) Vt
E electromotive
voltage
force ( EMF ) Junction Rule :

r
r internal resistance
In
tin =
tout
R
Vt = E -

Vr → Vr = Ir

E Ir
loop Rule :
Vtot around
Vt :
IR
-

loop =D
any

BATTERIES RESISTORS
V V ) V= + IR
g Vi -
IR
- TV V R R
it ti
→
-

um um
-
-

① -0
<
① to IT I
 RC circuits

Time Behaviour

Empty Fully charged

"
" ' '

equilibrium Ceff
"
-

no charge
-

steady state or T= Reff

Vos 9
no
voltage
-

T L
-

short circuit full & full voltage

-

charge
- -

Vo 9 o
-

open circuit ( like a break ) Reff

,

Decay saturation
+ Q -
- - - - -
- -

't "
th tie
)
-
-

A- =
Ama ,
e
A
A- =
Ama +
( t -
e
A
alt ) : 9- tho -

gas ) e

t
t

^FB Hand Rule

Right -

¥1
Magnetic Force t Fields Vr ( FOR A POSITIVE CHARGE !

opposite direction for negatives

④n§J
Emt B tell E
:{ 7.
' and
'
-
-
-

, a no -

magnetic forces can 't do work

"
B ~
gu B speed )
F → =D (
it right angles :
WB can 't O
-

→ if parallel : F -
-
O

circular Motion in

on current conductor
Fc :
FB
a carrying
magnetic Fields
-

'
- MV =
qub
Sds :L F
Sids it const IL B
= x
→
B
FB
.
: x r

IFI -

-
ILB Sino
r
-

-
MV

AB

Electric & magnetic Fields Velocity selector

t t t t t t t t

FE =
FB
F- =
Fe t
FB + JIB X x E
EF =D
9E =
au B t s
F- =
q ( E t v x B
) x
t x x
✓ =
I v FEU v B V

B - - - -
- - -
-

current -

carrying wires

Torque on current Loop

FB ? axis
F axis
QB ! B
l L B l S

T UX B
i s
yo
Torque - i
>
-

Lol
.

I a
I
> • → if given 10 ,
>

NAIB sin O
'
T -
.

l
s
l S
90-01=0
-
> l l
btwn
angle I
+ f
l

U and field B L

NIA FB
dipole moment : M :

Biot -

Savar t law Me = 41T x 10-7 T -

MIA
-
potential Energy of

Current carrying loop

a
-

dB = Me Ids x r s unit vector along

.

'
4 'T DL
U -

U B =
B cos O
r path connecting
µ
-
- -
-

( wire section ) to

fdsxt term )
had point of interest

key Part : ( direction

if d l & radial direction same : fdsxrn =D ( no B)

if perpendicular : fdsx I = Ik Sds = I KL ( B- into lout of page )
 Magnetic Field produced by wire in current Forces between conductors

et wire F I B. I same direction

B. =
No I loop B=µo
=
,

2. HR ( ) ZR attract
at center
f = µ. I I L
, , , ,

Opposite
ZITR
No I. I → repels
force per unit length I =
,

l 21T r
Field created
Magnetic
by a solenoid
Ampere 's Law Gauss 's Law in

B Me N -

t → B -

Mont
Magnetism
: -

§
-

B -
DL -

-
No Ienc L # of turns I
§ B. DA =D
at coil per unit length

Energy Density in a
→ if field is constant in space
Field
,

Magnetic magnetic Flux

}
btwn
IOB :B A -
= BA cos O angle
A
?
IOB J Bd A field of
I
= -

µ = µ, B

notional EMF

Faraday 's law t Lenz 's law →

induced in a conducting bar
moving thru a magnetic field
for a stack I:
E : -
dot E = Nd # E velocity
✓
-

of 100ps :
R B) at traill
at at E = l .
( V x → Blu
(
loop
( all perpendicular ) p
size of moving
side

inductance back EMF self -

inductance
→ induces EMF to oppose current

E. tdd single loop : L -_

OBI
-

which caused it =
,

I
→
only generated by sing current

Inductors in series in Parallel N loops : L =

NEB
-

I
t

÷ ÷ ly
= t
I
Is I t . . .

: t
, , . . .

DC Circuit Behaviour

→ inductors act like a

Energy Stored in an
short circuit
Inductor : E= I L IZ

initial 1 Final Behaviour ( RL )

-
inductors react to D in current
current Voltage Relationship IRL )
,
-

the
I const → V -
- o slowing down change
dic DO NOT D initial 1 final Values
Vi L Ipa, V so
- -

-
→

at
Edd → Vco -
calculate by replacing inductor in wire

i. =
'T Judt tie I linear → V const -

voltage induced e while I is Ding !

I quadratic → V linear

I cos fxn → V sin fxn

Smith first D 's reaches final value

Time Behaviour ( RL ) -

I is same as
-

current is what
before begins to D would flow thru wire
,

T : L
induced
voltage
-

no longer voltage
-
-

Rett
across inductor
Travelling waves 41M )
x

€+1
( s
A- amplitude
Transverse :
particles move @ right angles
^
a wavelength
to direction of motion ( ex .

light ,
water )
A 1- period
'
frequency
-

-
direction
'

Y79iwtafd' namljfgrnticysx.mgguen.at,ona ,

f- A Direction of Motion

period & Frequency

Adown
wave speed Equation
f- =L T .
I
T f V = f R LEFT RIGHT

'
wave speed :
property of medium ,
not wave Speed of light : c - 2.998×10 mis

velocity :
waves on a string : mass per unit length :
wavelength :

my k9 'm
M
f- A
:

WM 2 L V
I a =
V T =
-

-
= =

K MIL
T tension CN ]

K wave # of motion w
angular
Modelling waves Mathematically freauenc
K = 21T

y IX. t ) = Asin ( KX ± wt -

P) I w=2tf

A phase constant at motion Ipos or neg ) travelling wave

→ it wave starts @ zero hi Max pas .

velocity Term :

@ X =D ,
t =D → 10=0 rad
KX I wt -

to

* if X & t app .
signs → tx direction
V -

E
Xd
-

if t same signs → -
X direction
K

velocity acceleration :

VIX , t) : FAW cos lkwtwt to ) a IX. t ) -

-
Aw
>
sin 1kW ± wt t t )

Ama = Aw
Vma , =
A W ,