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Mathematics in The Modern World (Chapter 1)

Mathematics in the Modern World

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337 views24 pages

Mathematics in The Modern World (Chapter 1)

Mathematics in the Modern World

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geronimo
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PHILIPPINE EDITION #2 CENGAGE Tey Preface v About the Authors x About the Contributor xi 1_ Nature of Mathematics 1 1.1 Patterns and Numbers in Nature and the World 2 1.2. The Fibonacci Sequence 13 1.3 Mathematics for our World 17 2 Speaking Mathematically 23 21° Variables 24 2.2 ‘TheLanguage of Sets 30 2.3. The Language of Relations and Functions 39 3 Problem Solving 55 3.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning 56 3.2 Problem Solving with Patterns 69 3.3. Problem-Solving Strategies 80, 4 Statistics 101 4.1 Measures of Central Tendency 102 4.2 Measures of Dispersion 112 4.3 Measures of Relative Position 120 4.4 Normal Distributions 131 4.5 Linear Regression and Correlation 143, 5 ines Soa ee ee Logic Statements and Quantifiers 164 ‘Truth Tables, Equivalent Statements, and Tautologies 175 54 5.2 5.3 54 5.5 5.6 6 61 6.2 63 6.4 ir 7 72 73 Index 329 Logic 163 The Conditional and the Biconditional 184 The Conditional and Related Statements 193 Symbolic Arguments 199 ‘Arguments and Euler Diagrams 212 . The Mathematics of Graphs e277. Graphs and Euler Circuits 228 Weighted Graphs 243 Planarity and Euler's Formula 259 Graph Coloring 269 Mathematical Systems 291 Modular Arithmetic 292 ‘Applications of Modular Arithmetic 302 Introduction to Group Theory 312. Nature of Mathematics ‘The emergence of digital technology has sparked a ‘monumental rise in the rate at which we consume and produce data. Before the Internet, it could take hours to get several volumes of resources from the library for a research paper. Today, a few minutes (or seconds, depending on the speed of your connection) using your mobile device's browser could get you the same information, or even more. A few decades ago, it took hours for photographs to be printed and shared. Now, it only takes a matter of seconds for your perfect selfie to be uploaded and viewed by your relatives and friends on the other side of the world. In this fast-paced society, how often have you stopped to appreciate the beauty of the things around you? Have you ever paused and pondered about the underlying principles that govern the universe? How about contemplating about the processes and mechanisms that make our lives easier, if not more comfortable? Most people do the same routine tasks ‘every day and the fundamental concepts that make these activities possible are often overlooked. As rational creatures, we tend to identify and follow patterns, whether consciously or subconsciously. Recognizing patterns feels natural, like our brain is hardwired to recognize them, Barly humans recognized the repeating interval of day and night, the cycle of the ‘moon, the rising and falling of tides, and the changing of the seasons. Awareness of these patterns allowed humans to survive. In a similar fashion, many flora and fauna also follow certain patterns such as the arrangement of leaves and stems in a plant, the shape of a snowflake, the flowers’ petals, or even the shape of a snail’s shell. Do you also notice patterns around you? What other examples can you think of? In this chapter, we will be looking at patterns and regularities in the world, and how mathematics comes into play, both in nature and in human endeavors. CHAPTER 1 | Nature of Mathematics 1.1 Patterns and Numbers in Nature and the World In the general sense of the word, patterns are regular, repeated, or recurring forms or designs. We see patterns every day—from the layout of floor tiles, designs of skyscrapers, tothe way we tie our shoelaces, Studying patterns help students in identifying relationships and finding logical connections to form generalizations and make predictions. Let’ take a look at this pattern: ‘What do you think will be the next face in the sequence? It should be easy enough to note that the pattern is made up of two smiling faces—-one without teeth and one with teeth, Beginning with a toothless face, the two faces then alternate, Logically, the face that should follow is| ECVE what comes Next? ‘What is the next figure in the pattern below? fa) = Solution Looking at the given figures, the lines seem to rotate at 90-degree intervals in a counterclockwise direction, always parallel to one side ofthe square. Hence, either A or B could be the answer. Checking the other patterns, the length ofthe lines inside the Square follow a decreasing trend. So again, either A or B could be the answer. Finally, Jooking atthe number ofthe lines inside the box, each sueceeding figure has the number of lines increase by 1. This means that the next figure should have five lines inside, This leads to option A as the correct choice. SECTION 1.1 | Poters.and Numbers in Notweand he world ER ‘What is the next figure inthe given pattern? oe) ok [EEUU what Number Comes Next? ‘What number comes next in 1, 3,5, 7,9, Solution Looking at the given numbers, the sequence is increasing, with each term being two ‘more than the previous term: 3 = 1 + 2;5=3+2;7=5+2;9=7 +2. Therefore, the next term should be 11 =9 +2. CES ‘What number comes next in 1, 4,9, 16,25, __? Patterns indicate a sense of structure and organization that it seems only humans are capable of producing these intricate, creative, and amazing formations. It is from this perspective that some people see an “intelligent design’ in the way that nature forms. Snowflakes and Honeycombs Recall that symmetry indicates that you can draw an imaginary line across an object and the resulting parts are mirror images of each other. ‘The figure above is symmetric about the axis indicated by the dotted line. Note that the Teft and right portions are exactly the same. This type of symmetry, known as line or bilateral symmetry, i evident in most animals, including humans. Look in a mirror and see how the left and right sides of your face closely match. BIW charter + | naw ot atienats ‘©JanakaMaharageDhnarmasena/iStock/Thinkstock Leonardo da Vinei’s Vitruvian Man showing the proportions and symmetry ofthe human body ‘There are other types of symmetry depending on the number of sides or faces that are symmetrical. Take a look at these images. (©abadonian/iStock/Thinkstock | | Spiderwort with three-fold symmetry ‘This starfish has a five-fold symmetry, SECTION 1.1 |Potersand Numbers nNture ana he Wor! ERA Note that if you rotate the spiderwort and starfish above by several degrees, you can still achieve the same appearance as the original position. This is known as rotational symmetry. The smallest angle that a figure can be rotated while still preserving the criginal formation is called the angle of rotation. For the spiderwort, the angle of rotation is 120° while the angle of rotation for the baby starfish is 72°. ‘A more common way of describing rotational symmetry is by order of rotation. Order of Rotation A figure has a rotational symmetry of order n (n-fold rotational symmetry) if Un of a complete turn leaves the figure unchanged. To compute for the angle of rotation, we use the following formula: Angle of rot Consider this image of a snowflake. | § : Itcan be observed that the patterns on.a snowflake repeat six times, indicating that there is a six-fold symmetry. To determine the atigle of rotation, we simply divide 360° by 6 to get 60°. Many combinations and cémplek shapes of snowflakes may occur, which lead some people to think that “no two are alike”: If you look closely, however, many snowflakes are not perfectly symmetric due to the effects of humidity and temperature (on the ice crystal as it forms, ; MECH caren 1 | nave ot thematic : Another marvel of nature's design isthe structure and shape of a honeycomb. People hhave long wondered how bees, despite their very small size, are able to produce such arrangement while humans would generally need the use of a ruler and compass to ‘accomplish the same feat. It is observed that such formation enables the bee colony 10 ‘maximize their storage of honey using the smallest amount of wax. ‘You can try itolt for yourself. Using several coins ofthe same size, try to cover as much area ofa pieve of paper with coins. Ifyou arrange the coins ina square formation, there are still plenty of spots that are exposed. Following the hexagonal formation, however, with the second row of coins snogly fitted between the first row of coins, you will notice that more area willbe ‘Square Packing Hexagonal Packing SECTION 1.1 | atensandAumbes insure ond he vod EA ‘Translating this idea to three-dimensional space, we can conclude that hexagonal formations are more optimal in making use of the available space. These are referred to ‘as packing problems. Packing problems involve finding the optimum method of filling Lup a given space such as a cubic or spherical container. The bees have instinctively found the best solution, evident in the hexagonal construction of their hives. These ‘geometric patterns are not only simple and beautiful, but also optimally functional. Let us illustrate this mathematically. Suppose you have circles of radius 1 em, each of which will then have an area of x em?, We are then going to fill a plane with these circles using square packing and hexagonal packing. FFor square packing, each square will have an area of 4 em*. Note from the figure that for each square, it can fit only one circle (4 quarters). The percentage of the square’s area covered by circles will be area of the circles rom x 100% = 22m a x 100% ~ 78.54% ‘area of the square Sem’ For hexagonal packing, we can think of each hexagon as composed of six equilateral triangles with side equal to 2 em. ‘The area of each triangle is given by 4 side*v3 _ @ aes A 4 4 BEMBE WY coaeren + | norrecr watenates { ‘©aiexmatamata/iStock/Thinkstock This gives the area of the hexagon as 6V3 cin’, Looking at the figure, there are 3 circles that could fit inside one hexagon (the whole cirele in the middle, and 6 one- thirds of circle), which gives the total area as 37 cmt", The percentage ofthe hexagon’s area covered by circles will be area ofthe circles BR mt pes op Snag area of the hexagon 63 cm: ‘Comparing the two percentages, we can clearly see that using hexagons will cover a Janger area than when using squares. Tigers’ Stripes and Hyenas’ Spots Patterns are also exhibited in the external appearances of animals. We are familiar with how a tiger looks—distinctive reddish-orange fur and dark stripes, Hyenas, another predator from Africa, are also covered in patterns of spots. These seemingly random designs are believed to be governed by mathematical equations. According to a theory. by Alan Turing, the man famous for breaking the Enigma code during World War Ii, chemical reactions and diffusion processes in cells determine these growth patterns. “More recent studies addressed the question of why some species grow vertical stripes while others have horizontal ones. A new model by Harvard University researchers predicts that there are three variables that could affect the orientation of these stripes — the substance that amplifies the density of stripe patterns; the substance that changes ‘one of the parameters involved in stripe formation; and the physieal change in the. direction of the origin of the stripe, (©Goddard_PhotographyfiStock/ Thinkstock SECTION 1.1 | Pattems and Numbers in Nature and the World The Sunflower Looking at a sunflower up close, you will notice that there is a definite pattem of clockwise and counterclockwise arcs or spirals extending outward from the center of the flower. This is another demonstration of how nature works to optimize the available space. Phis arrangement allows the sunflower seeds to occupy the flower head in a way that maximizes their access to light and necessary nutrient. ‘©Thinkstocklmages/iStock/Thinkstock ‘©AndreaAstesiStock/Thinkstock ‘Snails shell POREIELINL carrer 1 | nature of Mathematics We are also very familiar with spiral patterns. The most coimon spiral patterns can be seen in whiripools and in the shells of snails and other similar mollusks. Snails are born with their shells, called protoconch, which start out as fragile and colorless. Eventually, these original shells harden as the snails consume calcium. As the snails grow, their shells also expand proportionately so that they can continue to live inside their shells. This process results ina refined spiral structure that is even more visible when the shell is sliced. This figure, called an equiangular spiral, follows the rule that as the distance from the spiral center increases (radius), the amplitudes of the angles formed by the radii to the point and the tangent to the point remain constant. This is another example ‘of how nature seems to follow a certain set of rules governed by mathematics. ©vectortatu/iStock/Thinkstock ‘A Logarithmic Spiral Flower Petals Flowers are easily considered as things of beauty. Their vibrant colors and fragrant ‘dors make them very appealing as gilts or decorations. If you look more closely, you will note that different flowers have different number of petals. Take the iris and trillium, for example, Both flowers have only 3 petals. é i : i ea illum People celebrating ‘the Songkran New Year Festival in Bangkok, Thailand SECTION 1.1 | Patiemns and Numbers in Nature and the World Flowers with five petals are said to be the most common. These include buttercup, columbine, and hibiscus. Among those flowers with eight petals are clematis and

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